Chapter XXVII: Methods of Burial 220 (7)

(_b_) The arrival of the husband, who comes to fetch the bride to his home, may probably be recognised in the design on the fifth-century vase No. =636=. It is, however, a special and sacred occasion which is here represented. The bride, who is seated and holds a sceptre, is probably the Basilinna, wife of the Basileus, the magistrate at Athens who was charged with the supervision of the state-religion. She turns back to look at the bridegroom, who is none other than the wine-god Dionysos, holding his thyrsos or staff crowned with the pine-cone. Two love-gods fly towards the pair with wedding gifts, while on the right approaches a Victory holding lighted torches, which served to light the night-procession to the bridegroom's house. The subject is explained by a ceremony which took place at the Attic wine-festival of the Anthesteria, celebrated annually in February and March. On the second day of the festival there was a mystic marriage between the wine-god Dionysos and the wife of the Basileus,[90] and it can hardly be doubted that the present design refers to this.

(_c_) The actual progress of the bride to her husband's home is depicted on the black-figured vase No. =637=, of sixth-century date (fig. 247). The departure took place at nightfall by torch-light, and the bride and bridegroom usually (as in the present instance) made the journey in a mule-car, attended by a friend called the _parochos_. On the vase (fig. 247) the bride and bridegroom are seen in front of the mule-car, and the _parochos_ is seated behind. When the pair reached their home, they were welcomed by the father and mother of the bridegroom, and a procession was formed to the hearth-altar. This is a scene depicted on No. =638=, a reproduction of a painting on a toilet-box in the Third Vase Room (D 11, on Case F). The bridegroom leads the bride by the hand towards the hearth-altar, by the side of which stands the hearth-goddess Hestia, holding a sceptre and what is probably a fig, an allusion to the figs, dates and other fruits showered over the wedded pair as they reached the hearth, and thence called [Greek: katachysmata] (down-pourings). Before the pair go a boy playing on the double-flutes and two women holding torches, who probably move round the altar, as well as another woman, who perhaps leads the way to the bridal chamber (figs. 248 and 249).

(_d_) Upon the day following the marriage the relations and friends brought presents to the house ([Greek: epaulia]).[91] The presents consisted chiefly in objects likely to be useful to the bride, such as vases, articles of toilet, spinning implements, etc. The subject was a favourite one with the Greek vase-painters, probable examples being the designs on E 188 in Case 47 and the toilet-box E 773 in Case H in the Third Vase Room. A still better instance occurs on the restored "marriage vase" E 810 in Case H in the same room.

=Roman Marriage.=--Roman practice recognised various methods of lawful marriage. The illustrations and objects shown in this Case deal only with certain ceremonies which were common to all of them. They concern (_a_) the betrothal; (_b_) the actual wedding rites; and (_c_) the escorting (_deductio_) of the bride to the house of the bridegroom.

(_a_) The betrothal took the form of a solemn contract between the fathers and guardians on either side. In all Roman contracts it was customary that a pledge should be given, and this pledge often consisted in a ring. It was fitting, therefore, that a ring given to the woman by her betrothed should come to be a sign of the betrothal contract. It is natural to identify these rings with a series of Roman rings which have for their design two clasped right hands. An example in gold of about the third century A.D. (No. =639=) is shown in this Case.

(_b_) The actual ceremony of marriage consisted in the solemn clasping of hands (_dextrarum iunctio_), an action seen on the relief on the sepulchral chest (No. =640=) placed in this Case. The inscription shows that the chest was dedicated by a freedman and imperial scribe named Vitalis to the memory of his wife Vernasia Cyclas. The ceremony is only shown in an abbreviated form on this chest, but it appears in more detail on a relief from a sarcophagus (No. =641=; fig. 250). The husband and wife clasp hands, and between them stands the _pronuba_ or matron-friend of the bride, placing a hand on the shoulder of each. On the left of the group stands a man, perhaps the bride's father. To left and right of this scene of everyday Roman life we have the mythological personages whose attendance at the wedding may be supposed to be of good augury--Mars, Victory and Fortune. The clasping of hands was followed by a sacrifice to Jupiter, and this closed the actual wedding ceremonies. The sacrifice is represented in the illustration (fig. 251) taken from a Roman sarcophagus.[92] The bride, and bridegroom stand by the burning altar, upon which the latter pours a libation. Behind the pair stands _Juno pronuba_, the presiding goddess of the wedding rites. On the right a bull is being led up to sacrifice, and on the left stand Venus, Hymenaeus and the Graces.

(_c_) When night had fallen there followed the procession, in which the bride was escorted from her father's house to that of the bridegroom, a procession described in one of the most splendid of the poems of Catullus.[93] Torch-bearers and flute-players led the way, and the wedding train was accompanied by a crowd, the boys in which chanted rude jesting verses and petitioned the bridegroom for nuts.[94] When the doorway of the house was reached, the bridegroom carefully lifted the bride over the threshold, that there might be no ill-omened stumbling. "Carry the gilded feet across the threshold," sings Catullus, "that the omen may be favourable." This moment is illustrated by a scene from a Roman comedy (No. =54=), taken from a lamp exhibited on Table-Case K (see above, p. 28, fig. 17). The bride is being carried on the back of a man, while a Cupid waits at the door to receive her. Within the house she received a gift of fire and water, elements so necessary to the performance of the housewife's duties, and on the day following the wedding she did sacrifice at her husband's altar.

(=635=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 774; Furtwängler and
Reichhold, _Griech. Vasenmalerei_, I., pl. 57 (3); (=637=)
_Cat. of Vases_, II., B 485; (=638=) _Cat. of Vases_, III.,
D 11; _Ath. Mitt._, XXXII., 1907, p. 80 ff.; (=639=) _Cat. of
Rings_, 276; (=640=) _Cat. of Sculpt._ 2379; (=641=) _Journ.
of Hellenic Studies_, XXXVI., p. 85.

See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Matrimonium_.

[Footnote 89: Theocr. ii. 17: [Greek:

iunx, helke ty tênon emon poti dôma ton andra].
]

[Footnote 90: Cf. Aristot. [Greek: Ath. Pol.] 3, 5; Dem. _c.
Neaer._, c. 76; Mommsen, _Feste d. Stadt Athen_, p. 393 ff.]

[Footnote 91: See _Jahrb. d. arch. Inst._, 1900, p. 144 ff.]

[Footnote 92: _Mon. dell' Inst._ iv., pl. 9.]

[Footnote 93: No. lxi.]

[Footnote 94: _Ibid._, l. 131 f.]

XXV.--MUSIC AND DANCING.

(Wall-Cases 54-56.)

=Music.=--The Greek term [Greek: mousikê] (music) included much more than we mean by music. It was applied to the education of the mind as opposed to [Greek: gymnastikê] (gymnastics), the education of the body. In the narrower sense, however, it corresponded to the modern term, and to this the Greeks from early times attached a high importance. It was the effect of music upon the character which appealed to them above all things, and it was this which caused Plato to banish from his ideal state certain modes of music which would, he thought, be injurious to its well-being. These modes or "harmonies" were named after race-divisions. We find the Dorian, the Aeolic, the Ionic, the Lydian, and the Phrygian. The Dorian was universally approved for its manly qualities, but Plato rejected the Lydian as useless and effeminate.[95]

Of the stringed instruments used among the Greeks, the lyre was the most prominent. There were two varieties of this, the kithara and the lyre proper. The kithara, an instrument with a large wooden sounding board and upright arms, was played chiefly by professional musicians, such as the kitharist represented on a fine vase in the Third Vase Room, who has won a victory at one of the great musical contests (E 460; Pedestal 7). The illustration (fig. 252), taken from an amphora of the fifth century (E 256, Case H, Third Vase Room), shows Apollo playing on the kithara, which is supported by a band passing round his left wrist, but leaving the fingers of the left hand free to play on the strings. In his right hand he holds the _plectrum_, which is attached by a cord to the instrument. The _plectrum_ was of various forms, but its most essential part was the tooth for catching and sounding the wires. The lyre proper (fig. 253) is distinguished by its curving arms and sounding board of tortoiseshell (hence called _chelys_). The wooden framework and parts of the shell of a Greek lyre found in a tomb near Athens are shown in Case 56 (No. =642=). As the popular instrument, the lyre was naturally taught in schools. Two interesting Greek vases (Nos. =643= and =644=), exhibited in these Cases, give pictures of boys receiving music lessons at a school. In one instance a boy is learning the lyre, in another the boy is playing the flutes, while the master, who holds a _plectrum_, is playing on a lyre. Domestic animals are freely admitted, and the discipline seems far from severe.

As the school scene shows, flute-playing, though condemned by Plato and Aristotle,[96] was commonly taught at Athens. Ancient flutes are distinguished from the modern instruments by the vibrating reed which formed the mouthpiece, and by the fact that they were always played in pairs. Hence the frequency with which pairs of ancient flutes are found. Two of sycamore wood (No. =645=; Case 56) were discovered in the same tomb (near Athens) as the lyre described above (No. =642=). Another pair of flutes (in bronze) from Italy (No. =646=; fig. 254) have their mouthpieces in the form of busts of Maenads. A terracotta shows a pair of female musicians (No. =647=) playing with a drum and double flutes. To assist the playing of the two flutes together a mouth-band was often worn, as may be seen from designs on vases, _e.g._, on a cup of Epiktetos (E 38; Third Vase Room), and on some of the Cypriote sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room passage.

A framed impression from a Greek hymn to Apollo inscribed on stone is here exhibited (No. =648=). Musical notes, indicated by letters of the Greek alphabet in various positions, are placed at intervals over the letters to guide the singer. The inscription was found at Delphi, where other inscriptions of a similar character have come to light.

Flute-playing was very popular with the Romans, among whom it was considered the proper accompaniment of every kind of ceremony.[97] For military purposes they used several other wind instruments. Two bronze mouthpieces (No. =649=) in Case 55 may perhaps come from long straight trumpets (_tubae_). The Roman curved horn (_cornu_) is represented by two large specimens in bronze (No. =650=) placed at the top of Cases 55, 56. The terracotta bugle in Case 55 is probably a model of the Roman _bucina_ (No. =651=).

The simplest of all ancient wind instruments is the rustic Pan's pipe (_syrinx_), usually formed of seven or eight hollow reeds fastened together with wax. The Greek Pan's pipe has the reeds of equal length, the different notes being produced by the different positions of the natural joints of the reed. An example may be seen among the Cypriote sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room passage. The Roman _syrinx_ had its lower edge sloping, the result of cutting off the reeds immediately below the natural joints. A terracotta statuette in Case 55 (No. =652=) represents a shepherd boy playing on a Pan's pipe of the Roman kind, and a marble relief from Ephesus at the top of Case 54 (No. =653=) shows a beardless man seated with a large _syrinx_ in his hands. The Greek inscription tells us that the relief was dedicated by Ebenos, a "first flute," to Hierokles his piper.

It was the Pan's pipe which gave Ktesibios of Alexandria (third century B.C.; cf. p. 120) the model on which he constructed his water-organ, an instrument which became popular with the Romans. A Roman "contorniate" shown in Case 58 has one of these water-organs represented upon it. The air was supplied by water pressure and the notes were played by means of a key-board.

Cymbals were largely used by the Greeks and Romans in religious ceremonies of an ecstatic character, such as the mysteries of Demeter and Kore and the worship of Kybele. Among the cymbals in Case 56 is an interesting pair (No. =654=; fig. 254) inscribed in Greek with the name of Oata their owner ([Greek: Oatas eimi]). They were originally joined together by a chain, part of which still remains. In the lower part of Cases 55-56 is a considerable variety of bells in bronze (No. =655=).

(=643=) and (=644=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 171, 172;
(=645=) For the structure of the ancient flute, cf. especially
Baumeister, _Denkmäler_, s.v. _Flöten;_ (=648=) _Bull. de
Corr. Hell._, XVIII., pl. 21; (=652=) For the _syrinx_, cf.
Tillyard in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, XXVII. (1907), p. 167 ff.;
(=653=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, II., 1271.

See in general, _Camb. Comp. to Gk. Stud._, pp. 370-374;
Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Musica_.

=Dancing.=--Dancing among the Greeks and Romans differed in many ways from our own. In the first place dances (which were generally accompanied by the flutes) were largely associated with religion. Plato in his _Laws_ gave it as his opinion that, in imitation of the Egyptian example, all dancing should be made to take a religious character.[98] This ceremonial side of Greek dancing is illustrated by a primitive stone vessel from Cyprus (No. =655=), which represents three draped women dancing in a ring. Among the Romans the processions of the Salii or dancing priests of Mars are among the best-known examples of religious dancing.

In private life dancing was regarded by the Greeks rather as an entertainment to be provided by hired performers than as a recreation in which guests could take their part.[99] Hence with them men and women did not dance together as in the modern fashion. The demand for dancing girls to entertain the guests at banquets led to the training of large numbers of this class. A vase (No. =656=), placed in the lower part of Case 54, shows dancing girls being instructed in their art. They repeatedly appear on Greek vases dancing before the feasting guests (_e.g._ on E 68 in Case E in the Third Vase Room, the interior of a cup in the style of Brygos). These girls often carried castanets when dancing, as may be seen on the lekythos (No. =657=) and in the relief from Melos (No. =658=).

Greek women sometimes danced in private among themselves, especially on the occasion of some domestic festival.[100] It is with this kind of dancing that we should probably associate the terracotta figurines (fig. 255). They illustrate the important part played by the arms and the drapery in ancient dancing, which was largely mimetic. Ovid notes that supple arms are one of the principal qualifications for a good dancer.[101] This tradition was undoubtedly inherited from Greek dancing, for (religious rites apart) the Romans regarded the art as an unseemly one, so much so that Cicero remarked "that practically no one except a madman danced when sober."[102]

(=656=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 185; (=657=) _Ibid._, E
642: (658) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 370. For Greek dancing in
general, cf. Emmanuel, _La danse grecque_.

[Footnote 95: Plat., _Rep._ iii. 398-9.]

[Footnote 96: Plato, _Rep._ iii. 399 D;
Arist., _Pol._ viii. 6, 5 ff.]

[Footnote 97: Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 659 f.:

cantabat fanis, cantabat tibia ludis,
cantabat maestis tibia funeribus.
]

[Footnote 98: Plat., _Leg._ 799 A.]

[Footnote 99: Cf. the famous story of Hippokleides
(Herodot., vi. 129), whose dancing lost him a bride.]

[Footnote 100: Aristoph., _Lys._ 408; Athen., xv. 668 D.]

[Footnote 101: _Ars. Amat._ i. 595:

si vox est, canta; si mollia bracchia, salta.
]

[Footnote 102: _Pro Mur._ 6; cf. Nepos, _Epam._ 1.]

XXVI.--DOMESTIC AND PET ANIMALS; FLOWERS.

(Wall-Cases 57-58.)

The upper part of Wall-Cases 57, 58 contains a number of representations of domesticated and pet animals. The series includes cattle, goats, pigs, dogs, cats, pigeons and poultry. Often, but not always, the animal is associated with some human actor, as when the child rides on a dog, pig, or goat, or when the large cock tries to peck at the bunch of grapes in a child's hand (No. =659=).

More than one of the pigeons wears a _bulla_ round its neck (No. =660=) to avert the evil eye (see p. 136), and a cock is decked with a wreath of ivy leaves (No. =661=). On a vase (No. =662=) a girl has tied a string to the hind leg of a tortoise, and dangles it before her dog; on another (No. =663=) two children are making a dog jump through a hoop. In a relief already mentioned (p. 198, No. =603=) the dog seeks the notice of its studious mistress, little Avita. In the scene of the music school (No. =643= in Case 55) the boy plays with the cat behind the master's chair. Another form of amusement is illustrated by the kylix, No. =664=. A boy is seated, and holds on his knee a cage containing a bird, probably a quail. Quail-fighting was a very popular amusement at Athens, where odds were freely betted on the result of the encounter. The wooden instrument, seen above the boy, would be used to provoke the quails to fight with one another. The game of quail-striking ([Greek: ortygokopia]) was another variety of sport with quails. In this the object was to prove the endurance of the quail by striking it with the fingers or pulling out its feathers. A Roman lamp (No. =665=; fig. 256) gives an interesting view of an itinerant with his troop of performing animals. On his right is an ape, on his left a cat climbing a ladder. Above are two hoops for the animals to jump through.

=Flowers.=--In Cases 57-58 will be seen a set of funeral wreaths (No. =666=; cf. p. 226), found at Hawara, in Egypt. Among the flowers which can be identified in those wreaths are the rose, narcissus, sweet marjoram, and immortelle. We know, from an epigram of Martial,[103] that Egypt cultivated roses with such success that she exported them from Alexandria to Rome during the winter, though at the time when the poet wrote (latter part of first century A.D.), Italy was, according to him, in a position to export roses to Egypt. In their gardens the Romans devoted most of their attention to their trees, which they cut into fantastic shapes by the agency of the landscape gardener (_topiarius_). The species of flowers known to them were decidedly limited in number, but we find gardens of singular beauty depicted on their wall-paintings, notably on one found at Prima Porta near Rome.[104]

(=659=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 539; (=662=) _Cat. of Vases_,
IV., F 101; (=665=) _Cat. of Lamps_, 679; (=666=) Petrie,
_Hawara_, p. 47.

[Footnote 103: vi. 80.]

[Footnote 104: _Ant. Denkmäler_, I., pl. 11.]

XXVII.--METHODS OF BURIAL.

(Wall-Cases 58-64.)

=Greece.=--In the prehistoric period known as Mycenaean, the inhabitants of Greek lands probably buried their dead and did not cremate them. It is possible, however, that a partial burning was in vogue in this and the succeeding periods in Greece. In the case of the more wealthy Mycenaean dead, the bodies were elaborately decked with gold ornaments. Oval plates of gold were tied over the forehead and mouth of the corpse, in the latter case (where the impression of the lips can be seen) perhaps with the idea of keeping out evil spirits. The window-cases in the Gold Ornament Room contain many examples of these funeral diadems and mouthpieces from Cyprus. In the Homeric poems we find the bodies of the dead burnt upon a pyre and the ashes buried beneath a mound.

Scenes representing the preparation of the body for cremation or burial are frequently depicted on Greek vases. They occur on the large "Dipylon" vases, made specially for standing outside the tomb (see examples in the First Vase Room), and on black-figure vases, where the body is seen lying on the bier surrounded by mourners. It is, however, upon the white lekythi of the fifth century (No. =668=; fig. 257), one of which is here illustrated, that funeral scenes are most commonly found. We know from Greek literature that these vases were expressly made for putting in tombs. A speaker in the _Ekklesiazusae_ of Aristophanes talks of "the man who paints the lekythi for the dead."[105] On the vase here figured a woman is making offerings at the tombstone. These offerings were made by the relatives from time to time, and consisted mainly of sashes, wreaths, and vases, as may be seen from the vases placed in the Case. The Greek funeral monuments of the best period are characterised by their restrained beauty. Examples of the different types will be found in the Phigaleian Room downstairs and in the Gallery of Casts. In the Cases 59-60, the only tombstones are the archaic one of Idagygos of Halikarnassos (No. =669=; fig. 258) found in Cyprus, inscribed with an elegiac couplet in which he is called "the squire of Ares,"[106] and a round stone (No. =670=) with a late inscription showing that the tomb was that of Menestratos, a Corinthian buried in Attic soil. The Greek tombs were generally ranged on either side of the main roads leading from the city gates.

A terracotta urn of about the third century B.C. (No. =671=) in Case 60 serves as an example of the vases used to contain the calcined remains of the dead. It holds a number of burnt bones, among them part of a jaw-bone, with a silver obol adhering to it. The coin was placed in the mouth of the corpse as the fee of the ferryman Charon for piloting the dead across Acheron. The gilded figure of a Siren found in this vase is emblematic of the spirit world.

Two later monuments with Greek inscriptions are the marble chests in Cases 61-62. Each has a lock-plate (cf. those in Case G), carved in front in low relief. No. =672= is the cinerary chest of Metras Tryphon, who had been publicly crowned by the people of Ephesus, and has this crown represented on his urn. The second chest (No. =673=), from the temple of Kybele at Sardes, is inscribed with the name of Metrodoros, who is called a "sprinkler" ([Greek: perirantês]) no doubt with reference to an office held by him in the temple service. Below this chest is a marble cup from Rhodes (No. =674=), bearing the inscription: "The burying-place of those who have lost their ancestral tomb." This cup, which is ornamented above with flying birds and has holes for a metal attachment, seems to have been set on a column as a boundary mark.

=Italy.=--In the earliest period inhumation was the custom in Italy, but cremation gradually became more and more common. The Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) show both practices prevailing side by side. The hut-urns (Nos. =675= and =676=; fig. 259) found at Monte Albano, near Rome, are evidence of cremation having been practised at a very early date in Italy (eighth to seventh century B.C.). They served as receptacles for the ashes of the dead, and are an instance of the custom of making the last resting-place of the deceased as like as possible to his habitation during life. They represent rude wattled huts, in which the roof-beams of rough branches can be clearly distinguished. The Etruscan tomb-chambers, one of which is shown in a picture in Case 59, furnish a later instance (seventh to sixth century B.C.) of sepulchres built in imitation of living-rooms. A small model (in Case 59) of an Etruscan built tomb shows the skeleton in armour, with painted vases placed about it (No. =677=). The Etruscan cinerary urns are distinguished by the frequent introduction of the portrait. The "Canopic" urns, which take the shape of jars roughly in the form of a human body and head, are especially noteworthy. The example illustrated (No. =678=, fig. 260), probably of the seventh century B.C., has the face pierced with numerous holes, most likely for the attachment of a mask. Two Etruscan sepulchral masks (No. =679=) in terracotta, of about the end of the sixth century B.C., are exhibited near the Canopic urn and are shown in fig. 261. These remarkable masks are covered with incised designs, most likely of magic significance, intended to avert evil from the dead. A separate half-mask (No. =680=) of this type is exhibited here, and another will be found with the objects illustrating superstition in Case 106. In these masks we can see the innate Italian tendency to preserve the features of the dead, and we may perhaps recognise in them the origin of the waxen portrait masks of his ancestors which the Roman noble set up in his hall. The portrait is again found on the lid of the sixth-century Etruscan funeral urn (No. =681=; fig. 262) in Case 59. Here a draped woman lies on a couch of elaborate form, decorated below with a relief of two lions devouring a bull. A kindred type of Etruscan funeral monument will be seen in the two large terracotta sarcophagi in the Terracotta Room.

With rare exceptions (conspicuously in the case of members of the noble families of the Cornelian house and all infants) the Romans, during the period of the Republic, burned their dead. This system continued under the early Empire, but gradually gave way to burial under the influence of Christianity. Several examples of Roman cinerary urns and sepulchral relief are here shown. These urns are of various shapes, but the altar-form (No. =682=; fig. 263) was specially favoured. The inscription gives the names of L. Dexius Clymenus and C. Sergius Alcimus. The latter, a child of three and a quarter, is stated to have received his portion of corn on the tenth day at the office of distribution numbered XXXIX, a curious side-light on the practice of free distribution of corn under the Roman Empire, already noticed above (p. 11). Other Roman funeral urns which may be mentioned are the vase (No. =683=) with the remains of L. Laelius Victor, a soldier of the fourteenth city cohort, and the alabaster caskets numbered =684= and =685=. These urns of the wealthier classes were generally deposited in a vault underneath a monument placed at the side of one of the great roads leading from the city gates. Those, however, who could not afford such expensive monuments subscribed for a joint tomb (_columbarium_), a large chamber containing in its walls numerous niches for the urns. An interesting tablet (No. =686=) in Case 62 throws light on the arrangements adopted in the case of these joint tombs. It is inscribed with the name of P. Sontius Philostorgus and marked the niche in which the urn containing his ashes was placed. The inscription reads: "Lot I in block III." From other inscriptions of the same character it appears that the niches were arranged in five horizontal rows of thirty-six, and that each of the members of the burial club was allotted one place in each of the five rows.

Another noteworthy monument is (No. =687=) an inscribed relief of the first century B.C., belonging to Aurelius Hermia, a butcher from the Viminal hill, and his wife Aurelia Philematio(n), who are seen clasping hands (fig. 264). The husband praises the virtues of his wife, and the wife those of her husband, her fellow-freedman, who had been more than a father to her. Other interesting inscriptions from tombstones are No. =688=, on a hunting dog named Margarita, a great favourite with her master and mistress, who died in giving birth to puppies, and No. =689=, which sheds light on the memorial ceremonies after burial. A testator here leaves seven twenty-fourths of the rent accruing from a block of flats to his freedmen and freedwomen, on condition that they celebrate his memory four times in a year--on his birthday, the Day of Roses, the Day of Violets, and the feast of the Parentalia, the last the Roman All Souls' Day, held publicly in February, but privately on the anniversary of the day of death. A lighted lamp, with incense, was to be placed on the tomb on the Kalends, Nones, and Ides, the three dividing days of each month.

The funeral wreaths from Hawara (Cases 57, 58; No. =666=, see p. 219) are an instance of offerings at tombs belonging to the Roman period. They have been so thoroughly preserved in the dry climate of Egypt that the different varieties of flowers can still be distinguished.

(=668=) Cf. Murray and Smith, _White Athenian Vases in the
B.M._; (=669=) _B.M. Inscr._ 971; (=670=) _ibid._, 102;
(=671=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 12 and 13; (=672=) _Cat. of
Sculpt._, II., 1277; (=674=) _ibid._, III., 2400; (=675=) Cf.
Walters, _Hist. of Anc. Pottery_, II., p 288; (=678=) _ibid._
II., p. 304 ff; (=679=) Benndorf, _Ant. Gesichtshelme_, p. 42,
pl. xi; (=681=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 629; (=682=) _Cat. of
Sculpt._, III., 2359; (683) _ibid._, 2402; (=684=) and
(=685=) _ibid._, 2420 and 2425; (=686=) Dessau, _Inscrr. Lat.
Selectae_, 7892 a; (=687=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2274;
(=688=) _C.I.L._ VI., 29,896; (=689=) _C.I.L._ VI., 10,248.

On Greek tombstones, see Conze, _Attische Grabreliefs_; P.
Gardner, _Sculptured tombs of Hellas_. On Roman monuments,
Altmann, _Röm. Grabaltäre_.

[Footnote 105: Aristoph., _Ekkl._ 996: [Greek:

hos tois nekroisi zôgraphei tas lêkythous].
]

[Footnote 106: [Greek:

enthade moiran echôn Halikarnêsseus Idagygos
keitai, Aristokleos pais, Areos therapôn.]
]

INDEX.

_The numbers refer to the pages of the Guide._

ACROBATS, 218

ACTORS, 31

AEGINETAN WEIGHT-SYSTEM, 159

ALTARS, 39

ALTAR-URNS, 223

AMPHORAE, on weights, 159;
for wine, 177

ANATOMICAL MODEL, 47, 187

ANKLE-PIECES, 89

APHRODITE, dedication to, 45;
in shrine, 43

APIS-BULL, 50

ARITHMETIC, 198

ARM-GUARD, 89

ARMED-RACE, 60

ARMOUR, 74;
Dacian, 92

ARROWHEADS, Mycenaean, 97;
Greek and Roman, 107

ARTEMIS BRAURONIA, garments dedicated to, 45

AS, 20, 22

ASKLEPIADAE, school of, 185

ASTRAGALOS, on weights, 159;
in games, 203.
_See also_ KNUCKLE-BONES

ATHLETES, 59

"ATHLETES' RINGS," 177

ATRIUM, 109

AUGURY, 43

AURELIUS HERMIA, tombstone of, 226

AXE, 108

AXE-HEAD, votive, 50

BAETYLIC IMAGE, 44

BAKERS, 117

BALANCES, 25, 161

BASKET, votive, 46

BATHS, 118

BEASTS in the arena, 69

BELL, votive, 51

BELT, metal, 87

BETROTHAL RING, 211

BIRDS, actors as, 28

BISTOURIES, 187

BITS, 172

BOARD, inscribed for school use, 198

BOATS, terracotta, 34

BONA DEA, 39

BOOTS, 129

BOXES, 139, 153, 185, 189

BOXING, 58

BOXING-GLOVES, 62

BRACELETS, 135

BRAZIERS, 118

BREAD-MAKING, 117

BREISEAN MYSTAE, 55

BRICKS, Roman, 167

BRIDAL PROCESSION, 210

BUCINA, 215

BULLA, 136, 218

BULLS, bronze votive, 50

BURIAL, 220

CADUCEUS, 9

CALDRON, given as prize, 63

CALTHROP, 108

CANDELABRA, 110

CANDLESTICKS, 114

CANGUE, 13

CANOPIC URNS, 222

CARACALLA, 39

CARTS, models of, 171, 179, 193

CHAIR, Infant's, 193

CHARIOTEERS, 71;
dress of, 71, 170

CHARIOT-RACING, 70, 169

CHARIOTS, 169

CHARON'S FEE, 221

CHESTS, funeral, 223

CHITON, Dorian, 123;
Ionian, 124

CHLAMYS, 126

CIRCUS, 70

CITIZENSHIP, Roman, 9

CLOTH, pieces of ancient, 147

COIN-BALANCE, 25, 165

COINS, Greek, 14;
Roman, 19;
special uses, 24;
false, 24

COLONIZATION, 3

COLUMBARIUM, 224

COMBS, 138

COMEDY, 26-33

COMIC CHORUS, 26

COMPASSES, 191

CONSULS, 3

CONTORNIATES, 207

CORN LARGESSES, 11, 223

COUCH, bronze, 110

CRADLES, 193

CRESTS, on helmets, 83

CROCODILE SYRUP, 42

CUIRASS, 85

CUPPING-VESSEL, 188

CURSES, 56

CUTLER'S FORGE, 156, 158

CUTLER'S SHOP, 157, 158

CUTLERY, 148

CYMBALS, 216

CYPRIOTE DEDICATION, 46

DAGGERS, early and Mycenaean, 94;
Italian, 98

DANCING, 216

DEDICATIONS, 7, 24, 38

DEFIXIONES, 56

DEFRUTUM, 177

DEXTRARUM IUNCTIO, 211

DICE, 204

DIKASTAE, 6

DIOSCURI at Theoxenia, 43;
dedications to 49, 51, 61

DIPLOMA, Roman bronze, 9

DISKOS, 60

DOG'S EPITAPH, 226

DOLLS, 194

DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 218

DOWELS, 167

DRAGON-STANDARD (Dacian), 92

DRAMA, Greek and Roman, 25

DRAUGHTS, 203, 206

DRESS, Greek 123;
Roman, 127

DRILL-BOW, surgical, 187

DRUG-BOX, 189

DUODECIM SCRIPTA, 206

EAR-PICKS, 142

EARRINGS, 136

EDUCATION, 197

ENAMEL DECORATION, 134, 185

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, 202

EPINETRON, 145, 196

EYES, painted on ships, 35

FALSE MONEY, 24

FASCES, 12

FERONIA, dedication to, 55

FETTERS, 13

FIBULAE, 131

FIGURE-HEAD, 35

FINGER-RINGS, 135

FISHERMAN, 37

FISH-PLATES, 116

"FIVE-STONES," 203

FLOWERS, 219

FLUES, 122

FLUTES, 214

FOOD, from Pompeii, 116

FOOT-RACE, 60

FOOT-RULES, 191

FORCEPS, 187

FOUNTAIN-JETS, 121

FRAME, for picture, 202

FUNERAL DIADEMS, 220

FURNITURE, 110;
(toy), 193

GAMES, 203

GEMS, 184

GETA, name of, erased from inscriptions, 39

GLADIATORS, 64;
armour of, 68;
discharge tickets of, 69

GNOSTICS, 56

GRAPE-GATHERING, 177

GREAVES, 88

HAIR, votive, 48

HALF-MASKS, 222

HANDS, magical, 56

HARBOURS, 37

HARE, votive, 49

HARNESS, 171

HEATING OF HOUSES, 122

HELMETS, 74;
Aegean, 79;
Attic, 77;
Corinthian, 74;
Etruscan, 81;
Gladiatorial, 68;
Inscribed, 76, 81;
Italian, 80;
Roman, 81;
votive, from Kyme, 7, 81;
Parade vizor-masks, 82

HELMET-CRESTS, 83

HERA, axe-head dedicated to, 50

HIERON, helmet dedicated by, 7, 81

HIMATION, 124

HINGES, 168

HIPPOKRATES, 186

HOOKS, surgical, 187

HORSE-SHOES, 173

HOUSE, Greek and Roman, 109

HUNTSMEN, dedications by, 49

HUT-URNS, 222

INKPOTS, 200

INLAY, ivory, 185

INTERNAL ORGANS, model of, 47

INVENTORIES, temple, 45

ISIS, worship of, 57

JASON, relief of the physician, 189

JAVELIN-THROWING, 61

JEWELLERY, 135

JUMPING-WEIGHTS, 59

JUNO, dedication to, 55

JUPITER. _See_ ZEUS.

JUPITER DOLICHENUS, silver plaques dedicated to, 52

JUPITER POENINUS, dedication to, 55

JURY-TICKETS, 6

KEYS, 149;
Temple, 42

KILN, potter's, 182

KINYRAS, legend of, 34

KITCHEN, 115

KITHARA, 213

KNIVES, 148

KNOCKERS, 167

KNUCKLEBONES, 197, 203

KTESIBIOS OF ALEXANDRIA, 120, 216

LABELS, 45, 156

LAMP-FILLERS, 114

LAMPS, 112;
combined with altar, 40;
moulds for, 184

LANTERNS, 114

LARES, 55

LATHE, use of, 185

LAWYER'S TABLET, 200

LEAD FIGURINES, votive, 55

LEG, votive, 48

LEGIONARY, armour of, 88, 91

LEKYTHI, white funeral, 220

LETTER on papyrus, 200

LIBRA, 160

LIGHT-HOUSE, 37

LIGHTING, methods of, 110

LITRA, 160

LOCK, 149

LOCK-PLATES, 152, 221

LOOM, 145

LOOM-WEIGHTS, 146

LUDUS LATRUNCULORUM, 207

LYRE, 213

MAGIC symbols, 56;
wheel, 208

MANTLE. _See_ HIMATION.

MARATHON, weapons from, 101

MARBLES, specimens of, 168

MARRIAGE, Greek, 207;
Roman, 211;
military, 9;
vases used in, 208

MASKS, dramatic, 31;
sepulchral, 222

MEASURES, 191

MEDICINE, 185

MERCHANT-SHIP, 33

METAL-WORK, 180

MIRRORS, 140;
with magical symbols, 57

MITHRAS, 54

MORTARS, 118

MOSAICS, 169

MOULDS, for cooking, 116;
for counters, 180;
for vases and terracottas, 184;
for weights, 180

MOUTH-BAND, for flutes, 214

MOUTH-PIECES, funeral, 220

MULTIPLICATION-TABLE, 198

MUSIC, 213

MUSIC-LESSONS, 214

MUSICAL NOTATION, 215

MUZZLES, for horses, 173

NAIL-FILES, 142

NAILS, magical, 56

NECKLACES, 136

NEEDLE-CASE, 148

NEEDLES, 147

NETTING-NEEDLES, 147

NEUROSPASTA, 195

OBOL, 221

OCULIST-STAMPS, 189

OIL-FLASKS, 119

OIL-PRESS, 178

OLIVE-GATHERING, 176

ONOS. _See_ EPINETRON.

OSCAN dedicatory tablet, 44

OSTRACISM, 7

PADLOCKS, 152

PAINTING, 201;
of vases, 183

PANATHENAIC GAMES, 60

PANKRATION, 59

PAN'S PIPE, 215

PAPYRUS, 199

PARCHMENT, 200

PARENTALIA, 225

PASTES, 184

PENS, 200

PENTATHLON, 59

PERFORMING ANIMALS, 218

PERSEPHONE, dedications to, 46

PESTLES, 118

PHILIP (Emperor), _diploma_ granted by, 9;
seal with name of, 55

PHLYAKES, 28

PIG, as sacrificial animal, 40

PILUM, 103

PINS, 137, 147;
pin dedicated to Aphrodite, 45

PIVOTS from doors, 168

PLATING of cuirass, 86

PLAUTUS, _Casina_, 29

PLECTRUM, 214

PLOUGH, 174

PLUMMETS, 166

PNYX, votive reliefs from, 47

PORK-BUTCHER'S SHOP, 158

POTTER'S WHEEL, 181

POTTERY, 181

PRAYER, 42

PRIZE VASES, 60, 63

PROBES, 187

PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES, 191

PROW of trireme, 35

PROXENIA, decrees of, 3

PUMPS, 120

QUAIL-FIGHTING, 218

RACING-CHARIOTS, 70, 169

RAEDA, 171

RAG-DOLL, 196

RATTLES, 193

RAZORS, 141

READING, 198

RELIGION, 39

REPRISALS, 2

RINGS, 135

RIVETS, 183

ROSE-DAY, 226

SABAZIUS, 56

SACRIFICES, 40

SACRIFICIAL IMPLEMENTS, 40

SAFETY-PINS. _See_ FIBULAE.

SALII, dances of, 216

SALVE-POTS, 190

SANDALS, 129

SAW, surgical, 187

SCISSORS, 147

SCOURGE, 13

SCRUPLE (weight), 160, 190

SCULPTURE, unfinished, 169

SEAL-BOXES, 155

SEAL-LOCKS, 154

SEALS, 154

SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, altar dedicated for return of, 39

SET-SQUARES, 166

SHIELDS, 90

SHIN-GUARDS, 89

SHIPS, 33

SHOES, 89, 129

SHOPS, 158

SHRINES, 43

SHUTTLE, 146

SICKLE, 175

SIREN, 221

SISTRUM, 57

SLAVE BADGE, 12

SLAVERY, 12

SLAVES, dedicated to temple-service, 45;
in drama, 32

SLINGSHOT, 101, 107

SOLES, 130

SOLONIAN WEIGHTS, 159

SOWER, 175

SPATULAE, 187

SPEARS, classical, 102;
Italian, 99;
Mycenaean, 97;
primitive, 94;
votive, 9;
butts of, 103

SPINDLES, 143

SPOONS, 117

SPURS, 174

STAMPS for moulds, 184;
for other purposes, 167, 189, 192

STANDARDS, 92

STATUETTE, pierced, 42

STEELYARDS, 161

STILI (pens), 199

STONES, sacred, 44

STOOL, bronze, 110;
votive, 46

STOP-COCKS, 121

STRAINERS, 116

STRIGILS, 119

STRONG-BOX, 153

STUDS, 136

SUOVETAURILIA, 40

SURGERIES, 186

SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, 187

SWORDS, Mycenaean, 95;
Greek, 100 ff;
Italian, 99;
Roman, 104

SYRINX. _See_ PAN'S PIPE.

TABLE, votive, 40

TABLE-LEG, 110

TABLETS, 44, 192, 198, 200

TABULA ILIACA, 198

TEETOTUM, 205

TEMPLE-INVENTORIES, 45

TEMPLE-WEIGHTS, 160

TENSA, 171

TERRACOTTAS, method of making, 183

THEOXENIA, festival of, 42

THIGH-PIECE, 89

THIMBLE, 147

TIBERIUS, sword of (so-called), 104

TICKETS, 6, 11, 12, 69

TILE-STAMPS, 166

TILES, Greek, 166;
Roman, 167;
from Palaestra at Olympia, 64

TITURUS, 178

TOGA, 127

TOILET, articles of, 138;
on votive reliefs, 46

TOILET-BOXES, 139

TOMBS, 220

TOOLS, 166

TOYS, 193

TRAGEDY, 25;
chorus in, 26;
Roman, 54

TREATIES, 2

TRIPODS, 110

TRIREMES, 34

TROPHIES, 91

TUNIC, 123

TWEEZERS, 142

UNCIA (coin), 20;
weight, 160

UNKNOWN GOD, 46

URN, funeral, 223

UVULA FORCEPS, 187

VASE-SHAPES, 122

VINTAGE, 177

VIOLET-DAY, 226

VOTIVE OFFERING, 7, 44, 194

WALL-PAINTINGS, 169

WAR-VESSELS, 33

WATER-ORGAN, 216

WATER-PIPES, 121

WATER-SUPPLY, 120

WAX-TABLETS, 198

WEAPONS, 94

WEAVING, 145

WEDDING-SACRIFICE, 212

WEIGHTS,
Greek, 158;
Roman, 160;
hanging, 161;
medical, 190

WHEELS, votive, 51

WHIPPING-TOPS, 196

WHORLS, 143

WINE-PRESS, 177

WINNOWING-BASKET, 177

WOMEN GLADIATORS, 66

WOOD, paintings on, 202

WOODWORKING, 185

WREATHS, 219, 226

WRESTLING, 61

WRITING, 198

ZEUS LYKAEOS, votive offering to, 50

ZEUS SABAZIUS, 56

ZEUS THE HIGHEST, votive offerings to, 47

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1.

Transcriber's Note

- - represents italic text; = = represents bold text; + + represents
strong text, sans serif. ^ denotes a superscript.

| inserted by the author to represent the end of a line of carving
on a document or monument. Sometimes | occurs in the middle of a
word, indicating the word has been split by a line-break.

In the all-caps Greek text, the book preserves some different Greek
letter-forms.

Compare the capital theta with a cross at the top of
p. 77, and theta with a dot at the bottom of p. 130.

There is a
V-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 7, and Y-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 12.

There is a capital lunate sigma, and an alpha with a v-shaped
crossbar on p. 202 ... and on p. 161, as a marking in silver on an
ounce weight with another symbol.

And there is the zeta like a rotated H on p. 6, and an upper and
lower case Koppa (Qoppa), and the Digamma (wau, stigm).

C.I.L. is abbreviation for '_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_'.

'Inscrr.', 'reff.': a double consonant signifies plural.

Some missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired.

Any illustration which intersected a paragraph, e.g., at a page
turn, has been moved to a more convenient position.

Page 20: (.··) corrected to (···) for consistency.

Page 56: 'suppose' corrected to 'supposed'.

"... _defixiones_, because they were supposed to fix down, as it
were, the hated enemy."

Page 64 (Footnote 32): A colon : has been used to represent the
triple vertical dots (a punctuation mark, much like a colon)
after [Greek: "Eksoida(s) m'anethêke Diwos qouroin megaloio]"

Page 103: Spearbutts; p. 104: Spear-Butts. Both retained.

Page 111: Superfluous 'a' removed.

"The stem may be fluted, or...."

Page 114: 'emall' corrected to 'small'.

"Just below the lantern is a small bronze statuette,..."

Page 145: Loom Weight; loom-weights ... various spellings; all
retained.

Numerous other instances of words being sometimes hyphenated and
sometimes un-hyphenated appear in the text. All have been retained.

Page 150: 'to' corrected to 'so'.

"... then turned, and drawn back so as to lift up the pegs...."

Page 152: "the keyhole is in the shape" (of an inverted right-angle,
represented by) |¯.

Page 160: 1-1/2oz. corrected to 1/12oz.

"... 1/12oz. = 2 scruples;"

Page 190: extra 'a' removed.

"These salves were pounded on the stone into a paste."

Page 192: 'Nos.' corrected to 'No.'.

"An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of
Alexander (No. =584=; fig. 229)."

Page 198:

From Wikipedia (https: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma):

Digamma, waw, or wau (uppercase: (F), lowercase: (F), numeral:
[Greek: st]) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet.
It originally stood for the sound /w/ but it has principally
remained in use as a Greek numeral for 6.

Whereas it was originally called waw or wau, its most common
appellation in classical Greek is digamma; as a numeral, it was
called epis[=e]mon during the Byzantine era and is now known as
stigma after the value of the Byzantine ligature combining
[Greek: s-t] ... In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the
digraph [Greek: st].

([=e] represents e-macron)