Chapter XXVII: Methods of Burial 220 (4)

The ordinary Greek sword of the fifth century B.C. is represented by three examples. The type appears frequently in works of art. On a vase in the Third Vase Room (E 468; Pedestal 6) there is a drawing of the combat of Achilles and Memnon, in which Memnon is armed with this sword. In the sheath by his side is another, so that it is possible to see both hilt and blade at once (fig. 102). The shape is entirely different from that of prehistoric times. The hilt is round and the pommel a small knob, while the guard is a plain crosspiece. The blade, which, being made of iron, is long and thin, swells from the hilt towards the point in the manner characteristic of the cutting sword. All these features are visible in the examples (No. =265=; fig. 104_a_, _b_). The swelling blade is best seen in the largest specimen, while the iron-handled fragment, which was excavated from a tomb near the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos, shows the original form of the hilt. The small dagger with a bone hilt and the bone end of the scabbard forms part of a group of weapons which were found on the battlefield of Marathon (No. =266=; fig. 103). The others are iron spearheads, arrowheads both of bronze and iron, and leaden slingshot, two of which are marked with a thunderbolt and the Greek name _Zoilos_.

Another common type of Greek sword is the heavy knife-like sabre with a hilt in the shape of a bird's head (No. =267=; fig. 104_c_). Its original appearance may be seen on the Athenian bowl already mentioned on page 80 (fig. 105). The classical name was _machaira_. Xenophon recommends it as a cavalry weapon, because of its heavy down-stroke. This example comes from Spain, where many similar swords have been found, but the origin of the type is Greek or even Oriental. The dagger with a cylindrical bronze hilt of which the pommel is a lynx-head, appears from the style of the decoration to be Graeco-Roman (No. =268=). Some models in terracotta from Naukratis give the types of the Hellenistic period (No. =269=).

=Greek and Roman spears.=--Classical spears are represented by a variety of heads both in bronze and iron. The earliest Greek type is an iron head found with pottery of the tenth or ninth century B.C. in a grave at Assarlik in Asia Minor (No. =271=). Those with three and four blades are a small class, examples of which came to light at Olympia, and suggest as a date the end of the sixth century B.C. (No. =272=; fig. 106_a_). To the same date may belong the decoratively modelled bronze spear from Kameiros, and another of plainer design from the same place (No. =273=; fig. 106_b_, _c_), with two from Olympia, and a large iron one (No. =274=) found with the fine Attic helmet (p. 78) in Macedonia. A curious spearhead, or perhaps a butt, from Olympia is shown among the Greek Inscriptions (p. 9, No. =14=, fig. 8). Spearbutts are not uncommon. Some are plain tapered ferrules (No. =279=; fig. 107), others end in two-pronged forks (Nos. =280=, =281=; fig. 107). The bronze forks are from Egypt, the iron one (fig. 107, bottom centre) was found on the bank of the Tiber with the spearheads mentioned below. The unusually long iron head, which was found in Spain with the iron _machaira_, is probably a later Greek form (No. =275=; fig. 106_d_). This example exhibits in a high degree the superiority of iron to bronze. Other iron spearheads are from Italy; some are from the Tiber (No. =276=). Three specimens, one with remains of the wooden shaft and the lashing of wire, were found near the village of Talamone on the west coast of Italy (No. =277=; fig. 108), where in 225 B.C. the Romans won a decisive victory over the Gauls, who had marched successfully to within a few days of Rome, and were returning home with their plunder. Like the helmets from Kyme and Cannae, and the arms from Marathon, these spears are relics of one of the famous battles of antiquity. The Roman soldiers of later times carried spears of a different kind. They had no thrusting lance, but an extremely heavy weapon, the _pilum_, which they threw with great effect at close quarters. The small iron heads from Licenza (No. =278=) have much the same shape as the head of the _pilum_. They probably belonged to light throwing-spears. The purpose of the long head was to bend and encumber the enemy after piercing his shield or armour.

=Roman swords.=--The collection of swords ends in those which belong to the Roman period. A fragment of a sword with a heavy iron blade seems too big for the natives of Italy, and may have been used by a Gaulish invader (No. =282=). The large sword with a flat guard and an ivory and bronze handle (No. =283=) is perhaps a Roman _gladius_, which was afterwards superseded in the army by a sword of Spanish pattern.

The later Roman sword is excellently represented by the so-called "Sword of Tiberius," which was found in a field at Mainz on the Rhine (No. =284=; fig. 109). The short iron blade is of the usual type, measuring twenty-one inches in length and two and a half in width at the base, from whence it tapers gently to a sharp point. The scabbard was made of wood covered with a plate of silver-gilt which is decorated with reliefs in gilt bronze. The plates of the bands which were hooked to the sword-belt are ornamented with wreaths of oak. At the hilt is a group which represents the Emperor Tiberius receiving his nephew Germanicus on the latter's return, in the year 17 A.D., from his victorious campaigns against the Germans, in the course of which he had recovered one of the legionary eagles which Varus had lost. The emperor, robed as a deity, is seated on a throne, resting his left arm on a shield which is inscribed +FELICITAS · TIBERI+--"The Good Fortune of Tiberius"--and holding in his right hand a small figure of Victory with wreath and palm, which he has just taken from his returning general. Germanicus stands before him in military attire, with his right hand stretched out. In the background is an armed figure, and behind the emperor a winged Victory brings a shield upon which is the legend +VIC · AVG+--"The Victory of Augustus." The middle of the scabbard is occupied by a medallion charged with a portrait of Tiberius, and at the point is a larger plate which is divided into two fields. The uppermost has a representation of a Roman eagle in a temple, and in the other is an Amazon armed with battle-axe and lance. It might not be wrong to connect the eagle with that of Varus; and the figure of the Amazon calls to mind the ode of Horace (_Carm._ iv. 4) celebrating the success of Drusus, the father of this Germanicus, against the Germans of the Danube, in which the poet expresses surprise that those barbarians should be armed with the Amazonian axe. Perhaps the next generation attributed this legendary weapon also to the Germans of the Rhine, and the Amazon is an allusion to the campaigns which the sword commemorates. From the contrast of the elaboration of the design with the cheapness of the execution, it would seem that the weapon is one of many copies which were turned out for some official purpose, probably a sword of honour presented to officers who had served with Germanicus.

Other remains of Roman swords are less complete. There are several fragments of scabbards, a bronze guard, two ivory pieces which may have been pommels of the hilt or caps of the sheath, and a good specimen of an entire hilt in bone (No. =285=). This is very similar to the classical Greek pattern.

=Sling-shot and arrowheads.=--Weapons which show little difference of form in Greek or Roman times are the sling-shot (No. =286=) and arrowheads. Sling-shot are mostly cast in lead, but some are of bronze and stone. The inscribed sling-bolts from Marathon have already been mentioned, and others similarly bear inscriptions in raised letters: a personal name, of the maker or the general or the slinger; or the name of the state from whose army it was shot--"From the Corinthians"; or a message to the bullet or to the enemy--"Strike hard," and "Take this." A large bronze arrowhead from Olynthus (No. =291=) bears the name of Philip, probably the father of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian king against whom Demosthenes wrote his Olynthiac and Philippic orations.

Some of the arrowheads have already been described, the Mycenaean from Rhodes (No. =252=; fig. 98), and those from Marathon (No. =266=; fig. 103). The large iron heads with knife-like blade and long tang are Oriental (No. =287=); those from Marathon were no doubt used by Persian bowmen. A similar group from Cyprus, but of bronze, shows long square heads (No. =288=; fig. 110, top, right). A bundle of six bronze arrowheads of broad leaf shape, found in a grave at Enkomi in Cyprus, has rusted together as the arrows lay in the quiver, remains of which and of the wooden shafts can still be seen (No. =289=). Greek examples belong to two classes; they are all made of bronze. The commoner class has sockets and blades like miniature spearheads; (No. =290=; fig. 110). Many of these have three blades; the large inscribed head from Olynthus (No. =291=) is of this shape, but barbed. Another variety, which always has barbs, is triangular with a central hole for the shaft. The second class consists of heavy heads with long barbs and tangs (No. =292=). These appear to be related to a Mycenaean form (see fig. 98), and as they are often represented on coins of Crete, they may perhaps be identified as the arrows of the Cretan bow. The Roman period is represented by six iron arrowheads from Xanten (_Castra Vetera_) on the Rhine. They show the spearhead and triangular shapes, and are all barbed (No. =293=; fig. 111).

Such is the regular series of classical weapons. Exceptional pieces are the bronze double-axe (No. =294=), if this can be called a weapon, the ridged mace-head from Rome (No. =295=), and the calthrop (No. =296=; fig. 112), a contrivance for disabling cavalry. This singular object, which was found at Kertch in the Crimea, is cut from a human radius bone.

The bronze weapons are more fully described in the _Catalogue
of Bronzes_ under the numbers painted on the objects.

(269) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 629 ff.; (271) _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, VIII., p. 64; (284) _Proc. Soc. Ant.
Lond._, N.S. III., p. 358; _Cat. of Bronzes_, 867; (289)
_Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 17, fig. 28; (296) McPherson,
_Antiq. Kertch_, p. 101.

[Footnote 40: [Greek:

Targeioi anethen tôi Diwi tôn Korinthothen.]

X.--HOUSE AND FURNITURE.

(Wall-Cases 25-40.)

Cases 25-40 contain furniture, lamps and lamp-stands, cooking utensils, objects used in connection with the bath, and objects illustrating the methods of heating buildings and supplying them with water. With the house itself, its plan and its appearance we are not concerned in this work. It is enough to say that the fundamental distinction between the ancient and modern house is that the one looked inwards, the other looks outwards. The ancient house received its light and air either from the open courtyard, round which it was built, or else from a large aperture in the roof. The former was the prevailing arrangement in Greece, the latter (in the earlier period) that adopted in Italy. The outside of the average Greek house was probably very destitute of architectural ornament, presenting a wide space of blank wall broken but by few windows.

The Roman house in its final development assumed a form closely resembling that of the Greek house just described. At an early period it was based on the early Italian house. This consisted merely of an oblong chamber, with a small opening in the roof for the admission of light and emission of smoke. This chamber was called an _atrium_, perhaps because walls and roof were black (_ater_) with soot from the smoke of the fire. Gradually the opening in the roof became larger. Rain fell in the centre into a basin called the _impluvium_. The _atrium_ lost its character as a living room, and further courts and rooms in the Greek manner were added to it.

We may now deal with the internal arrangements and the furniture. The objects may be described as they concern (1) the general furniture of the house; (2) the lighting; (3) the kitchen; (4) the bath; (5) water supply; (6) the warming. (7) Annexed is a small type-series of vases.

=The Furniture of the house.=--In the nature of things, wooden furniture rarely occurs outside Egypt, except in South Russia. Thus we have a wooden table leg: a dog springs upward, from an acanthus leaf, surmounting an animal's leg (No. =300=). This comes from Kertch in the Crimea. In general, the remains of furniture shown in this section are the metal accessories and fittings. These are for the most part of Roman date, but Roman furniture was so largely derived from the Greek, that they may be regarded as illustrating Greek furniture as well.

Some remarkable examples of bolster-ends in bronze, bronze inlaid with silver, and ivory, are shown in Cases 27, 28. They usually terminate above in a head of a mule, or of a duck, and below in a medallion bust.

The seat (No. =301=) is incorrectly put together. It is composed of the parts of one or two couches which should be restored as in fig. 113.

Below is a small bronze stool (No. =302=), without arms or back, of a type not uncommon at Pompeii. Two tripods with expanding legs are placed in the bottom of Cases 27-28. One of these (No. =303=) has an arrangement similar to that of the candelabrum No. =307=, whereby it could be heightened at will. These tripods were used as small tables. Of a much older period is the fragment (No. =304=) from the leg of a large bronze tripod, from Palaekastro in Crete.

=Lighting.=--In Cases 25, and 28, 29 are placed several candelabra used either for the support of wicks floating in an oil-bath or for lamps, or torches. Those stands which have come down to us are chiefly of bronze, but the cheaper ones in ancient times were made of wood. Martial, in an epigram, warns the possessor of such a wooden candelabrum to take care that the whole stand does not turn into one blazing candle.[41] A primitive example of lamp and candelabrum shaft combined is shown in No. =305=, (fig. 114), from Cameiros (about seventh century B.C.). A female figure, of columnar form, supports a lamp with three nozzles. The Etruscan candelabra and many of the candelabra found at Herculaneum and Pompeii consist of a base in the form of three legs or paws, very commonly those of lions, a tall stem, and a circular support or spreading arms for the lamps at the top. The stem may be fluted, or may be knotted like a stem of a plant, or divided like a reed. In Roman times another variety is also common, composed of a massive base with three or more spreading arms, from which lamps were suspended. Such a stand (No. =306=) is seen on the upper shelf of Cases 29-30. A point which may be specially noted in regard to some of the bronze stands of the Roman period is the decoration of the shaft, which often takes the form of a climbing animal. That shown in fig. 115 (No. =306*=) has a panther, a cock, and a bearded serpent on the shaft. An ingenious expanding Roman bronze lampstand (No. =307=) from the Hamilton Collection should be noticed in the lower part of Case 29. The central rod attached to the circular lamp-support can be raised at will, and secured in place by means of a bronze pin passed through one of the pairs of holes pierced in the side rods.

The lamps themselves (in Cases 31 and 32) are of terracotta, bronze and marble. The greater number are of the Roman period. One of the earliest is a primitive lamp (No. =308=; fig. 116) of the prehistoric period known as Mycenaean, and was found in the course of the Museum excavations at Enkomi in Cyprus. It was thrust, by its spike, into the masonry joints of a built tomb, and must have had a wick floating in the oil, or supported at the spout. The essential parts of a lamp in the developed form are (1) the well for the oil, formed by the body of the lamp and fed from an opening above; in the bronze lamps this opening is covered by means of a lid, sometimes hinged, sometimes secured by a chain, as in No. =309=, fig. 117; (2) the nozzle for the insertion of the wick. The nozzle generally takes the form of a projecting spout, but the arrangement varies very considerably in different lamps, and a single lamp is often furnished with several nozzles. The lamps might either be simply placed on a candelabrum or else suspended from it. Several of the bronze lamps have chains for the latter purpose (No. =309=; fig. 117). A peculiar bronze hook, of which there are several examples in these cases, was sometimes used in the Roman period for hanging up the lamps; in the example illustrated (No. =310=; fig. 118) it is seen hinged to the lamp in such a way that the lamp could be suspended, supported from the ground, or carried in any way desired.

The numerous Graeco-Roman bronze lamps in these cases show a great variety of form. Heads of Seilenos, Pan, negroes, etc., appear side by side with a fir-cone, a foot, a duck, a snail, or a wolf. The handles often terminate in an animal's head, _e.g._, that of a horse, a dog, a lion, or a swan (cf. fig. 117). A fine example, with a tragic mask on the handle (No. =311=; fig. 119) was found at Rome in 1912. But the choicest example of a bronze lamp will be found in the Bronze Room (Case B). It is a double lamp for suspension, and was found in the Roman Baths at Paris. A silver lamp with Heracles strangling the serpents, on a boat-shaped cradle (No. =312=), is shown in Case 29. The cheaper terracotta lamps are freely decorated with designs taken from daily life or mythology. Numerous specimens of these lamps will be seen in Table-Case B in the Fourth Vase Room. A very elaborate example (No. =313=) in the form of a ship is seen here in the bottom of Case 30. The twenty-three holes for wicks and filling should be noted. The lamp fillers, as may be seen from the bronze specimen exhibited, closely resembled the lamps themselves (No. =314=).

Candlesticks are rare. In the Etruscan candelabra (Nos. =315=, =316=; Bronze Room Cases 57-60) projecting spikes seem to be intended for piercing candles, as shown by a tomb painting at Orvieto (fig. 120; see Bronze Room, Case 60). Two candlesticks of modern type (which rarely occurs) are shown in Case 30 (No. =317=; fig. 121).

Besides lamps and candles, lanterns were also largely in use, especially for outdoor purposes. Such a portable Roman lantern (in Case 32) is here illustrated (No. =318=; fig. 122). It is cylindrical in shape and has a hemispherical cover, which could be raised from the body of the lantern. The latter was enclosed with plates of some transparent material such as horn, bladder, or linen. That talc was also used is shown by the fact that several of the lanterns in the Museum at Naples have their walls made of this material. Just below the lantern is a small bronze statuette, which has formed the body of a knife (No. =319=). A grotesque figure is walking with a lantern in his right hand, and a basket slung over his shoulders. It was found at Behnesa, in Egypt, and probably represents a bird-catcher returning in the evening with his spoils. The lantern carried by him very closely resembles the one described above.

Cheaper forms of perforated clay lanterns are also exhibited (No. =320=; fig. 123).

=The Kitchen.=--Cases 33-36 contain cooking implements and remains of ancient fruit and grain. The vessels give a good idea of the furniture of a Pompeian kitchen, although there is no example of the more elaborate contrivances for preparing hot drinks and keeping food warm, such as have been found at Pompeii, and may be seen in the Museum at Naples.

The kitchen implements arranged in these cases do not differ materially from those in modern use, except that they are made of bronze, and frequently have some graceful and appropriate ornamentation. One or two of the objects call for special remark. On the second shelf from the bottom of Case 34 is an implement with a long handle and a rectangular pan furnished with six circular depressions (No. =321=). A circular pan with twenty-eight such depressions was found at Pompeii, and is now at Naples. These pans were probably used either for baking cakes or frying eggs.

In Case 36, on the same shelf as the pan for baking cakes, is a bronze frying-pan (No. =322=), with a spout at one corner. Instead of butter, fat, or dripping, the Romans, like the inhabitants of southern countries at the present day, were accustomed to use oil in frying. The shelf above the pans is occupied with ladles, dippers, and other implements. The handles of the ladles usually terminate in a beautifully modelled head of an animal, such as that of a duck, swan, or dog. One wine dipper (No. =323=) is hinged so as to fold for the pocket. On the next shelf above are two painted plates of about the beginning of the third century B.C. They belong to a well marked class (cf. Fourth Vase Room, Cases 26-7) of plates of Campanian fabric, distinguished by the fish and other marine creatures painted upon them. It is probable that they were intended for the serving of fish. Of the two examples shown in this case one (No. =324=) is decorated with a sea-perch, a sargus (a fish peculiar to the Mediterranean), and a torpedo, the other (No. =325=; fig. 124) with a red mullet, a bass, a sargus, and a cuttlefish.

The strainers (No. =326=), with perforated designs, on the right of Case 36, were used for clearing wine and other liquids. In Cases 36, 37 are bronze moulds for shaping food in the form of shells.

Some remains of ancient walnuts, grain, and fragments of calcined bread from Pompeii, and a black cup from Rhodes, containing eggs, are shown in the middle shelf of Case 35.

The process of bread-making is illustrated by the terracottas shown in this case. One (No. =327=) from Kameiros in Rhodes represents a woman kneading dough on a board placed in a circular trough resting on three legs. Another (No. =328=), of much rougher workmanship, shows a bearded man engaged in a like occupation. A third (No. =329=) shows a woman kneading in front of the oven. A small terracotta model of an oven shows two cakes baking (No. =330=).

In antiquity knives and forks were little used at table, fingers being mainly employed. Only one three-pronged fork (No. =331=) is here shown. Spoons, however, were common, and a considerable number of ancient spoons (No. =332=) are exhibited in Case 36. The series of large ivory spoons with elaborately ornamented handles belong to an early period, a similar one coming from the Polledrara tomb at Vulci in Etruria, of the seventh century B.C. The small spoons in bronze or ivory, with round head and handle running to a point, were probably used for the eating of eggs and the extraction of snails from their shells. Snails were a favourite dish with the Romans, and the spoon got its name (_cochleare_) from being employed in this way.[42]

In the lower part of Case 36 are examples of pestles and mortars (No. =333=). The pestle usually takes the form of a bent thumb, or of a leg and foot.

In early times cooking was done either in the courtyard of the house or in the principal living-room. Pompeian houses are, however, generally provided with separate kitchens, small rooms opening off the court of the peristyle. The hearth is a simple rectangular structure of masonry, sometimes furnished with projecting supports for holding vessels over the fire. Much, however, of the warming and working was done over small braziers, such as are shown on a small scale, and by a model, in the lower part of Case 36. The terracotta braziers are of characteristic form, with three internal projecting knobs to support the cooking vessel. These are generally ornamented with masks of Hephaestos, Satyrs, or the like (No. =334=). Compare examples in the Terracotta Room (_Cat. of Terracottas_, p. xix., C 863 ff). See also in Case 36 a terracotta food warmer, from Olbia, in the form of a shrine (No. =335=).

=The Bath.=--Certain implements shown in Case 37 illustrate the routine of the bath, which occupied a large place in the life both of the Greeks and Romans. Celsus, who wrote on the art of medicine probably early in the first century after Christ, recommended the bather first to go into the moderately heated room (_tepidarium_), and perspire slightly, then to anoint himself and to pass into the hot air room. After perspiring there he was to pour hot, warm, and cold water alternately over his head, then to scrape himself with the strigil, and finally to anoint himself--the last probably a precaution against taking cold. This description will enable us to understand the use of the implements carried by bathers. Of these the strigil is most important. It was a curved piece of metal, usually bronze, but sometimes iron, employed by athletes for removing dust and oil after exercise, and by bathers for scraping away sweat and dirt. The accompanying figure (fig. 125), drawn from a Greek vase of the fifth century B.C., shows an athlete resting after exercise, and about to use the strigil. Some times a strigil, oil-flask, and sponge are seen on vases, suspended from the wall of the _palaestra_ where youths are exercising. In Case 37 a small lekythos (No. =336=) shows an athlete with a strigil, and an impression from a gem illustrates the method of using that implement. The strigils here seen range in date from about the sixth century B.C. to the third century A.D. Many of them are inscribed with the name of their owners, and some have small figures, _e.g._, a man dancing or a horse galloping, stamped upon them. Two strigils which deserve special mention are the silver one found in the sarcophagus of the Etruscan lady, Seianti Hanunia (second century B.C.), and exhibited with that sarcophagus in the Terracotta Room, and the beautiful bronze ornamental strigil in the Bronze Room (Pedestal 3), with the handle in the form of a girl herself using the strigil. A complete bather's outfit of Roman date (No. =337=), found near Düsseldorf, includes two bronze strigils and an oil-flask attached by rings to a handle (fig. 126), and several glass vases for use in the toilet.

=Water Supply.=--A few objects in Cases 38-39 illustrate the methods of water-supply among the Romans, which are characterised by their completeness and excellence. The remains of two Roman double-action pumps in bronze from Bolsena in Etruria (Nos. =338=, =339=; figs. 127, 128) are of special interest. These are constructed on a principle invented by Ktesibios of Alexandria, who probably lived in the third century B.C. They were worked by alternating plungers, raised and lowered by a rocking-beam. The first illustration (fig. 127) shows the less advanced but more complete pump in section, and explains the method, of working. The bottoms of the cylinders (A) were connected by pipes with the reservoir, and are furnished with flap-valves (B), opening upwards. When the plunger (C) was raised, a vacuum was created, and the water lifted the valve and rushed in. When the plunger was raised to its highest point the valve fell again and retained the water; when the plunger descended it forced the water from the cylinder into the central discharge pipe through another flap-valve (D) at the end of the horizontal pipe. BD in the figure shows the structure of the flap-valves, which the Greeks called [Greek: assaria] ("pennies") from their likeness to coins. F is a complete plunger of the same type as those used in the pump illustrated, but not belonging to it. Only two-thirds of the second pump (No. =339=) survive, but the missing part (marked off in the diagram by a dotted line) is supplied in the section (fig. 128). In this example the more advanced spindle valve takes the place of the flap valves, and the two valves side by side open into a central domed chamber, in place of the simple central cylinder of No. =338=.

There are here several jets and spouts for the emission of water, one (No. =339=) in the form of a pine-cone, pierced with small holes for sending out a spray, others in the form of dolphins (No. =340=) and the fore-part of a horse (No. =341=). The bronze stop-cocks seen in Case 39 were used for controlling the flow of water from the cisterns to the various parts of the house. They were inserted in the lead water-pipes, portions of which still adhere to them. Their arrangement is excellently illustrated by those discovered at the Roman villa at Boscoreale, near Pompeii (see _Mon. Ant._ vii., p. 454, fig. 45_a_). See also a gargoyle in the form of a lion for rain water (No. =342=), and a bronze grating from the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos (No. =343=) for draining it away. Various lead supply pipes and clay drain pipes are shown in case 39.

=Heating.=--In early times houses were heated by means of a large open hearth placed in the middle of the principal room, whence the smoke escaped as it might, through the door, or between the roof beams. Next followed the use of portable braziers in bronze, such as have been found in Etruscan tombs from the seventh century B.C. (cf. Italic Room, Cases B, C). The small braziers used for cooking, etc., in the Hellenistic period have been mentioned above, p. 118. A system of heating by hot air was introduced by the Romans, but was used chiefly for the warming of baths. For the general heating of houses such an arrangement was, until about the third century A.D. exceptional, and Seneca, writing in the first century A.D. regards it as an enervating luxury. Several examples of Roman terracotta flue-tiles (No. =344=) for the transmission of hot air are seen in the bottom of Cases 39, 40.

=Shapes of Vases.=--Case 40 contains a small type-series of the leading shapes of Greek vases, intended to teach the names current in archaeology (No. =345=).

(300) Cf. _Ant. du Bosph. Cimm._, pl. 81, where a restoration
of a table with a leg of this kind is shown; (301) The
couch in fig. 113 is after the restoration of a couch from
Boscoreale, given in _Arch. Anzeiger_, 1900, p. 178; (304)
Cf. Furtwaengler, _Olympia, IV._, (_Die Bronzen_), pls. 28, 34;
(305) _Cat. of Lamps_, 137; (308) _ibid._, 1; (309) _ibid._,
66; (310) _ibid._, 97; (312) _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
XXVIII., pl. 33; (313) _Cat. of Lamps_, 390; (314) _ibid._,
1437; (318) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1435; (320) _ibid._, 1511; (323)
_Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 148, No. 4; (324, 325) _Cat.
of Vases_, IV., F 259 and F 267; (338-339) _Cat. of Bronzes_,
2573-4; (343) Newton, _Hist. Disc._, II., p. 143.

On the Greek house generally, see Daremberg and Saglio s.v.
_Domus_ and B. C. Rider, _The Greek House_. On the Roman
house, see Daremberg and Saglio, _loc. cit._, and Mau-Kelsey,
_Pompeii_.

[Footnote 41: Martial, xiv. 44:

Esse vides lignum; serves nisi lumina, fiet
De candelabro magna lucerna tibi.
]

[Footnote 42: Cf. Martial, xiv. 121:

Sum cochleis habilis, sed nec minus utilis ovis:
Numquid scis potius cur cochleare vocer?
]

XI.--DRESS AND TOILET.

(Table-Case F.)

The objects connected with the toilet in Case F are those accessories in metal and other materials that have been preserved. The actual fashion of the dress of the Greeks and Romans can be best studied elsewhere--in the Vase Rooms, the Room of Terracottas, and the Sculpture Galleries. A few words only need be said here as to the principal varieties of costume.

=Greek Female Dress.=--The very singular and modern-looking dress of the Minoan ladies may be seen in the facsimiles of Cretan statuettes and carvings in the First Vase Room.

The earliest dress of women which is represented in the art of historical Greece is that which was known as the Dorian _chiton_, or tunic. It was an oblong sheet of woollen cloth, measuring rather more than the height of the wearer, and about twice the span of her arms. This blanket was folded as shown in the annexed diagram (fig. 129). The tunic then fell into position about the figure, leaving the arms bare, as in the illustration, which is taken from a toilet-box (E 772) in the Third Vase Room (fig. 130). The dress in its simplest form was now complete, but as one side of it was open, a girdle was usually worn to keep the edges together. At Sparta, where Dorian manners were preserved in their primitive severity, the side remained open. Elsewhere it was partially or completely sewn up.

About the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Ionian chiton was introduced into Greece from Asia Minor, and became the ordinary undergarment of women, in Italy as well as Greece, throughout the classical period. It was in effect a loosely-fitting dress with wide sleeves, girt at the waist. Being of fine linen instead of wool, a mantle or wrap was worn over it to make up for the thinness of the cloth. This construction is plainly shown in a drawing on the inside of a cup (E 44) by the potter Euphronios, which represents a woman busy with the knot of her girdle (fig. 131). The material was soft and heavy, yet thin and transparent enough to reveal the form of the figure beneath it. It is only in a dressing scene, such as this, that the Ionian chiton is represented alone. Otherwise a mantle (_himation_) was worn in addition. These mantles were of various shapes and sizes, though always rectangular, and their arrangement did not follow any fixed rule. Distinct fashions, however, in the wearing of the over-mantle can be remarked at certain periods. Thus, when the Ionian dress first came into use at Athens, an extraordinary elaboration was cultivated, the folds being arranged with such precision as to suggest that the garment is not a rectangular wrap, but a made-up shawl artificially pressed and gathered. This style of dress is best known from a large series of statues which were discovered in excavations on the Acropolis of Athens. They are relics of the city which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C., and give an accurate date for the prevalence of the fashion. The type is represented in a statuette in the Bronze Room (fig. 132): the lady stands in an attitude of archaic severity, and holds up with her left hand the skirt of the soft Ionian chiton which is underneath the shawl.

The outer garment was afterwards larger than this, as well as more simply arranged. Often the whole figure was wrapped in the mantle, which was also drawn over the mouth and the back of the head. This heavy style was favoured in the fourth and third centuries B.C., and constantly appears in the most numerous products of that period, the terracotta statuettes from Tanagra and elsewhere. Fig. 133 is from one of these, and others in the Terracotta Room show very clearly the beautiful and varied draperies of the himation.

=Greek Male Dress.=--A dress worn in early times was a tunic falling to the feet, with or without the mantle. It continued in use as a ceremonial and festal attire of elderly men, minstrels and charioteers. It is illustrated in a drawing of Peleus by the vase-painter Amasis (?) (fig. 134), in which the soft texture of the long white Ionian chiton is indicated by wavy lines, and the heavy mantle hangs stiffly across the shoulders. Subsequently the long tunic was discarded, and either a short form of the same garment, which had been in use before for outdoor exercise, was adopted in its place, or the outer cloak was worn alone. The short tunic was worn as before by men engaged in active pursuits, and by boys, workmen and slaves. A common fashion of wearing it was to fasten the shoulder on one side only, so that the right arm and breast were free for violent movement. A series of statuettes in the Bronze Room represents the blacksmith god Hephaestos in this working garb (fig. 135). The ordinary costume of the citizen was the himation or a mantle of smaller size. With this the right shoulder was usually left free, as with the tunic; it is the common dress of men on the red-figure Athenian vases (see the Third Vase Room), from one of which (E 61) the illustration is taken (fig. 136). Men of leisure or high rank affected a more elaborate arrangement of the himation, by which the whole body was enveloped and the free movement of the hands impeded. The statue of Sophokles in the Lateran Museum at Rome is a good example of the care which a cultivated man of the fifth century bestowed upon the adjustment of this garment (fig. 137).

Other mantles were of various sizes and were distinguished by many names. The _chlamys_ was the smallest, and differed from the rest also in shape, though its scheme was still rectangular. It was rather longer in proportion to its width, and was clasped round the neck by a brooch. Its origin was in Thessaly, where it was the cape of the native horsemen, and it continued to be used for this purpose in the rest of Greece. Young men wore it, especially when riding, and it was a light and convenient dress for travellers. A young horseman on a cup by the painter Euphronios (fig. 138) has a gaily embroidered chlamys hung evenly across his shoulders, and underneath is seen the skirt of the short chiton.

=Roman Dress.=--The dress of Roman women was the same as that of the Greeks of the Hellenistic period, who are vividly portrayed in the terracotta statuettes (fig. 133). Their undergarment was the Ionian chiton, now called _tunica_, of which two were sometimes worn together, and the overmantle was the Greek himation, by its Roman name, _palla_.

For men there was also a tunic similar to that worn by the Greeks; but in place of the himation the Roman _toga_ was worn, a garment of entirely different shape. In the relief of a cutler's shop, which is exhibited in Case 41, the shopman wears the tunic without a belt, while the customer, who has just come in from the street, wears the toga as well (fig. 193). In that of the forge, in Case 48, both the smiths have the tunic alone, with but the right shoulders unfastened and the skirts girt up to the knee in Greek fashion (fig. 192; compare fig. 135). Yet the Roman tunic seems already to have departed from the Greek pattern in having sleeves, though only to the elbows. Sleeved tunics were not unknown to the Greeks, whose slaves are often represented in this dress; but it was a foreign habit, and as such avoided.

The shape of the toga was roughly semicircular, the straight edge being about six yards long and the width in the middle about two yards, as in the diagram (fig. 139). The simplest mode of putting it on was to place one end on the left shoulder, with the straight edge nearest the centre of the body and the point almost touching the ground. The left hand would be just covered by the curved edge. The rest was then passed behind the back, over or under the right arm, and over the left shoulder again, so that the point hung almost to the ground behind. This was also a method of wearing the Greek himation, and it is difficult to distinguish the two garments when so arranged; but a close examination will discover the sharp point and the curved edge in the case of the toga. At the end of the Republic and under the Empire, to which period most of the monuments belong, more elaborate fashions were developed, as in fig. 140, from a statuette in the Bronze Room.

We turn to the accessories of the dress and the toilet in Table Case F.

=Greek and Roman Footwear.=--The general distinction was that the Greeks wore both sandals, and also boots or shoes. The Romans wore the boot, the _calceus_, but disapproved of the sandal. Part of Cicero's charge against Verres was that he wore sandals, as well as other Greek dress.

The objects shown in Case F are either actual shoes and sandals or representations of them from works of art, such as fragments of statues; or applications of the device of a foot to the decoration of such things as vases, lamps, tripod-feet, etc.

The extant specimens include a Roman leather shoe (No. =344=) of cut leather work, found in London; slippers from Antinoe in Egypt (No. =345=), with coloured and cut leather work; a pair of cork soles from Egypt (No. =346=), the edges of which were formerly gilt. A well-preserved pair of soles is exhibited (No. =347=). They are made of wood, divided at the instep, and plated with bronze, held in place by iron nails. These appear to be of Etruscan origin, as several examples have been found at Vulci (_Mus. Etr. Vat., I._, pl. 57, fig. 7). The sandal in its simplest form, as in the vase B 587 (No. =348=), consists of a sole attached to the foot by thongs passing between the great and second toes, and round the heel. The arrangement of the thongs gradually became more elaborate, with the result that the uncomfortable separation of the toes could be avoided. In the case of the foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. =349=; fig. 141) there is no toe-thong, but only a reminiscence of the ornament from which it formerly started. An undershoe or sock now became possible, and the shoe and laced sandal in combination (cf. the statue of Mausolos, about 350 B.C.) became highly elaborate. See also the cast of a relief in the Third Graeco-Roman Room (No. =350=) and the feet in marble and bronze. In effect, the result was not greatly different from the Roman military boot (_caliga_) bound up the leg with thongs.

A simpler boot or shoe of modern pattern was also in use. In its plainest forms it represents the Roman boot (_calceus_). Several examples (No. =351=) are shown in this case. See also a vase (No. =352=) in the form of a modern lace-boot. The nails on the sole are arranged so as to impress _alpha_ and _omega_, and the mystic symbol of the _swastika_ on the ground. A delicate gold model of a boot (No. =353=) has [Greek: patou] "walk!" (?) on the sole. A shoe has been found in Egypt, impressing at every step the invitation [Greek: AKOLOUTHEI] ("follow!") The shoemaker at work in his workshop is seen in the fifth century kylix (E 86; No. =354=). He is in the act of cutting the leather with the semicircular knife of the form still in use.

In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the bronze statuette (No. =355=; fig. 142) of a kneeling negro slave cleaning a boot.

On Greek Dress, cf. Lady Evans, _Greek Dress_; E. B. Abrahams,
_Greek Dress_; on Roman, Heuzey in _Rev. de l'art ancien et
moderne_, 1897; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pallium_, _Peplos_,
_Toga_. On shoes and sandals, see _ibid._, _Calceus_, _Caliga_,
_Solea_.

=Fibulae.=--Although the straight pin (cf. p. 137) was used for fastening the dress, fibulae--that is, brooches on the safety-pin principle--were most commonly worn. This method of fastening was of early origin, and its use can be traced in all parts of Europe, but, curiously enough, it seems to have been unknown in Egypt and the East. The fibula experienced in the first centuries of its existence and in the hands of different peoples so many variations and developments of form, that these can be classified in distinct types, and their presence in tombs and other deposits affords valuable evidence of the date and origin of the objects with which they occur.

The reader who wishes to pursue the study of the fibula with more detail is referred to drawers 1-8 in Case D of the Bronze Room, and to the collections in the Iron Age Room. In this case of toilet accessories only a few of the typical forms are shown.

The simplest form of fibula is represented here by examples excavated at Enkomi in Cyprus, which belong to the end of the Bronze Age, before 1000 B.C. (No. =356=; fig. 143). Starting from this primitive form, the history of the fibula is one of progressive development and elaboration. It must be observed in the first place that the whole class of fibulae may be divided into two great groups--viz., an older group, in which the coiled spring is unilateral, that is, a plain spiral, between the bow and the pin; and a younger group, in which the spring is bilateral, that is a symmetrically disposed double coil, on each side of the pin. We deal first with the =Unilateral group=. In Greek regions the development of the form, fig. 143, was mainly a development of the catchplate in a vertical plane--that is in the plane of the bow of the fibula. This plate, often with incised patterns (Fig. 144; No. =357=) was a characteristic of the period of geometric art in Greece. Two very large examples are shown above Case D in the Bronze Room. The plainly curved bows may have some further ornament, such as beads strung on them (No. =358=; fig. 145) or imitation bead patterns, or a figure of a standing bird (No. =359=; fig. 146). All these examples come from the island of Rhodes.

Some from Cyprus are quite distinct, and seem to have no connection with the others (No. =360=; fig. 147). In the classical period the fibula was little used in Greece, in consequence of modifications in dress which rendered such fastenings unnecessary.

In Italy, on the other hand, the fibula flourished exceedingly. The plain wire original, such as that given above (fig. 143) was soon elaborated. In the catch-plate it developed either horizontally, that is, by a beating out of the plate in a plane at right angles to that of the bow (No. =361=; fig. 148) or longitudinally, by the elongation of the catch-plate as in Nos. =362-3= (figs. 149-150). At the same time developments were taking place in the bow. It became larger (fig. 149), and then was hollowed out to save weight and material (fig. 150), and assumed forms known as leech-shaped and boat-shaped--and these threw out lateral knobs and ornaments (fig. 150), often of great elaboration. Alternatively, the bow makes a second convolution (fig. 148), and may be adorned with horn-like pairs of projections (No. =364=).

An independent form is chiefly found at Hallstatt, in cemeteries of the early European Iron Age. In this, two, or perhaps four, spiral coils make the whole decoration of the brooch (No. =365=, fig. 151).

=The Bilateral form.=--The fibulae with the spring coiled on each side of the central bow came into use about 400 B.C., in the late Iron Age civilization, called the La Tène period, from the site on the Lake of Neufchatel, where the richest finds have been made. Together with the introduction of the double spring, there is a continued elongation of the catch-plate, which is turned up as in No. =366= (fig. 152) and attached to the bow as in No. =367= (fig. 153). Later its structural origin is forgotten, and it becomes a solid framework (No. =368=).

The fibula of the Roman Empire was more like a brooch than a safety-pin, if a distinction can be drawn between the two. The bow became broad and heavy, while the pin was often made separately and attached by a hinge. But it shows a strong connection with the La Tène types, especially in the double coil of the spring, which was often protected by a sheath (No. =369=; fig. 154). Even when the spring went out of use, the fibula retained this cross-bow shape (No. =370=; fig. 155). The elaborate bronze brooch in the form of a ribbed band passing through a ring (No. =371=; fig. 156) is stamped underneath with the name of the maker (+VLATI+), in the manner of the Roman pottery. Enamel or metal inlay was liberally applied in the decoration of the later brooches. A large collection with great variety of shapes is exhibited. The effect of the bright colours is best seen in the big round pieces which were popular in the third and fourth centuries A.D. (No. =373=; fig. 157). Animal forms were also common at this time, and were similarly decorated with inlay (No. =374=; fig. 158). These types were widely spread over the western provinces of the Empire, and continued in use among the nations who succeeded to the Roman power.

Somewhat akin to the fibulae are the strap buckles, which appear to have come into use at a late period only. A group, nearly of the modern form, is exhibited (No. =374*=).

=Jewellery and Ornaments.=--Jewellery in gold and silver can be best studied in the Room of Gold Ornaments. The examples shown here are chosen as types of the forms, rather than as choice pieces.

=Bracelets.=--A favourite form of bracelet or armlet was modelled in imitation of a snake coiled round the arm or wrist. See the small silver bracelet of about the fourth to third century B.C., inscribed with the names of its owner Kletis (No. =375=; fig. 159). The same design is also used for finger-rings (No. =376=). Snake-coils of a large size were also worn on the legs, as shown by a small terracotta torso from Ephesus, which has this ornament on the thigh (No. =377=). This torso also has a chain of beads passing over the shoulders and crossing between the breasts. Such an arrangement is common on figures in vases of the fourth to third century B.C.

=Finger-rings.=--The rings are generally set with an engraved gem or bezel; some have revolving scarabs which are pierced through the middle (No. =378=), another has a gold intaglio portrait of the Empress Faustina (No. =379=), while an enormous bronze ring has the design cut in the bezel itself, a double head of Hermes and a Seilenos (No. =380=). These examples are in bronze and of poor workmanship, but they serve to illustrate the general style of ancient rings. A great number in gold and silver, arranged in order of date, are exhibited in the Room of Gold Ornaments, where the subject can be more adequately studied. The intaglio designs were for use in sealing, which was more commonly practised by the ancients than it is now. Others have a purely decorative purpose, and were worn in profusion. The bronze hand (No. =381=) has rings on the upper joints of the fingers, in accordance with a common fashion of the Roman Imperial period. Fragments of bronze and terracotta also show the fashions of wear. The Greeks of an early period did not usually wear ornamental rings, although signets were in constant use, and it was not until the fourth century B.C. that rings were worn for display. In Rome there were class restrictions on the use of the gold ring, but these were lessened as time went on, until in the late Empire they practically disappeared. Betrothal rings were customary among the Romans, but in Greece there is no record of their use. A gold betrothal ring is shown in Case 53 (No. =639=).

=Earrings.=--The bronze earrings are from the site of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and are earlier than the sixth century B.C. (fig. 160). Two types are represented; the swelling hoop of wire, which hung like a liquid drop (No. =382=) and the heavy coil, which was suspended from a ring (No. =383=). For a very great variety of earrings, see the collection in the Room of Gold Ornaments.

=Bullae.=--The flat bronze pendants (No. =384=), with a circular receptacle in the middle, are _bullae_. These are ornaments of Etruscan origin, introduced early into Rome. They were designed to contain amulets and charms, and were worn principally by freeborn Roman boys, and occasionally by domestic animals.

=Necklaces.=--The necklaces here exhibited (No. =385=) consist of beads of painted terracotta and glass. See also the imitation jewellery in terracotta, in the Terracotta Room, Table Case C. Those of more precious materials are in the Gold Ornament Room. Some fragments of terracotta show the Cypriote fashion of wearing numerous necklaces together (No. =386=).