Chapter VIII: Conclusion: OF THE CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA.--After these battles, (2)

TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES (see Map of VIth Epoch)--The Treaty with Great Britain (Sept 3, 1783) fixed the boundaries of the United States as the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico the Mississippi River, and the Great Lakes From this however, was to be excluded Florida, which belonged to Spain and the part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi. The Thirteen Colonies occupied only a narrow strip along the Atlantic sea-board. Pennsylvania was a frontier State, with Pittsburg as an advanced military post. The interior of the continent as far as the Mississippi was called the Wilderness. These broad lands belonged to the States individually, since the original English grants extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific (See second note, p 40) They were finally generously given up to the general government of the young confederacy (See second note, p 194, and article on Public Lands, _Harper's Magazine_ vol 42, p 219) In 1787, the great legion north of the Ohio was organized into the Northwestern Territory (See notes, p 201) This was slowly settled. As late as 1819 even the Terntory of Michigan was thought to be a "worthless waste" The Province of Louisiana was purchased of France in 1803 (p 156) Little was known of the country thus acquired, and that same year it was said "The Missouri has been navigated for 2500 miles, there appears a probability of a communication by this channel with the Western Ocean" The famous expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clarke (see Barnes's Popular History of United States, p 360) in 1804-5 gave the first accurate information concerning this vast territory. Florida was purchased of Spain (p 173) by a treaty proposed Feb 22, 1819 though not signed by the King of Spam until Oct 20,1820, while the United States did not obtain full possession before July 17,1821. (These facts account for the different dates assigned to this purchase in the various histories.) The treaty with Spain which secured Florida, _also relinquished all Spanish authority over the region west of the Rocky Mountain, claimed by the United States as belonging to the Louisiana purchase, but not previously acknowledged by Spain._ This is of special importance since many maps giving the Spanish version, extend Louisiana only to the Rocky Mountains (the map of the VIth Epoch is based on the one in the United States Census of 1870). In the beginning of the war of 1812, a strip of coast about fifty miles wide lying between Florida and Louisiana, considered by Spain as a part of Florida had been taken by the United States under the claim that it also belonged to the Louisiana purchase. Texas was annexed in 1845 (p 205, and also _Scribner's Magazine_, vol 16 p 868). The Mexican cession of 1848 gave the United States California and several other States (p 206-8). Alaska, the latest acquisition, was purchased in 1867.

EPOCH IV.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES.

* * * * *

From 1787--the Adoption of the Constitution, To 1861--the Breaking Out of the Civil War.

* * * * *

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. (FIRST PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS 1789-1797)

WASHINGTON'S INAUGURATION (April 30, 1789).--In the choice of the first President of the United States, all hearts turned instinctively to Washington. With deep regret, he left his quiet home at Mount Vernon for the tumults of political life. His journey to New York was a continual ovation. Crowds of gayly-dressed people bearing baskets and garlands of flowers, and hailing his appearance with shouts of joy, met him at every village. On the balcony of old Federal Hall, New York City, he took the oath to support the Constitution of the United States. Difficulties beset the new government on every hand. The treasury was empty, and the United States had no credit. The Indians were hostile. Pirates from the Barbary States attacked our ships, and American citizens were languishing in Algerine dungeons. Spain refused us the navigation of the Mississippi. England had not yet condescended to send a minister to our government, and had made no treaty of commerce with us. We shall see how wisely Washington and his cabinet met these difficulties.

[Footnote: New York was only temporarily the capital. At the second session of Congress the seat of government was transferred to Philadelphia, where it was to remain for ten years, and then (1800) be removed to the District of Columbia, a tract of land ten miles square ceded for this purpose by Maryland and Virginia. Here a city was laid out in the midst of a wilderness, containing only here and there a small cottage. In 1800 it had eight thousand inhahitants. The "Father of his country" laid the cornerstone of the capitol (1793). The part of this District on the Virginia side of the Potomac was (1846) ceded hack to that State.]

[Footnote: George Washington was born February 22, 1732; died December 14, 1799. Left fatherless at eleven years of age, his education was directed by his mother, a woman of strong character, who kindly, but firmly, exacted the most implicit obedience. Of her, Washington learned his first lessons in self-command. Although bashful and hesitating in his speech, his language was clear and manly. Having compiled a code of morals and good manners for his own use, he rigidly observed all its quaint and formal rules. Before his thirteenth year he had copied forms for all kinds of legal and mercantile papers. His manuscript school-books, which still exist, are models of neatness and accuracy. His favorite amusements were of a military character; he made soldiers of his playmates, and officered all the mock parades. Grave, diffident, thoughtful, methodical, and strictly honorable, such was Washington in his youth. He inherited great wealth, and the antiquity of his family gave him high social rank. On his Potomac farms he had hundreds of slaves, and at his Mount Vernon home he was like the prince of a wide domain, free from dependence or restraint. He was fond of equipage and the appurtenances of high life, and although he always rode on horseback, his family had a "chariot and four," with "black postilions in scarlet and white livery." This generous style of living, added perhaps to his native reserve, exposed him to the charge of aristocratic feeling. While at his home, he spent much of his time in riding and hunting. He rose early, ate his breakfast of corn-cake, honey, and tea, and then rode about his estates; his evenings he passed with his family around the blazing hearth, retiring between nine and ten. He loved to linger at the table, cracking nuts and relating his adventures. In personal appearance, Washington was over six feet in height, robust, graceful, and perfectly erect. His manner was formal and dignified. He was more solid than brilliant, and had more judgment than genius. He had great dread of public life, cared little for books, and possessed no library. A consistent Christian, he was a regular attendant and communicant of the Episcopal Church. A firm advocate of free institutions, he still believed in a strong government and strictly enforced laws. As President, he carefully weighed his decisions, but, his policy once settled, pursued it with steadiness and dignity, however great the opposition. As an officer, he was brave, enterprising, and cautious. His campaigns were rarely startling, but always judicious. He was capable of great endurance. Calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all times, and irresistible when aroused, he exercised equal authority over himself and his army. His last illness was brief, and his closing hours were marked by his usual calmness and dignity. "I die hard," said he, "but I am not afraid to go." Europe and America vied in tributes to his memory. Said Lord Brougham, "Until time shall be no more, a test of the progress which our race has made in wisdom and virtue will be derived from the veneration paid to the immortal name of Washington." Washington left no children. It has been beautifully said, "Providence left him childless that his country might call him Father."]

[Footnote: Three executive departments were now established--the Department of Foreign Affairs (now the Department of State), the Department of War, and the Department of the Treasury. The heads of these departments were called Secretaries, and, with the Attorney-General, formed the President's cabinet.]

[Footnote: _Questions on the Geography of the Fourth Epoch_--Names of places in italic letter may be found on map, Epoch VI. Locate New York Philadelphia Baltimore _Boston Washington_ Detroit York St Johns Montreal Plattsburg Fort Schlosser Sackett's Harbor Frenchtown Chappewa _Stonington_ New Orleans _Charleston_ Sacramento San Francisco _Palmyra_ Santa Fe _Nauvoo Mount Vernon_ Queenstown Heights Chrysler's Field Horseshoe Bend Lundy's Lane

Locate Fort Malden Fort Erie Fort Meigs Fort Stephenson Fort Mimms (Mims) Fort McHenry _Fort King_ Fort Brown

Describe the Maumee River Hudson River Tippecanoe River Niagara River St Lawrence River Raisin River Thames River _Columbia River_ Rio Grande River Nueces River Locate Sandusky Bay Lake Champlain _Tampa Bay_

Locate Palo Alto Point Isabel Resaca de la Palma Matamoras Monterey Buena Vista Vera Cruz Puebla Cerro Gordo The Cordilleias Contieras Mexico _Cuba Havana_]

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.--Finances.-By the advice of Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, Congress agreed to assume the debts contracted by the States during the Revolution, and to pay the national debt in full. To provide funds, taxes were levied on imported goods and the distillation of spirits. A mint and a national bank were established at Philadelphia. By these measures the credit of the United States was put upon a firm basis.

[Footnote: The credit of these plans belongs to Hamilton. Daniel Webster has eloquently said of him, "He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet."]

_Whisky Rebellion_ (1794).--Great opposition was made to raising money by taxation. In western Pennsylvania it was agreed that no tax should be paid on whisky. The rioters were so numerous and so thoroughly organized that fifteen thousand of the militia were ordered out to subdue them. Finding the government in earnest, the malcontents laid down their arms.

_Indian Wars_.--Two armies sent against the Indians of the northwest were defeated. At last General Wayne--"Mad Anthony"--was put in command. Little Turtle, the Indian chief, now advised peace, declaring that the Americans had "a leader who never slept." But his counsel was rejected, and a desperate battle was fought on the Maumee (Aug. 20, 1794). Wayne routed the Indians, chased them a great distance, laid waste their towns for fifty miles, and at last compelled them to make a treaty whereby they gave up all of what is now Ohio and part of Indiana.

[Footnote: He told them, it is said, that if they ever violated this agreement he would rise from his grave to fight them. He was long remembered by the western Indians.]

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--_England_.--Hardly had the war closed when complaints were made in England that debts could not be collected in America. On the other hand the Americans charged that the British armies had carried off their negroes, that posts were still held on the frontier, and that our seamen were impressed. Chief Justice Jay was sent as envoy extraordinary to England. He negotiated a treaty, which was ratified by the Senate (1795), after violent opposition.

[Footnote: This treaty enforced the payment of the English debts, but did not in turn forbid the impressment of American seamen. Its advocates were threatened with personal violence by angry mobs. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting. Insults were offered to the British minister, and Jay was burned in effigy. The more quiet people expressed their indignation by passing resolutions condemning the action of the Senate.]

_Spain and Algiers_.--The same year a treaty was made with Spain, securing to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and fixing the boundary of Florida, still held by that nation. Just before this, a treaty had been concluded with Algiers, by which our captives were released and the Mediterranean commerce was opened to American vessels.

_France_.--The Americans warmly sympathized with France, and when war broke out between that country and England, Washington had great difficulty in preserving neutrality. He saw that the true American policy was to keep free from all European alliances. Genet (je-nay), the French minister, relying on the popular feeling, went so far as to fit out, in the ports of the United States, privateers to prey on British commerce. He also tried to arouse the people against the government. At length, at Washington's request, Genet was recalled. But, as we shall see, the difficulty did not end.

POLITICAL PARTIES.--During the discussion of these various questions two parties had arisen. Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph became leaders of the republican party, which opposed the United States Bank, the English treaty, and the assumption of the State debts. Hamilton and Adams were the leaders of the federalist party, which supported the administration.

[Footnote: John Randolph of Roanoke was not prominent in the republican party until a later administration, being elected representative in 1799. He was a descendant of Pocahontas, of which fact he often boasted, and was noted for his keen retorts, reckless wit, and skill in debate. His tall, slender, and cadaverous form, his shrill and piping voice, and his long, skinny fingers--pointing toward the object of his invective--made him a conspicuous speaker. For thirty years, says Benton, he was the "political meteor" of Congress.]

[Footnote: The federalists favored the granting of power to the general government, which they thought should be made strong. The republicans, fearing lest the republic should become a monarchy and the President a king, opposed this idea and advocated State rights. In this election the republicans were accused of being friends of France, and the federalists of being attached to Great Britain and its institutions. The republicans declared themselves to be the only true friends of the people, and stigmatized all others as aristocrats and monarchists.]

Washington having declined to serve a third term, now issued his famous farewell address. So close was the contest between the rival parties that Adams, the federalist candidate, was elected President by a majority of only two electoral votes over Jefferson, the republican nominee.

* * * * *

ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: John Adams was born 1735; died 1826. He was a member of the first and the second Congress, and nominated Washington as commander-in-chief. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, but Adams secured its adoption in a three-days debate. He was a tireless worker, and had the reputation of having the clearest head and firmest heart of any man in Congress. In his position as President he lost the reputation he had gained as Congressman. His enemies accused him of being a bad judge of men, of clinging to old unpopular notions, and of having little control over his temper. They also ridiculed his egotism, which they declared to be inordinate. He lived, however, to see the prejudice against his administration give place to a juster estimate of his great worth and exalted integrity. As a delegate to the Constitutional Convention he was honored as one of the fathers of the republic. Adams and Jefferson were firm friends during the Revolution, but political strife alienated them. On their return to private life they became reconciled. They died on the same day--the fiftieth anniversary of American independence. Adams's last words were, "Thomas Jefferson still survives." Jefferson was, however, already lying dead in his Virginia home. Thus, by the passing away of these two remarkable men, was made memorable the 4th of July, 1826.]

(SECOND PRESIDENT: 1797-1801)

Domestic Affairs.--_Alien and Sedition Laws._--Owing to the violent denunciations of the government by the friends and emissaries of France, the _alien and sedition_ laws were passed. Under the former, the President could expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the United States; under the latter, any one libelling Congress, the President, or the government, could be fined or imprisoned. This was a most unpopular measure, and excited the bitterest feeling.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--_France_.--French affairs early assumed a serious aspect. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the French Directory unless a bribe should be paid. The news of this insult aroused the nation, and the friends of France were silenced. Orders were issued to raise an army, of which Washington was appointed commander-in-chief. Hostilities had commenced on the sea, when Napoleon became the First Consul of France and the war was happily arrested.

[Footnote: Charles C. Pinckney--our envoy to France--is reported to have indignantly replied, "Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute."]

POLITICAL PARTIES.--An intense party feeling prevailed during the entire administration. The unpopularity of the alien and sedition laws, especially, reduced the vote for Adams, the federal candidate for re-election, and the republican nominee, Jefferson, became the next President.

* * * * *

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: Thomas Jefferson was born 1743; died 1826. "Of all the public men who have figured in the United States," says Parton, "he was incomparably the best scholar and the most variously accomplished man." He was a bold horseman, a skilful hunter, an elegant penman, a fine violinist, a brilliant talker, a superior classical scholar, and a proficient in the modern languages. On account of his talents he was styled "The Sage of Monticello." That immortal document, the Declaration of Independence, was, with the exception of a few words, entirely his work. He was an ardent supporter of the doctrine of State rights, and led the opposition to the federalists. After he became President, however, he found the difficulty of administering the government upon that theory. "The executive authority had to be stretched until it cracked, to cover the purchase of Louisiana;" and he became convinced on other occasions that the federal government, to use his own expression, must "show its teeth." Like Washington, he was of aristocratic birth, but his principles were intensely democratic. He hated ceremonies and titles; even "Mr" was distasteful to him. These traits were the more remarkable in one of his superior birth and education, and peculiarly endeared him to the common people. Coming into power on a wave of popularity, he studiously sought to retain this favor. There were no more brilliant levees or courtly ceremonies as in the days of Washington and Adams. On his inauguration day he dressed in plain clothes, rode unattended down to Congress, dismounted, hitched his horse, and went into the chamber to read his fifteen-minutes inaugural. Some of the sentences of that short but memorable address have passed into proverbs. The unostentatious example thus set by the nation's President was wise in its effects. Soon the public debt was diminished, the treasury was replenished, and the army and navy were reduced. A man of such marked character necessarily made bitter enemies, but Jefferson commanded the respect of even his opponents, while the admiration of his friends was unbounded. The last seventeen years of his life were passed at Monticello, near the place of his birth. By his profuse hospitality, he had, long before his death, spent his vast estates. He died poor in money, but rich in honor. His last words were, "This is the fourth day of July."]

(THIRD PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1801-1809.)

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.--_Purchase of Louisiana_ (1803).--The most important event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana from Napoleon. Over one million square miles of land and the full possession of the Mississippi were obtained for $15,000, 000 (see map, VIth Epoch).

[Footnote: This territory (p. 90) was ceded back to France in 1800. From it we have since carved five States, four Territories, and parts of three States and three Territories.]

_Aaron Burr_, the Vice-President, was Alexander Hamilton's bitter rival, both in law and in politics, and at last challenged him to a duel. Hamilton accepted. The affair took place at Weehawken (July 11, 1804). Hamilton fell at the first fire, on the very spot where his eldest son had been killed shortly before, in the same manner. His death produced the most profound sensation. Burr afterward went west and organized an expedition with the avowed object of forming a settlement in northern Mexico. Being suspected, however, of a design to break up the Union and found a separate confederacy beyond the Alleghanies, he was arrested and tried (1807) on a charge of treason. Although acquitted for want of proof, he yet remained an outcast.

[Footnote: While awaiting his trial, Burr was committed to the common jail. There, among its wretched inmates, stripped of all his honors, lay the man who once lacked but a single vote to make him President of the United States.]

[Footnote: Closely connected with Burr's conspiracy is the romantic story of Blennerhassett. He and his beautiful wife. Having settled on an island in the Ohio Kiver, they had transformed the wilderness into a garden of beauty, and every luxury and refinement which wealth or culture could procure clustered about their homes. Into this paradise came Burr, winning their confidence, and engaging them in his plans. On his downfall, Biennerhassett as arrested. When finally acquitted everything had been sold, the grounds turned into a hemp field, and the mansion into a store-house.]

_Fulton's Steamboat_.--The year 1807 was made memorable by the voyage from New York to Albany of Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont. For years the Hudson could boast of having the only steamboat in the world.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--

_War with Tripoli_.--The Barbary States, of which Tripoli is one, for many years sent out cruisers which captured vessels of all Christian nations, and held their crews as slaves until ransomed. The United States, like the European nations, was accustomed to pay annual tribute to these pirates to secure exemption from their attacks. The Bashaw of Tripoli became so haughty that he declared war (1801) against the United States. Jefferson sent a fleet which blockaded the port and repeatedly bombarded the city of Tripoli. The frightened Bashaw was at last glad to make peace.

[Footnote: During this blockade a valiant exploit was performed by Lieutenant Decatur. The frigate Philadelphia had unfortunately grounded and fallen into the enemy's hands. Concealing his men below he entered the harbor with a small vessel which he warped alongside the Philadelphia, in the character of a ship in distress. As the two vessels struck, the pirates first suspected his design. Instantly he leaped aboard with his men, swept the affrighted crew into the sea, set the ship on fire, and amid a tremendous cannonade from the shore escaped without losing a man.]

_England and France_.--During this time England and France were engaged in a desperate struggle. England tried to prevent trade with France, and, in turn, Napoleon forbade all commerce with England. As the United States were neutral, they did most of the carrying trade of Europe. Our vessels thus became the prey of both the hostile nations. Besides, England claimed the right of stopping American vessels on the high seas, to search for seamen of English birth, and press them into the British navy. The feeling, already deep, was intensified when the British frigate Leopard fired into the American frigate Chesapeake, off the coast of Virginia.

The American vessel, being wholly unprepared for battle, soon struck her colors. Four of the crew, three being Americans by birth, were taken, on the pretence that they were deserters. Jefferson immediately ordered all British vessels of war to quit the waters of the United States. Though England disavowed the act, no reparation was made. An embargo was then laid by Congress on American vessels, forbidding them to leave port. This was so injurious to our commerce that it was removed, but all intercourse either with England or France was forbidden.

[Footnote: The American doctrine was that a foreigner naturalized became an American citizen; the British, Once an Englishman always an Englishman]

POLITICAL PARTIES.--While the country was in this feverish state, Jefferson's second term expired. James Madison, the republican candidate, who was closely in sympathy with his views, was elected as his successor by a large majority. The republicans were generally in favor of a war with England. The federalists, however, were a strong minority, and throughout this administration bitterly opposed the war policy of the republicans.

* * * * *

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751; died 1836. Entering Congress in 1789, he became one of the strongest advocates of the Constitution, and did much to secure its adoption. From his political principles he was obliged, though reluctantly, to oppose Washington's administration, which he did in a courteous and temperate manner. He led his party in Congress, where he remained till 1797. The next year he drafted the famous "1798-99 Resolutions," enunciating the doctrine of State rights, which, with the accompanying "Report" in their defence, have been the great text-book of the democratic party. He was Secretary of State to Jefferson. After his Presidential services, he retired from public station. Madison's success was not so much the result of a great national ability as of intense application and severe accuracy. His mind was strong, clear, and well-balanced, and his memory was wonderful. Like John Quincy Adams, he had laid up a great store of learning, which he used in the most skilful manner. He always exhausted the subject upon which he spoke. "When he had finished, nothing remained to be said." His private character was spotless. His manner was simple, modest, and uniformly courteous to his opponents. He enjoyed wit and humor, and told a story admirably. His sunny temper remained with him to the last. Some friends coming to visit him during his final illness, he sank smilingly back on his couch, saying: "I always talk better when I _lie_." It has been said of him: "It was his rare good fortune to have a whole nation for his friends."]

(FOURTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1809-1817.)

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.--_Battle of Tippecanoe_ (November 7, 1811). --British emissaries had been busy arousing the Indians to war. Tecumseh, a famous chief, seized the opportunity to form a confederacy of the northwestern tribes. General Harrison having been sent against them with a strong force, was treacherously attacked by night near the Tippecanoe. The Indians, however, were routed with great slaughter.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--_England_.--This war greatly aroused the people of the West against England. The impressment of our seamen and the capture of our ships continued. The British government went so far as to send war vessels into our waters to seize our ships as prizes. The American frigate President having hailed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt, received a cannon-shot in reply. The fire was returned, and the sloop soon disabled; a civil answer was then returned. The British government refusing to relinquish its offensive course, all hope of peace was abandoned. Finally (June 19th, 1812), war was formally declared against Great Britain.

[Footnote: Madison, whose disposition was very pacific, hesitated so long, that one of the federalists declared in Congress that "he could not be kicked into a fight." This expression passed into a proverb.]

SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, 1812-14.

SURRENDER OF DETROIT (August 16).--As in the previous wars, it was determined to invade Canada. General William Hull accordingly crossed over from Detroit and encamped on Canadian soil. While preparing to attack Fort Malden (mahl-den), he learned that the enemy were gathering in great force, and had already captured Fort Mackinaw. He, therefore, retreated to Detroit. The British under General Brock and the Indians under Tecumseh followed thither, and landing, advanced at once to assault the fort at that place. The garrison was in line, and the gunners were standing with lighted matches awaiting the order to fire, when Hull, apparently unnerved by the fear of bloodshed, ordered the white flag--a table-cloth--to be raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and without even stipulating for the honors of war, he surrendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, but the whole of Michigan.

BATTLE OF QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS (October 13).--Late in summer, another attempt was made to invade Canada. General Van Rensselaer (ren'-se-ler) finding that his men were eager for a fight, sent a small body across the Niagara River to attack the British at Queenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and General Brock was killed. General Van Rensselaer now returned to the American shore to bring over the rest of the army; but the militia denying the constitutional right of their commander to take them out of the State, refused to embark. Meantime their comrades on the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, after a desperate struggle, were compelled to surrender.

NAVAL VICTORIES.--These signal disgraces by land were in striking contrast to the successes on the sea.

_Constitution and Guerriere_ (August 19).--The fight off the coast of Massachusetts, between the American frigate Constitution (popularly called Old Ironsides) and the Guerriere (gayre-e-ayre) is memorable. The latter vessel opened fire first. Captain Isaac Hull refused to answer until he had brought his ship into the exact position he desired, when he poured broadside after broadside into his antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and cutting her masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere soon became unmanageable, and was forced to surrender. She was so badly injured that she could not be brought into port; while the Old Ironsides, in a few hours, was ready for another fight.

[Footnote: "Captain Hull sent an officer to take possession of the Guerriere. When he arrived alongside, he demanded of the commander of the English frigate if he had struck. Dacres was extremely reluctant to make this concession in plain terms, but, with a shrewdness which would have done honor to a Yankee, endeavored to evade the question. 'I do not know that it would be prudent to continue the engagement any longer,' said he. 'Do I understand you to say that you have struck?' inquired the American lieutenant. 'Not precisely,' returned Dacres; 'but I don't know that it will be worth while to fight any longer.' 'If you cannot decide, I will return aboard,' replied the Yankee, 'and we will resume the engagement.' 'Why, I am pretty much _hors de combat_ already,' said Dacres; 'I have hardly men enough left to work a gun, and my ship is in a sinking condition.' 'I wish to know, sir,' peremptorily demanded the American officer, 'whether I am to consider you as a prisoner of war or an enemy. I have no time for further parley.' 'I believe there is now no alternative. If I could fight longer, I would with pleasure; but I--must surrender--myself--_a prisoner of war!_'"]

[Footnote: Nephew of General Hull. His bravery retrieved the name from its disgrace.]

_Frolic and Wasp_ (October 13).--The next noted achievement was the defeat of the English brig Frolic by the sloop-of-war Wasp, off the coast of North Carolina. When the former was boarded by her captors, her colors were still flying, there being no one to haul them down. The man at the helm was the only sailor left on deck unharmed.

Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, inflicting untold injury on the British commerce. During the year over three hundred prizes were captured.

_The Effect of these Naval Victories_ was to arouse enthusiasm and inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were rapidly formed. Madison was re-elected, thus stamping his war policy with the popular approval.

1813.

PLAN OF THE CAMPAIGN.--Three armies were raised: (I) the Army of the Centre, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara River; (2) the Army of the North, under General Hampton, along Lake Champlain; and (3) the Army of the West, under General Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. All three were ultimately to invade Canada. Proctor was the British general, and Tecumseh had command of his Indian allies.

[Footnote: When the British heard that Dearborn had sailed away from Sackett's Harbor with the fleet, they immediately made an attack on that place. They were bravely repulsed by General Brown and a few regulars.]

THE ARMIES OF THE CENTRE AND NORTH did but little. General Dearborn attacked York, General Pike gallantly leading the assault. Unfortunately, in the moment of success the magazine blew up, killing Pike and making sad havoc among his men. Dearborn did nothing, and soon after resigned. General Wilkinson, his successor, was directed to descend the St. Lawrence in boats, and join General Hampton in an attack on Montreal. At Chrysler's Field he repulsed the British, but owing to a disagreement with General Hampton he returned. (Map opp. p. 160.) General Hampton went north as far as St. John's, where he was defeated by the British. He then made the best of his way back to Plattsburg, where, in the winter, he was joined by General Winchester's men. Thus ingloriously ended the campaign of these two armies.

ARMY OF THE WEST.--A detachment of General Harrison's men was captured at Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, by Proctor, who then besieged Harrison himself at Fort Meigs (megz). Repulsed here, Proctor stormed Fort Stephenson, garrisoned by only one hundred and fifty men under Major Croghan, a young man of twenty-one. Beaten again, he returned to Malden. As yet, however, the British held Michigan and threatened Ohio, and the Americans had been as unsuccessful this year as they were the preceding, when a glorious triumph on Lake Erie gave a new aspect to the campaign.

[Footnote: This party was stationed on the Maumee, under General Winchester. Having learned that the people of Frenchtown feared an attack from the Indians, he allowed his military judgment to yield to his humanity, and marched to their relief. He defeated the enemy, but was soon attacked by a body of fifteen hundred British and Indians under Proctor. Winchester, being captured in the course of the battle, agreed to the surrender of his men under the solemn promise that their lives and property should be safe. Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leaving no guard over the American wounded. Thereupon the Indians, maddened by liquor and the desire for revenge, mercilessly tomahawked many, set fire to the houses in which others lay, and carried the survivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the streets and offered for sale at the doors of the inhabitants. Many of the women of that place gave for their ransom every article of value which they possessed. The troops were Kentuckians, and the war-cry of their sons was henceforth "Remember the Raisin."--The great object of the Indians in battle was to get scalps, Proctor paying a regular bounty for every one. They were therefore loth to take prisoners. Proctor, brutal and haughty, was a fit leader under a government that would employ savages in a civilized warfare.]

PERRY'S VICTORY (September 10).--When Captain Perry, then only twenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of the flotilla on Lake Erie, the British were undisputed masters of the lake, while his fleet was to be, in part, made out of the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns, ready for action, when the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns bore down upon his little squadron.

[Footnote: Perry had never seen a naval battle, while Captain Barclay, the British commander, was one of Nelson's veterans, and had lost an arm in the service.]

Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence, engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, and fought them till but eight of his men were left. He helped these to fire the last gun, and then leaping into a boat bore his flag to the Niagara. He had to pass within pistol-shot of the British, who turned their guns directly upon him; and though he was a fair mark for every shot, he escaped without injury. Breaking through the enemy's line, and firing right and left, within fifteen minutes after he mounted the deck of the Niagara the victory was won. Perry at once wrote to General Harrison, "_We have met the enemy, and they are ours._" This laconic despatch produced intense excitement throughout the country. Upon the result of this battle depended, as we shall see, important issues.

[Footnote: From its mast-head floated a blue pennant, bearing the words of the dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship." (See p. 166)]

BATTLE OF THE THAMES.--Proctor and Tecumseh were at Maiden with their motley array of British and Indians, two thousand strong, waiting to lay waste the frontier. Harrison, at Sandusky Bay, was nearly ready to invade Canada, and at the news of this victory pushed across the lake. Landing at Maiden, which he found deserted, Harrison hotly pursued the flying enemy and overtook them on the _River Thames_ (temz). Having drawn up his troops, he ordered Colonel Johnson, with his Kentucky horsemen, to charge the English in front. Dashing through the forest, they broke the enemy's line, and forming in their rear, prepared to pour in a deadly fire. The British surrendered, but Proctor escaped by the swiftness of his horse. Johnson then pushed forward to attack the Indians. In the heat of the action, a bullet, said to have been fired by Johnson himself, struck Tecumseh. With his death the savages lost all hope, and fled in confusion.

_Effect._--This victory, with Perry's, relieved Michigan, gave control of Lake Erie, and virtually decided the war. General Harrison returned amid the plaudits of the nation.

NAVAL BATTLES.--The American navy achieved some brilliant successes during the year, but was not uniformly victorious.

_Chesapeake and Shannon_.--Captain Lawrence, of the Hornet, having captured the British brig Peacock, on his return was placed in command of the Chesapeake, the ill-starred frigate which struck her flag to the Leopard off the coast of Virginia. While refitting his vessel at Boston, a challenge was sent him to fight the Shannon, then lying off the harbor. Lawrence, although part of his crew were discharged, and the unpaid remainder were almost mutinous, consulted only his own heroic spirit, and at once put to sea. The action was brief. A hand-grenade bursting in the Chesapeake's arm-chest, the enemy took advantage of the confusion, and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Lawrence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left the deck he exclaimed, "_Don't give up the ship_." But the feeble crew were soon overpowered, and the colors hauled down.

WAR WITH THE CREEKS.--Tecumseh had been (1811) among the Alabama Indians, and had aroused them to take up arms against the Americans. They accordingly formed a league (1813), and fell upon _Fort Mimms_, massacring the garrison and the defenceless women and children. (Map opp. p. 160.) Volunteers flocked in from all sides to avenge this horrid deed. Under General Jackson they drove the Indians from one place to another, until they took refuge on the _Horseshoe Bend_, where they fortified themselves for the last battle (March 27, 1814). The soldiers, with fixed bayonets, scaled their breastwork. The Creeks fought with the energy of despair, but six hundred of their number were killed, and those who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms.

[Footnote: An event occurred on Jackson's march which illustrates his iron will. For a long time his soldiers suffered extremely from famine, and at last they mutinied. General Jackson rode before the ranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was disabled, but in his right he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to their places, he declared he would shoot the first who advanced. No one stirred, and soon all returned to their duty.]

RAVAGES ON THE ATLANTIC COAST.--Early in the spring the British commenced devastating the southern coast. Admiral Cockburn, especially, disgraced the British navy by conduct worse than that of Cornwallis in the Revolution. Along the Virginia and Carolina coast he burned bridges, farm-houses, and villages; robbed the inhabitants of their crops, stock, and slaves; plundered churches of their communion services, and murdered the sick in their beds.

[Footnote: New England was spared because of a belief that the northern States were unfriendly to the war and would yet return to their allegiance to Great Britain.]

1814.

Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25).--The American army, under General Brown, crossed the Niagara River once more, and for the last time invaded Canada. Fort Erie having been taken, General Winfield Scott, leading the advance, attacked the British at _Chippewa_ (July 5), and gained a brilliant victory. A second engagement was fought at _Lundy's Lane_, opposite Niagara Falls. (Map opp. p. 160.) Here, within sound of that mighty cataract, occurred one of the bloodiest battles of the war. General Scott had only one thousand men, but he maintained the unequal contest until dark. A battery, located on a height, was the key to the British position. Calling Colonel Miller to his side, General Brown asked him if he could take it. "I'll try, sir," was the fearless reply. Heading his regiment, he steadily marched up the height and secured the coveted position. Three times the British rallied for its re-capture, but as many times were hurled back. At midnight they retired from the field. This victory, though glorious to the American army, was barren of direct results.

BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN (September ll).--All but fifteen hundred of the troops at Plattsburg had gone to reinforce General Brown. Prevost, the commander of the British army in Canada, learning this fact, took twelve thousand veteran soldiers, who had served under Wellington, and marched against that place. As he advanced to the attack, the British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the American squadron under Commodore McDonough.

[Footnote: One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, from trees growing on the bank of the lake.]

The attacking squadron was nearly annihilated. The little army in Plattsburg, by their vigorous defence, prevented Prevost from crossing the Saranac River. When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipitately, leaving his sick and wounded, and large quantities of military stores.

RAVAGES ON THE ATLANTIC COAST.--The British blockade extended this year to the north. Commerce was so completely destroyed that the lamps in the light-houses were extinguished as being of use only to the English. Several towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn., was bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along the Chesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington (Aug. 24) and burned the capitol, the Congressional library, and other public buildings and records, with private dwellings and storehouses. He then sailed around by sea to attack Baltimore. The army having disembarked below the city (Sept. 12), moved against it by land, while the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry from the river. The troops, however, met with a determined resistance, and, as the fleet had made no impression on the fort, soon retired to their ships.

[Footnote: While the British troops were marching toward Baltimore, General Ross rode forward with a part of his staff, to reconnoitre. Two mechanics, who were in a tree watching their advance, fired upon them, and Ross fell mortally wounded. The two patriots were instantly shot.]

[Footnote: During the bombardment of Fort McHenry, Francis S. Key. an American detained on board of an English vessel, wrote the national song, "The Star Spangled Banner."]

The greatest excitement was produced by these events. Every seaport was fortified; the militia were organized, and citizens of all ranks labored with their own hands in throwing up defences. Bitter reproaches were cast upon the administration because of its mode of conducting the war. Delegates from New England States met at Hartford (December 15) to discuss this subject. The meeting was branded with odium by the friends of the administration, and to be called a "Hartford Convention Federalist" was long a term of reproach.

PEACE, as afterward appeared, was made even before the convention adjourned. The treaty was signed at Ghent, December 24. Before, however, the news had reached this country, a terrible, and, as it proved, unnecessary battle had been fought in the South.

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS (January 8, 1815).--A powerful fleet and a force of twelve thousand men, under General Pakenham, undertook the capture of New Orleans. General Jackson, anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrenchments several miles below the city. The British advanced steadily, in solid columns, heedless of the artillery fire which swept their ranks, until they came within range of the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. Their officers rallied them again and again. General Pakenham fell in the arms of the same officer who had caught General Ross as he fell at Baltimore.

[Footnote: Jackson at first made his intrenchments in part of cotton-bales, but a red-hot cannon-ball having fired the cotton and scattered the burning fragments among the barrels of gunpowder, it was found necessary to remove the cotton entirely. The only defence of the Americans in this battle was a bank of earth, five feet high, and a ditch in front.]

[Footnote: The British were tried and disciplined troops, while very few of the Americans had ever seen fighting. Besides, the British were nearly double their number. But our men were accustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the best marksmen in the world.]

Neither discipline nor bravery could prevail. General Lambert, who succeeded to the command, drew off his men in the night, hopelessly defeated, after a loss of over two thousand; while the American loss was but seven killed and six wounded.

RESULTS OF THE WAR.--The treaty left the question of impressment unsettled, yet it was tacitly understood, and was never revived. The national debt was $127,000,000, but within twenty years it was paid from the ordinary revenue. The United States had secured the respect of European nations, since our navy had dared to meet, and often successfully, the greatest maritime power in the world. The impossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a permanent foothold on our territory was shown. The fruitless invasion of Canada by the militia, compared with the brave defence of their own territory by the same men, proved that the strength of the United States consisted in defensive warfare. Extensive manufactories were established to supply the place of the English goods cut off by the blockade. This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, though for a time depressed by the quantity of English goods thrown on the market. The immediate evils of the war were apparent: trade ruined, commerce gone, no specie to be seen, and a general depression. Yet the wonderful resources of the country were shown by the rapidity with which it entered upon a new career of prosperity.

[Footnote: The Algerines had taken advantage of the war with England to renew their depredations on American commerce. Decatur, in May, 1815, was sent with a squadron to right matters in that quarter. Proceeding to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, he obtained the liberation of American prisoners, and full indemnity for all losses, with pledges for the future. The United States was the first nation effectually to resist the demands of the Barbary pirates for tribute.]

POLITICAL PARTIES.--When Madison's term of office expired, the federalist party had been broken up by its opposition to the war. James Monroe, the Presidential candidate of the republican party, was almost unanimously elected. He was generally beloved, and all parties united in his support.

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION.

Monroe's administration was one of general prosperity. After the ravages of war, the attention of all was turned to the development of the internal resources of the country and to the building up of its industries.

[Footnote: James Monroe was born 1758; died 1831. As a soldier under General Washington, he bore a brave record, and especially distinguished himself in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. Afterward, he studied law, and entered political life. Having been sent by Washington as Minister to France, he showed such marked sympathy with that country as to displease the President and his cabinet, who were just concluding a treaty with England, and wished to preserve a strictly neutral policy; he was therefore recalled. Under Jefferson, who was his warm friend, he was again sent to France (1803), when he secured the purchase of Louisiana. He is said to have always taken particular pride in this transaction, regarding his part in it as among the most important of his public services. Soon after his inauguration as President, he visited all the military posts in the north and east, with a view to a thorough acquaintance with the capabilities of the country in the event of future hostilities. This tour was a great success. He wore a blue military coat of homespun, light--colored breeches, and a cocked hat, being the undress uniform of a Revolutionary officer. The nation was thus reminded of his former military services. This, with his plain and unassuming manners, completely won the hearts of the people, and brought an overwhelming majority to the support of the administration. Monroe was a man more prudent than brilliant, who acted with a single eye to the welfare of his country. Jefferson said of him: "If his soul were turned inside out, not a spot would be found on it." Like that loved friend, he died "poor in money, but rich in honor;" and like him also, he passed away on the anniversary of the independence of the country he had served so faithfully.]

(FIFTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1817-1825.)

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. _The Missouri Compromise_.--When the admission of Missouri as a State was proposed, a violent discussion arose as to whether it should be free or slave. Through the efforts of Henry Clay, it was admitted as a slave state (1821), under the compromise that slavery should be prohibited in all other territories west of the Mississippi and north of parallel 36 degrees 30 minutes--the southern boundary of Missouri.

[Footnote: The question of slavery was already one of vast importance. At first slaves were owned in the northern as well as the southern States. But at the North, slave labor was unprofitable, and it had gradually died out; while at the South it was a success, and hence had steadily increased. In 1793, Eli Whitney, of Connecticut, invented the cotton-gin, a machine for cleaning cotton from the seed, an operation before performed by hand, and very expensive. (Read Barnes's Pop. Hist, of the U. S., p 346.) This gave a new impulse to cotton-raising. Sugar and tobacco, also great staples of the South, were cultivated exclusively by slave labor.]

_La Fayette's Visit_ to this country (1824) as "the nation's guest" was a joyous event. He traveled through each of the twenty-four States, and was everywhere welcomed with delight. His visit to the tomb of Washington was full of affectionate remembrance. He was carried home in a national vessel, the Brandywine, named in honor of the battle in which La Fayette first drew his sword in behalf of the colonies.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--_Florida_.--By a treaty (1819), Spain now ceded Florida to the United States. (See p. 146.)

_Monroe Doctrine_.--In one of President Monroe's messages he advocated a principle since famous as the _Monroe Doctrine_. He declared that any attempt by a European nation to gain dominion in America would be considered by the United States as an unfriendly act.

POLITICAL PARTIES.--Divisions now became apparent in the great party which had twice so triumphantly elected Monroe as President. The whig party, as it came to be called in Jackson's time, was forming in opposition to the republican--thenceforth known as the democratic party. The whigs were in favor of a protective tariff, and a general system of internal improvements; the democrats opposed these. No one of the four candidates obtaining a majority of votes, the election went to the House of Representatives, where John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was chosen.

[Footnote: John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the champions of the whigs; Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun, of the democrats. In 1834, the democrats began to be called "Locofocos," because, at a meeting in Tammany Hall, the lights having been put out, were relighted with locofoco matches, which several, expecting such an event, had carried in their pockets.]

[Footnote: A _protective tariff_ is a duty imposed on imported goods for the purpose of encouraging their manufacture at home. By _internal improvements_ are meant the improving of the navigation of rivers, the building of bridges and railroads, the dredging of harbors, etc.]

J. Q. ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION.