Chapter XI: Conclusion: OF THE CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA.--After these battles, (5)

[Footnote: The Texas and Missouri troops made a heroic charge upon Fort Robinette. They advanced to within fifty yards of the intrenchments, received a shower of grape and canister without flinching, and were driven back only when the Ohio brigade poured a full volley of musketry into their ranks. They were then rallied by Colonel Rogers, of the Second Texas, who, at their head, led them to a fresh charge up through the abattis, when, with the colors in his hand, he sprang upon the embankment and cheered on his men. An instant more and he fell, with five brave fellows who had dared to leap to his side in this desperate assault. The Union troops admiringly buried his remains, and neatly rounded off the little mound where they laid the hero to rest.]

BATTLE OF MURFREESBORO (December 31, January 2).--Rosecrans, on assuming command of Buell's army, concentrated his forces at Nashville. Thence he marched to meet Bragg, who, with a heavy column moving north on a second grand expedition, had already reached Murfreesboro (map opp. p. 222). Both generals had formed the same plan for the approaching contest.

[Footnote: This coincidence reminds one of the battle of Camden (see p. 133). The plan was to mass the strength on the left, and with that to fall upon and crush the enemy's right. The advantage clearly lay with the army which struck first. Bragg secured the initiative, and Rosecrans's only course was to give up all thought of an attack and to save his right and centre from a rout.]

As the Union left was crossing Stone River to attack the Confederate right, the strong Confederate left fell heavily on the weak Union right. At first the onset was irresistible. But Gen. Sheridan was there, and by his consummate valor held his ground until Rosecrans could recall the left, replant his batteries, and establish a new line. Upon this fresh front the Confederates charged four times, but were driven back with very great loss. Two days after, Bragg renewed the attack, but being unsuccessful, retreated. This was one of the bloodiest contests of the war, the loss being one-fourth of the number engaged.

_The Effect of this Battle_.--The attempt of the Confederates to recover Kentucky was now abandoned. The way was open for another Union advance on Chattanooga. Bragg's force was reduced from an offensive to a defensive attitude.

FIRST VICKSBURG EXPEDITION.--While Rosecrans was repelling this advance of Bragg, an expedition against Vicksburg had been planned by Grant. He was to move along the Mississippi Central Railroad, while Sherman was to descend the river from Memphis with the gunboats under Porter. In the meantime, however, by a brilliant cavalry dash, Van Dorn destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Springs. This spoiled the whole plan. Sherman, ignorant of what had happened, pushed on, landed up the Yazoo River, and made an attack at Chickasaw Bayou (bi-yoo), north of Vicksburg. After suffering a bloody repulse, and learning of Grant's misfortune, he fell back. The capture of Arkansas Post (Jan. 11, 1863) by a combined army and naval force, closed the campaign of 1862 on the Mississippi Eiver.

THE WAR IN MISSOURI.--In February, General Curtis pushed General Price out of Missouri into Arkansas. The Confederates, by great exertion, increased their army to twenty thousand--General Van Dorn now taking command. General Curtis, in a desperate battle, totally defeated him at _Pea Ridge_ (March 7, 8). During the rest of the war no important battles were fought in this State.

[Footnote: Some four or five thousand Indians had joined the Confederate army, and took part in this battle. They were difficult to manage, says Pollard, in the deafening roar of the artillery, which drowned their loudest war-whoops. They were amazed at the sight of guns which ran around on wheels; annoyed by the falling of the trees behind which they took shelter; and, in a word, their main service was in consuming rations.]

[Footnote: The next year, Quantrell, a noted guerrilla, with three hundred men, entered Lawrence, Kansas, plundered the bank, burned houses, and murdered one hundred and forty persons. Before a sufficient force could be gathered, he escaped.]

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST.

CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS (April 25).--The effort to open the Mississippi was not confined to the north. Early in the spring, Captain Farragut, with a fleet of forty-four vessels, carrying eight thousand troops under General Butler, attempted the capture of New Orleans, which commands the mouth of the river. The mortar-boats, anchored along the bank under the shelter of the woods, threw thirteen-inch shells into Forts Jackson and St. Philip for six days and nights, with little effect.

[Footnote: To conceal the vessels, they were dressed out with leafy branches, which, except by close observation, rendered them undistinguishable from the green woods. The direction had been accurately calculated, so that the gunners did not need to see the points towards which they were to aim. So severe was the bombardment that "windows at the Balize, thirty miles distant, were broken. Fish, stunned by the explosion, lay floating on the surface of the water."]

Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet past the defences to New Orleans. A chain supported on hulks and stretched across the river closed the channel. An opening broad enough to admit the passage of the gunboats having been cut through this obstruction, at three o'clock in the morning (April 24) they advanced, and poured grape and canister into the forts at short range, receiving in return heavy volleys from the forts and batteries on shore.

[Footnote: The vessels were made partly iron-clad by looping two layers of chain cables over their sides, and their engines were protected by bags of sand, coal, etc.]

After running a fearful gauntlet of shot, shell, and the flames of fire-rafts, they next encountered the Confederate fleet of thirteen armed steamers, including the steam-battery Louisiana and the iron-plated ram Manassas. After a desperate struggle twelve of the Confederate flotilla were destroyed. The fleet then steamed up to New Orleans, which lay helpless under the Union guns. The forts being now threatened in the rear by the army, soon surrendered. Captain Farragut afterward ascended the river, took possession of Baton Rouge and Natchez, and, running the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above.

[Footnote: Steamers, ships, vast quantities of cotton, etc., were burned by the order of the governor of Louisiana, and the military commander of the Confederate States, to prevent their falling into Federal hands. Pollard says: "No sooner had the Federal fleet turned the point and come within sight of the city, than the work of destruction commenced. Vast columns of smoke darkened the face of heaven and obscured the noonday sun; for five miles along the levee fierce flames darted through the lurid atmosphere. Great ships and steamers wrapped in fire floated down the river, threatening the Federal vessels with destruction. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton, worth one million and a half of dollars, were consumed. About a dozen large river steamboats, twelve or fifteen ships, a great floating battery, several unfinished gunboats, the immense ram Mississippi, and the docks on the other side of the river, were all embraced in the fiery sacrifice."]

BURNSIDE'S EXPEDITION AGAINST ROANOKE ISLAND

Was an important step toward the enforcement of the blockade. The Confederate forts were captured, and the ships destroyed. Newbern--an excellent seaport--Elizabeth City, and, finally, Fort Macon, at the entrance to Beaufort harbor, were taken. Thus all the coast of North Carolina, with its intricate network of water communication, fell into the Union hands.

[Footnote: Roanoke Island, the scene of Raleigh's colonization scheme, was the key to the rear defences of Norfolk "It unlocked two sounds, eight rivers, four canals, and two railroads" It controlled largely the transmission of supplies to that region afforded an excellent harbor and a convenient rendezvous for ships, and exposed a country to attack]

FLORIDA AND GEORGIA EXPEDITIONS.--After its capture in the autumn of 1861, Port Royal became the base of operations against Florida and Georgia. Fernandina, Fort Clinch, Jacksonville, Darien, and St. Augustine, were taken. Fort Pulaski, also, was reduced after a severe bombardment, and thus the port of Savannah was closed. At the end of the year every city of the Atlantic sea-coast, except Savannah and Charleston, was held by the Federal armies.

THE MERRIMAC AND THE MONITOR.--About noon, March 8, the long-looked-for iron-clad Merrimac, convoyed by a fleet of small vessels, steamed into Hampton Roads. Steering directly for the sloop-of-war Cumberland, whose terrific broadsides glanced harmlessly "like so many peas" from the Merrimac's iron roof, she struck her squarely with her iron beak, making a hole large enough for a man to enter. The Cumberland, with all on board, went down.

[Footnote: As the Cumberland sank, the crew continued to work their guns until the vessel plunged beneath the sea. Her flag was never struck, but floated above the water from the mast-head after she had gone down. ]

[Footnote: When the United States navy-yard at Norfolk was given up, the steam-frigate Merrimac, the finest in the service, was scuttled. The Confederates afterward raised this vessel, razed the deck, and added an iron prow and a sloping roof made of railroad iron. The ship thus prepared looked not unlike a great house sunk in the water to the eaves. The Federals knew that the Merrimac was fitting for battle, and her coming was eagerly expected. ]

Warned by the fate of the Cumberland, the captain of the frigate Congress ran his vessel ashore, but the Merrimac, taking a position astern, fired shells into the frigate till the helpless crew were forced to surrender. At sunset, the Merrimac returned to Norfolk, awaiting, the next day, an easy victory over the rest of the Union fleet. All was delight and anticipation among the Confederates; all was dismay and dismal foreboding among the Federals. That night the Monitor arrived in harbor.

[Footnote: This "Yankee cheese-box," as it was nicknamed at the time, was the invention of Captain Ericsson. It was a hull, with the deck a few inches above the water, and in the centre a curious round tower made to revolve slowly by steam power, thus turning in any direction the two guns it contained The upper part of the hull, which was exposed to the enemy's fire, projected several feet beyond the lower part, and was made of thick white oak, covered with iron plating six inches thick on the sides and two inches on deck]

Though of but nine hundred tons burden, she prepared to meet her adversary of five thousand. Early in the morning the Merrimac appeared, moving toward the steam-frigate Minnesota. Suddenly, from under her lee, the Monitor darted out, and hurled at the monster two one hundred and sixty-eight pound balls. Startled by the appearance of this unexpected and queer-looking antagonist, the Merrimac poured in a broadside, such as the night before had destroyed the Congress, but the balls rattled harmlessly off the Monitor's turret, or broke and fell in pieces on the deck.

Then began the battle of the iron ships. It was the first of the kind in the world. Close against each other, iron rasping on iron, they exchanged their heaviest volleys. Five times the Merrimac tried to run down the Monitor, but her huge beak only grated over the iron deck, while the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing of doing anything with her doughty little antagonist, the Merrimac now steamed back to Norfolk.

[Footnote: As the Merrimac drew off she hurled a last shot, which, striking the Monitor's pilot-house, broke a bar of iron nine by twelve inches, seriously injuring the eyes of the gallant commander, Lieutenant Worden, who was at that moment looking out through a narrow slit and directing the fire of his guns]

_The Effect_ of this contest can hardly be overestimated. Had the Merrimac triumphed, aided by other iron vessels then preparing by the Confederacy, she might have destroyed the rest of the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, reduced Fortress Monroe, prevented the Peninsular campaign (see below), steamed up the Potomac and terrified the capital, sailed along the coast and broken up the blockade, swept through the shipping at New York, opened the way for foreign supplies, made an egress for cotton, and perhaps secured the acknowledgment of the Confederacy by European nations. On this battle hinged the fate of the war.

THE WAR IN THE EAST.

THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN.-Kichmond was here the objective point. It having been decided to make the advance by way of the Peninsula, the Army of the Potomac was carried in transports down the river from Washington. Landing at Fortress Monroe about one hundred thousand strong (April 4), they marched toward Yorktown.

[Footnote: Previous to this (March 10), McClellan made an advance toward Manassas, where the Confederates had remained intrenched since McDowell's defeat. The fortifications, which were evacuated on his approach, were found to be quite insignificant, and to be mounted partly with "Quaker guns," _i. e._, logs shaped and painted to imitate artillery. This incident excited much ridicule through the country.]

_Siege of Yorktown_.--At this place, General Magruder, with only about five thousand men, by his masterly skill maintained so bold a front along a line thirteen miles in length, that McClellan was brought to a stop. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, and a regular siege was begun. As McClellan was ready to open fire, Magruder, having delayed the Union army a month, quietly retired. When the movement was discovered, a vigorous pursuit was commenced.

[Footnote: On the evacuation of Yorktown--the Confederate forces being concentrated for the defence of Richmond-Norfolk was abandoned, the Navy Yard burned, and the Merrimac, the pride of the South, blown up. United States troops from Fortress Monroe took possession of the city, and gunboats sailed up James River as far as Fort Darling. Here a plunging fire from the bluff forbade further advance.]

_Battle of Williamsburg_ (May 5).--The Confederate rearguard, now reinforced from Johnston's army at Richmond, stopped in the forts at _Williamsburg_ to gain time for the baggage train and a fierce battle at once ensued.

[Footnote: This was General Joseph E. Johnston, who so unexpectedly brought his men to take part in the battle of Bull Run (p. 220). He was wounded in the battle of Seven Pines, but appeared again in two campaigns against Sherman (pp. 257, 272). General Albert Sidney Johnston was killed in the battle of Shiloh (p. 226).]

General Hooker, "Fighting Joe," with his division, maintained the contest for nine hours. Other troops at last arrived on the bloody field, and, Williamsburg having been evacuated in the night, the pursuit was continued to within seven miles of Richmond.

_Richmond Threatened_.--There was a great panic in that city, and the Confederate Congress hastily adjourned. Everything looked like an immediate attack, when McClellan discovered that a Confederate force was at _Hanover Court House_. This threatened his communications by rail with White House Landing, and also with General McDowell, who, with thirty thousand men, was marching from Fredericksburg to join him. General Fitz John Porter, after a sharp skirmish, captured Hanover Court House. The army looked now hourly for McDowell's aid in the approaching great contest. "McClellan's last orders at night were that McDowell's signals were to be watched for and without delay reported to him" But General Johnston was too shrewd to permit this junction. He accordingly ordered General Jackson to move up the Shenandoah Valley and threaten Washington.

_Jackson in the Shenandoah._--Stonewall Jackson having been reinforced by General Ewell's division of ten thousand men, hurried down the valley after Banks at Strasburg. The Union troops fell back, and by tremendous exertion--"marching thirty-five miles in a single day"--succeeded in escaping across the Potomac. Great was the consternation in Washington. The President took military possession of all the railroads. The governors of the Northern States were called upon to send militia for the defence of the capital. Fremont at Franklin, Banks at Harper's Ferry, and McDowell at Fredericksburg, were ordered to capture Jackson. It was high time for this dashing leader to be alarmed. He rapidly retreated, burning the bridges as he passed. Fremont brought him to bay at _Cross Keys_ (June 8), but was hurled off. Shields struck at him at _Port Republic_, the next day, but was driven back five miles, while Jackson made good his escape from the Shenandoah Valley, having burned the bridges behind him.

[Footnote: When the Federal forces took possession of the bridge over the Shenandoah, Jackson and his staff were on the south side, his army being on the north side. It is said that "he rode toward the bridge, and rising in his stirrups, called sternly to the Federal officer commanding the artillery placed to sweep it: 'Who ordered you to post that gun there, sir? Bring it over here!'" The bewildered officer bowed, limbered up his piece, and prepared to move. Jackson and his staff seized the lucky moment and dashed across the bridge before the gun could be brought to bear upon them.]

_The Effect_ of this adroit movement was evident. With fifteen thousand men, Jackson had occupied the attention of three major-generals and sixty thousand men, prevented McDowell's junction, alarmed Washington, and saved Richmond.

_Battle of Fair Oaks_ (May 31, June l).--While these stirring events had been going on in the Shenandoah Valley, McClellan had pushed his left wing across the Chickahominy. A terrible storm had flooded the swamps, turned the roads to mud, and converted the Chickahominy Creek into a broad river. Johnston seized the opportunity to fall with tremendous force upon the exposed wing. At first, the Confederates swept all before them, but General Sumner throwing his men across the tottering bridges over the Chickahominy, checked the column which was trying to seize the bridges and thus separate the two portions of the army. General Johnston was severely wounded. Night put an end to the contest. In the morning, the Confederates renewed the attack, but the loss of their general was fatal, and they were repulsed in great disorder.

_The Union Army Checked_.--General Lee, who now took command of the Confederate army, was anxious to assume the offensive.

[Footnote: Robert Edward Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia, Jan. 19, 1807; died in Lexington, Oct. 12, 1870. His father, Henry Lee, was the celebrated "Light-horse Harry" of Revolutionary fame. Robert early evinced a love for a military life, and during his West Point course became noted for his devotion to his studies. In the Mexican war he was Scott's chief engineer, and was thrice brevetted for his services. When Virginia seceded, he threw in his fortunes with his native State, although Scott had already intimated his intention of nominating him as his successor. Lee was immediately appointed major-general of the Virginia forces, and was soon after designated to fortify Richmond. The wonderful success he achieved in the Seven-Days fight made "Uncle Robert," as he was familiarly called, the most trusted of the Confederate leaders. For three years he baffled every attempt to take Richmond, which fell only with the government of which it was the capital, and the army and general which were its defence. General Lee was handsome in face and figure, a graceful rider, grave and silent in deportment--just the bearing to captivate a soldier; while his deep piety, truth, sincerity, and honesty won the hearts of all.]

General Stuart led off (June 12) with a bold cavalry raid, in which he seized and burned supplies along the railroad leading to White House, made the entire circuit of the Union army, and returned to Richmond in safety. McClellan also meditated an advance, and Hooker had pushed his pickets within sight of the Richmond steeples.

At this moment, there came news of the "same apparition which had frightened Banks" in the Shenandoah. Stonewall Jackson had appeared near Hanover Court House, and threatened the Union communications with White House. There was no longer any thought of moving on Richmond. Hooker was recalled. McClellan resolved to "change his base" of supply from the York River to the James.

_The Seven-Days Battles_.--The very morning McClellan came to this decision, and ere the flank movement had commenced, Lee, massing his strength on his left, fell upon the Union right at _Mechanicsville_ (June 26). Having repulsed this attack, at dawn the troops retired to _Gaines's Mill_, where by the most desperate exertions Porter held the bridges across the Chickahominy until night, and then, burning them, withdrew to the south bank. That night (June 28) Lee detected McClellan's movement, and instantly started columns along the roads that intersected the line of retreat. Magruder struck the Federal flank (June 29) at _Savage's Station_. The Union troops maintained their position till night, and then continued the movement. Longstreet and Hill encountered the line of march as it was passing _Frazier's Farm_ (June 30), but could not break it. During the darkness, the Union troops, worn out by the constant marching or fighting and the terrible heat and dust, collected at _Malvern_. On an elevated plateau rising in the form of an amphitheatre, on whose sloping sides were arranged tier upon tier of batteries, with gunboats protecting the left, the broken fragments of the splendid Army of the Potomac made their last stand (July 1). Here Lee received so bloody a check that he pressed the pursuit no further. The Union troops retired undisturbed to Harrison's Landing.

_The Effect_ of this campaign was a triumph for the Confederates. The Union retreat had been conducted with skill, the troops had shown great bravery and steadiness, the repulse at Malvern was decided, and Lee had lost probably twenty thousand men; yet the siege of Richmond had been raised, ten thousand prisoners captured, immense stores taken or destroyed, and the Union army was now cooped up on James Kiver, under the protection of the gunboats. The discouragement at the North was as great as after the battle of Bull Run. Lincoln called for a levy of three hundred thousand troops.

CAMPAIGN AGAINST POPE.--Richmond being relieved from present peril, Lee threatened to march his victorious army against Washington. General Pope, who commanded the troops for the defence of that city, was stationed at the Rapidan. General McClellan was directed to transfer his army to Acquia Creek (see map), and put it under the command of General Pope. Lee, now relieved from all fear for Richmond, immediately massed his troops against Pope to crush him before the Army of the Potomac could arrive.

[Footnote: In the meantime Jackson attacked Banks at _Cedar Mountain_ (August 9) and defeated him after a bloody battle, but, unable to maintain his position, fell back on Lee's advancing army. Pope, seeing the fearful odds against which he was to contend, took post behind the Rappahannock.]

Pope being held in check by the main army in front, General Jackson was sent around Pope's right wing to flank him. Passing through Thoroughfare Gap he reached the railroad at Bristoe's Station, in the rear of Pope's army (August 26). General Pope, seeing an opportunity while Lee's army was thus divided to cut it up in detail, turned upon Jackson. But the Army of the Potomac not promptly reinforcing him, his plans failed, and instead of "bagging " Jackson's division, he was compelled, with only forty thousand men, to fight the entire Confederate army on the old battlefield of Bull Run. Exhausted, cut off from supplies, and overwhelmed by numbers, the shattered remains of the Union forces were glad to take refuge within the fortifications of Washington.

[Footnote: During the pursuit by Lee's forces, an engagement took place at _Chantilly_ (September 1). It cost the Union army two able officers--Generals Stevens and Kearney. The latter, especially, was devotedly loved by his soldiers. On the battlefield, brandishing his sword in his only hand, and taking the reins in his teeth, he had often led them in the most desperate and irresistible charges.]

_The Effect_.--In this brief campaign the Union army lost thirty thousand men and vast supplies, while the way to Washington was opened to the Confederates. The Capital had not been in such peril since the war began. Without, was a victorious army; within, were broken battalions and no general.

INVASION OF MARYLAND.--Flushed with success, Lee now crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland, hoping to secure volunteers and incite an insurrection.

[Footnote: This was Sept. 5, the very day that Bragg entered Kentucky on his great raid.]

McClellan, who had been restored to the command of the Army of the Potomac, reorganized the shapeless mass and set out in pursuit. On the way he found a copy of Lee's order of march. Learning from this that Lee had divided his forces, and that but a portion remained in his front, he hastened in pursuit.

[Footnote: Lee had sent Jackson with twenty-five thousand men against _Harper's Ferry_. That redoubtable leader quickly carried the heights which overlook the village, forced Colonel Miles, with eleven thousand men, to surrender, and then hastened back to take part in the approaching contest.]

Overtaking the Confederate rear at _South Mountain_, and forcing the passes, the Union army poured into the valley beyond (map opp. p. 223).

_Battle of Antietam_ (September 17).--Lee, perceiving his mistake, fell back across Antietam (An-te'-tam) Creek and hurried off couriers to hasten the return of his scattered corps. Fortunately for him, McClellan delayed his attack a day, and in the meantime Jackson had returned. At early dawn, Hooker fell upon the Confederate left, while Burnside, as soon as affairs looked favorable there, was to carry the bridge and attack their right. The Union army was over eighty thousand strong, and the Confederate but half that number. The Union advance was impetuous, but the Confederate defence was no less obstinate. Hooker was wounded, and his corps swept from the field. Both sides were reinforced. Burnside advanced, but too late to relieve the pressure on the Union right. Night ended this bloody fight. The morning found neither commander ready to assail his opponent. That night, Lee retired unmolested across the Potomac.

[Footnote: During this invasion the Confederate soldiers had endured every privation; one-half were in rags, and thousands barefooted had marked their path with crimson. Yet shoeless, hatless, and ragged, they had marched and fought with a heroism like that of the Revolutionary times. But they met their equals at Antietam. Jackson's and Hooker's men fought until both sides were nearly exterminated, and when the broken fragments fell back, the windrows of dead showed where their ranks had stood.]

Six weeks after, the Union army crossed into Virginia.

_The Effect_ of this indecisive battle was that of a Union victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Washington from any danger of attack. Lincoln now determined to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring freedom to all the slaves in the seceded States.

[Footnote: Lincoln prepared the original draft in the July preceding, when the Union forces were in the midst of reverses. Carpenter repeats President Lincoln's words thus: "I put the draft of the proclamation aside, waiting for a victory. Well, the next news we had was of Pope's disaster at Bull Run. Things looked darker than ever. Finally came the week of the battle of Antietam. I determined to wait no longer. The news came, I think, on Wednesday, that the advantage was on our side. I was then staying at the Soldier's Home. Here I finished writing the second draft of the proclamation; came up on Saturday; called the Cabinet together to hear it, and it was published the following Monday. _I made a solemn vow before God, that if General Lee was driven back from Maryland I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom to the slaves._"]

BATTLE OF FREDERICKSBURG.--General dissatisfaction being expressed at the slowness with which McClellan pursued the retreating army, General Burnside was appointed his successor. Crossing the Rappahannock on pontoon bridges at Fredericksburg, he attempted (December 13) to storm the works in the rear of the town. The Confederates, intrenched behind a long stone wall, and on heights crowned with artillery, easily repulsed the repeated assaults of the Union troops. Night mercifully put an end to the fruitless massacre. The Federal loss was over twelve thousand, nearly half of whom fell before the fatal stone wall.

[Footnote: This solid stone wall, four feet high, completely sheltered the troops, while they poured a murderous fire upon the attacking party. In the assault, Meagher's Irish troops especially distinguished themselves, leaving two-thirds of their number on the field of their heroic action. The London Times's correspondent, who watched the battle from the heights, speaking of their desperate valor, says: "Never at Fontenoy, Albuera, nor at Waterloo, was more undoubted courage displayed by the sons of Erin than during those six frantic dashes which they directed against the almost impregnable position of their foe. That any mortal man could have carried the position, defended as it was, it seems idle for a moment to believe. But the bodies which lie in dense masses within forty-eight yards of the muzzles of Colonel Walton's guns are the best evidence what manner of men they were who pressed on to death with the dauntlessness of a race which has gained glory on a thousand battle-fields, and never more richly deserved it than at the foot of Marye's Heights, on the 18th day of December, 1862."]

The survivors drew back into the city, and the next night passed quietly across the bridges to their old camping-ground.

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR.--The Confederates had gained the victories of Jackson in the Shenandoah; of Lee in the Peninsular campaign and those against Pope; Bragg's great raid in Kentucky; and the battles of Cedar Mountain, Chickasaw Bluff, and Fredericksburg.

The Federals had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10; had opened the Mississippi to Vicksburg, occupied New Orleans, Roanoke Island, Newberne, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Memphis; had gained the battles of Pea Ridge, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, Iuka, Corinth, and Murfreesboro, and had checked the career of the Merrimac. The marked successes were mainly at the West and along the coast; while in Virginia, as yet, defeats had followed victories so soon as to hide their memory.

THE SIOUX WAR.

In the midst of this civil strife, the Sioux (soo) Indians became dissatisfied with the Indian traders, and the nonpayment of the money due them. Bands of warriors under Little Crow and other chiefs perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota. Over seven hundred whites were slain, and many thousands driven from their homes. Col. Sibley, after a month's pursuit of the savages, routed them, and took five hundred prisoners. Thirty-nine were hung on one scaffold, at Mankato, Minn.

1863.

THE SITUATION.--The plan of the war was the same as in the preceding year, but included also the occupation of Tennessee. The Federal army was about seven hundred thousand strong; the Confederate, not more than half that number. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued at the opening of the year.

THE WAR IN THE WEST.

THE SECOND EXPEDITION AGAINST VICKSBURG.--Grant continued his great task of opening the Mississippi. After several weeks of fruitless effort against Vicksburg upon the north, he marched down the west side of the river, while the gunboats, running the batteries, passed below the city and ferried the army across. Hastening forward, he defeated the Confederate advance under Pemberton, at _Port Gibson_ (May 1).

[Footnote: The running of the batteries with transports was considered so hazardous that the officers would not order their crews to take the risk, but called for volunteers. So many privates offered, that they were compelled to draw lots. One boy, drawing a lucky number, was offered $100 for his chance, but refused it, and lived to tell the story. The gauntlet of batteries extended eight miles. The first gunboat crept silently down in the shadow of the trees which lined the bank. The Confederates at Vicksburg discovering the movement, kindled a bonfire which lighted up the whole scene, and made the other vessels a fair target for their gunners.]

Learning that Gen. Jos. E. Johnston was coming to Pemberton's assistance, he rapidly pushed between them to Jackson, that, while holding back Johnston with his right hand, with his left he might drive Pemberton into Vicksburg, and thus capture his whole army. Pursuing this design, he defeated Johnston at _Jackson_ (May 14), and then, turning to the west, drove Pemberton from his position at _Champion Hills_ (May 16); next at _Big Black River_ (May 17); and in seventeen days after crossing the Mississippi, shut up Pemberton's army within the works at Vicksburg. Two desperate assaults upon these having failed, the Union troops began to throw up intrenchments. Mines and countermines were now dug. Not one of the garrison could show his head above the works without being picked off by the watchful riflemen. A hat, held above a port-hole, in two minutes was pierced with fifteen balls. Shells reached all parts of the city, and the inhabitants burrowed in caves to escape the iron storm. The garrison, worn out by forty-seven days of toil in the trenches, surrendered on the 4th of July.

_The Effect_.--This campaign cost the Confederates five battles, the cities of Vicksburg and Jackson, thirty-seven thousand prisoners, ten thousand killed and wounded, and immense stores. On the fall of Vicksburg, Port Hudson, which had been besieged by General Banks for many weeks, surrendered.

[Footnote: To escape the fiery tempest which constantly swept over Port Hudson, and to provide for the safety of their magazines, the garrison dug deep recesses in the bluffs, approached by steps cut out of the earth. An eye-witness says: "As we rode along the earthworks inside, after the siege, it was curious to mark the ingenious ways in which they had burrowed holes to shelter themselves from shell and from the intolerable rays of the sun; while at work, they must have looked like so many rabbits popping in and out of their warrens."]

The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, and the Confederacy cut in twain. One great object of the North was accomplished.

THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA.

Rosecrans, after the battle of Murfreesboro, made no formal movement until June, With sixty thousand men, he then marched against Bragg. By threatening his communications, he compelled Bragg to evacuate Chattanooga (Sept. 8).

[Footnote: One objection which Rosecrans opposed to a forward movement was his inferiority in cavalry. This was removed in July, when General John H. Morgan, with about four thousand Confederate cavalry, crossed the Ohio at Brandenburg, swept around Cincinnati, and struck the river again near Parkersburg. During his entire route, he was harassed by militia. At this point he was overtaken by his pursuers, while gunboats in the river prevented his crossing. Nearly the entire force was captured. Morgan escaped, but was finally taken and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. Four months afterward, he broke jail and reached Richmond in safety.]

[Footnote: General Bragg had here an opportunity to be shut up in Chattanooga, as Pemberton had been in Vicksburg; but, a more acute strategist, he knew the value of an army in the field to be greater than that of any fortified city.]

Rosecrans pushed on in pursuit of Bragg, whom he supposed to be in full retreat. Bragg, however, having received powerful reinforcements, turned upon his pursuers so suddenly that they narrowly escaped being cut up in detail, while scattered along a line forty miles in length. The Union forces rapidly concentrated, and the two armies met on the Chickamauga.

[Footnote: In the Indian language, the "River of Death"--an ominous name!]

BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA (Sept. 19, 20).--The first-day's fight was indecisive. About noon of the second day, the Federal line became broken from the movement of troops to help the left wing, then hard pressed. Longstreet seized the opportunity, pushed a brigade into the gap, and swept the Federal right and centre from the field. The rushing crowd of fugitives bore Rosecrans himself away. In this crisis of the battle all depended on the left, under Thomas. If that yielded, the army would be utterly routed. All through the long afternoon the entire Confederate army surged against it. But Thomas held fast.

[Footnote: Thomas was thenceforth styled the "Rock of Chickamauga." He was in command of men as brave as himself. Col. George, of the Second Minnesota, being asked, "How long can you hold this pass?" replied, "Until the regiment is mustered out of service."]

At night he deliberately withdrew to Chattanooga, picking up five hundred prisoners on the way. The Union army, however, defeated in the field, was now shut up in its intrenchments. Bragg occupied the hills commanding the city, and cut off its communications. The garrison was threatened with starvation.

[Footnote: "Starvation had so destroyed the animals that there were not artillery horses enough to take a battery into action. The number of mules that perished was graphically indicated by one of the soldiers of the army of the Tennessee: 'The mud was so deep that we could not travel by the road, but we got along pretty well by stepping from mule to mule as they lay dead by the way.'" --_Draper_.]

BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA

[Footnote: In the Cherokee language, "The Hawk's Nest."]

(Nov. 24, 25).--Grant having been appointed successor to Rosecrans, immediately hastened to Chattanooga. Affairs soon wore a different look. Hooker came with two corps from the Army of the Potomac; and Sherman hastened by forced marches from Iuka, two hundred miles away.

[Footnote: Thomas held command after Rosecrans left, and Grant was afraid he might surrender before reinforcements could reach him, and therefore telegraphed him to hold fast. The characteristic reply was, "I will stay till I starve."]

[Footnote: Twenty-three thousand strong, they were carried by rail from the Rapidan, in Virginia, to Stevenson, in Alabama, eleven hundred and ninety-two miles, in seven days. The Confederates did not know of the change of base until Hooker appeared in front.]

Communications were re-established. Thomas made a dash and seized Orchard Knob (Nov. 23). The following day Hooker charged the fortifications on Lookout Mountain, His troops had been ordered to stop on the high ground, but, carried away by the ardor of the attack, they swept over the crest, driving the enemy before them.

[Footnote: It was a beautiful day. The men had on their best uniforms, and the bands discoursed the liveliest music. The hills were crowded with spectators. The Confederates on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge could see every movement. Bragg's pickets stood leaning on their muskets watching Thomas's columns drawn up as if on parade. Suddenly the Union line broke into a double-quick, and the review was turned into a battle.]

[Footnote: The first day the Confederate left rested on Lookout Mountain, there two thousand four hundred feet high; the right, along Missionary Ridge-so called because, many years ago, Catholic missionaries had Indian schools upon it; and the centre, in the valley between. The second day their army simply occupied Missionary Ridge, in the centre of their former line, in front of Grant at Orchard Knob.--On Lookout Mountain, Hooker met with so feeble a resistance, that Grant is reported to have declared the so-called "battle above the clouds" to be "all poetry, there having been no action there worthy the name of battle."]

Through the mist that filled the valley, the anxious watchers below caught only glimpses of this far-famed "battle above the clouds." The next morning Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. Sherman during the whole time had been heavily pounding away on the northern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, perceiving that the Confederate line in front of him was being weakened to repel these attacks on the flanks, saw that the critical moment had come, and launched Thomas's corps on its centre.

[Footnote: The signals for the attack had been arranged: six cannon-shots, fired at intervals of two seconds. The moment arrived. "Strong and steady the order rang out: 'Number one, fire! Number two, fire! Number three, fire!'" "It seemed to me," says Taylor, "like the tolling of the clock of destiny. And when at 'Number six, fire!' the roar throbbed out with the flash, you should have seen the dead line, that had been lying behind the works all day, come to resurrection in the twinkling of an eye, and leap like a blade from its scabbard."]

The orders were to take the rifle-pits at the foot of Missionary Ridge, then halt and re-form; but the men forgot them all, carried the works at the base, and then swept on up the ascent. Grant caught the inspiration, and ordered a grand charge along the whole front. Up they went, over rocks and chasms, all lines broken, the flags far ahead, each surrounded by a group of the bravest. Without firing a shot, and heedless of the tempest hurled upon them, they surmounted the crest, captured the guns, and turned them on the retreating foe.

That night the Union camp-fires, glistening along the heights about Chattanooga, proclaimed the success of this, the most brilliant of Grant's achievements and the most picturesque of all the battles of the war.

_The Effects_ of this campaign were the utter rout of Bragg's army, the resignation of that general, and the possession of Chattanooga by the Union forces. This post gave control of East Tennessee, and opened the way to the heart of the Confederacy. It became the doorway by which the Union army gained easy access to Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama.

THE WAR IN EAST TENNESSEE.

While Rosecrans was moving on Chattanooga, Burnside, being relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac, was sent into East Tennessee, where he met with great success. In the meantime the Confederate President Davis visited Bragg, and thinking Chattanooga was sure to be captured, sent Longstreet with his corps to the defence of Tennessee. His men were in a deplorable state--hungry, ragged, and tentless; but under this indefatigable leader, they shut up Burnside's force in the works at Knoxville. Meanwhile, Grant, in the moment of his splendid triumph at Chattanooga, ordered Sherman's torn, bleeding, barefoot troops over terrible roads one hundred miles to Burnside's relief. Longstreet, in order to anticipate the arrival of these reinforcements, made a desperate assault upon Burnside (November 29), but it was as heroically repulsed. As Sherman's advance guard reached Knoxville (December 4), Longstreet's troops filed out of their works in retreat.

THE WAR IN THE EAST.

BATTLE OF CHANCELLORSVILLE (May 2, 3).--Burnside, after the defeat at Fredericksburg, was succeeded by General Hooker (January 26). The departure of Longstreet from his force, leaving Lee only sixty thousand to oppose to the Potomac army of over one hundred thousand, offered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Accordingly, Sedgwick was left to carry the intrenchments at Fredericksburg, while the main body crossed the Rappahannock some miles above, and took position in the wilderness near Chancellorsville (map 4, opp. p. 223). Lee, relying on the dense woods to conceal his movements, risked the perilous chance of dividing his army in the presence of a superior enemy. While he kept up a show of fight in front, Jackson, by a detour of fifteen miles, got to the rear with twenty thousand men, and, suddenly bursting out of the dense woods, routed the Union right. That night, Hooker took a new position; but by constant attacks through the next day, Lee gradually forced the Union line from the field of battle, and captured Chancellor House.

[Footnote: A pillar on the veranda of this house, against which Hooker was leaning, being struck by a cannon-ball, that general was stunned, and for an hour, in the heat of the fight, the Union army was deprived of its commander.]

As he was preparing for a final grand charge, word was received that Sedgwick had crossed the Rappahannock, taken Fredericksburg, and had fallen on his rear. Drawing back, he turned against this new antagonist, and by severe fighting that night and the following day, compelled him to recross the river. Lee then went to seek Hooker, but he was already gone. The Army of the Potomac was soon back on its old camping ground opposite Fredericksburg.

[Footnote: In this battle the South was called to mourn the death of Stonewall Jackson, whose magical name was worth to their cause more than an army. In the evening after his successful onslaught upon the flank of the Union line, while riding back to camp from a reconnoissance at the front, he was fired upon by his own men, who mistook his escort for federal cavalry.]

LEE'S SECOND INVASION OF THE NORTH.--Lee; encouraged by his success, now determined to carry the war into the Northern States, and dictate terms of peace in Philadelphia or New York.

[Footnote: The Union disasters which had happened since the beginning of the year encouraged this hope. Galveston, Texas, had been retaken by General Magruder, whereby not only valuable stores had been acquired, but a sea-port had been opened, and the Union cause in that State depressed. Burnside had been checked in his victorious career in Tennessee (p. 250). The naval attack on Charleston had proved a failure (p. 254). An attempt to capture Fort McAlister had met with no success. Rosecrans had made no progress against Bragg. Banks had not then taken Port Hudson. Vicksburg still kept Grant at bay. The Army of the Potomac had been checked at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, and at one time two hundred soldiers per day were deserting its ranks. The term of service of forty thousand men had expired, and the total Union strength was now only eighty thousand. The cost of the war was enormous, and a strong peace party had arisen at the North. The draft was very unpopular. Indeed, during Lee's invasion, a riot broke out in New York to resist it; houses were burned, negroes were pursued in the streets, and, when captured, were beaten, and even hung, for three days the city was a scene of outrage and violence.]

With the finest army the South had ever sent forth, the flower of her troops, carefully equipped and confident of success, he rapidly moved down the Shenandoah, crossed the Potomac, and advanced to Chambersburg. The Union army followed along the east side of the Blue Ridge and South Mountains. Lee, fearing that Meade, who now commanded the Federals, would strike through some of the passes and cut off his communications with Richmond, turned east to threaten Baltimore, and thus draw off Meade for its defence.

BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG (July l-3).--_First Day._--The Confederate advance unexpectedly met the Union cavalry just westward from Gettysburg, on the Chambersburg road.

[Footnote: Neither general had planned to have the fight at this place; Lee had intended not to fight at all, except a defensive battle, and Meade proposed to make the contest at Pipe Creek, about fifteen miles southeast from Gettysburg. The movement of cavalry which brought on this great battle, was only a screen to conceal the Union army marching towards Meade's desired battle-field--_Draper._]

Reinforcements came up on both sides, but the Federal troops were finally forced back, and, becoming entangled in the streets of the village, lost many prisoners. All that night the troops kept arriving and taking their positions by moonlight, to be ready for the contest which they saw was now close at hand.

[Footnote: The Union line was upon a fish-hook-shaped ridge about six miles long, with Culp's Hill at the barb, Cemetery Ridge along the side, and Little Round Top and Round Top, two eminences, at the eye. The Confederate line was on Seminary Ridge, at a distance of about a mile and a half. The Union troops lay behind rock ledges and stone walls, while the Confederates were largely hidden in the woods. In the valley between, were fields of grain and pastures where cattle were feeding all unconscious of the gathering storm.]

_Second Day._--In the afternoon, Longstreet led the first grand charge against the Union left, in order to secure Little Round Top. General Sickles, by mistake, had here taken a position in front of Meade's intended line of battle. The Confederates, far out-flanking, swung around him, but as they reached the top of the hill they met a brigade which Warren had sent just in time to defeat this attempt. Sickles was, however, driven back to Cemetery Ridge, where he stood firm. Ewell, in an attack on the Federal right, succeeded in getting a position on Culp's Hill.

[Footnote: Lee, encouraged by these successes, resolved to continue the fight. The Confederate victories, however, were only apparent. Sickles had been forced into a better position than at first, and the one which Meade had intended he should occupy; while Ewell was driven out of the Union works early the next morning.]

_Third Day._--At one o'clock P. M., Lee suddenly opened on Cemetery Ridge with one hundred and fifty guns. For two hours the air was alive with shells.

[Footnote: It is customary in battle to demoralize the enemy before a grand infantry charge, by concentrating upon the desired point a tremendous artillery fire.]

Then the cannonade lulled, and out of the woods swept the Confederate double battle-line, over a mile long, and preceded by a cloud of skirmishers. A thrill of admiration ran along the Union ranks, as, silently and with disciplined steadiness, that magnificent column of eighteen thousand men moved up the slope of Cemetery Ridge. A hundred guns tore great gaps in their front. Infantry volleys smote their ranks. The line was broken, yet they pushed forward. They planted their battle-flags on the breastworks. They bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. They fought, hand to hand, so close that the exploding powder scorched their clothes. Upon this struggling mass the Federals converged from every side. No human endurance could stand the storm. Out of that terrible fire whole companies rushed as prisoners into the Union lines, while the rest fled panic-stricken from the field.

[Footnote: At the very moment when the last charge was being repulsed, Pemberton was negotiating for the surrender of Vicksburg to Grant. This was the turning point of the war. From that time the Confederacy began to wane.]

The Federal loss in the three-days fight was twenty-three thousand; the Confederate was not officially reported, but probably much exceeded that number. Meade slowly followed Lee, who re-crossed the Potomac, and took position back of the Rapidan.

_The Effect_ of this battle was to put an end to the idea of a Northern invasion. Lee's veterans who went down in the awful charges of Gettysburg could never be replaced.

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE COAST.

ATTACK ON CHARLESTON (April 7).--Such was the confidence felt in the ability of the iron-clads to resist cannonballs, that Admiral Dupont determined to run the fortifications at the entrance to Charleston, and force his way up to the city. The attempt was a disastrous failure.

[Footnote: The Keokuk was sunk and nearly all the vessels were seriously injured. The officers declared that the strokes of the shots against the iron sides of their ships were as rapid as the ticks of a watch.]

General Gillmore now took charge of the Union troops, and, landing on Morris Island, by regular siege approaches and a terrible bombardment captured Fort Wagner and reduced Fort Sumter to a shapeless mass of rubbish (map, p. 280). A short time after, a party of sailors from the Union fleet essayed to capture it by night, but its garrison, upstarting from the ruins, drove them back with great loss.

[Footnote: In a marsh west of Morris Island, piles were driven in the mud twenty feet deep, and a platform made on which was placed an eight-inch rifled Parrot gun, which was nicknamed the "Swamp Angel." It threw shells five miles into Charleston, but burst on the thirty-sixth round. The bombardment of the city was afterward continued from the other batteries.]

[Footnote: Two unsuccessful charges were made on this fort. In one, the 54th regiment, Colonel Shaw, bore a prominent part. It was the first colored regiment organized in the free States. In order to be in season for the assault it had marched two days through heavy sands and drenching storms. With only five minutes rest it took its place at the front of the attacking column. The men fought with unflinching gallantry, and planted their flag on the works; but their colonel, and so many of the officers were shot, that what was left of the regiment was led off by a boy--Lt. Higginson. No measure of the war was more bitterly opposed than the project of arming the slaves. It was denounced at the North, and the Confederate Congress passed a law which threatened with death any white officer captured while in command of negro troops, leaving the men to be dealt with according to the laws of the State in which they were taken. Yet, so willing were the negroes to enlist, and so faithful did they prove themselves in service, that in December, 1863, over fifty thousand had been enrolled, and before the close of the war that number was quadrupled.]

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR--The Confederates had gained the great battles of Chickamauga and Chancellorsville, seized Galveston, and successfully resisted every attack on Charleston.

The Federals had gained the battles before Vicksburg, and at Chattanooga and Gettysburg. They had captured the garrisons of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. The Mississippi was patrolled by gunboats, and the supplies from the West were entirely cut off from the Confederate army. Arkansas, East Tennessee, and large portions of Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas, had been won for the Union.

1864.