Chapter XXVII: Methods of Burial 220 (5)

=Studs, etc.=--Links and studs of Roman times (No. =387=) bear a striking resemblance to the modern articles, as does a coiled hook-and-eye which dates actually from the Bronze Age Period (No. =388=). A peculiar fastening is seen in the double hooks which probably served to loop together the two sides of a shawl or cloak (No. =389=). They are probably of Roman date, and come in some instances from the province of Gaul.

=Pins.=--Some of the pins may have been used equally well to fasten the clothing or to adorn the hair; but others were evidently designed to serve only one of these purposes. Those in carved ivory are plainly hair-pins (No. =390=; fig. 161). The roughly worked busts of Roman ladies of the Empire indicate the period to which the series belongs. The little statuette is intended to represent Aphrodite wringing the water out of her hair, after rising from the sea. A fine gold pin similarly modelled is exhibited in the Gold Ornament Room (Case K; No. 3034). The ivory hand, which holds a cone and is encircled by a serpent, has some magical significance, like the bronze votive-hands in Case 106 (p. 57).

The metal pins are less elaborate. The simplest shape was straight and headless, a direct copy of the natural thorn which first suggested the idea. A very primitive head is seen on the small bronze pin which is bent round at the top (No. =391=; fig. 162_a_). It was found in the island of Kalymnos, and belongs to the pre-Mycenaean age, say 2000 B.C. A silver pin is similarly bent, but as it has a head as well, is not so early (No. =392=; fig. 162_b_). Another prehistoric type is represented by several bronze pins which were excavated from tombs of the late Mycenaean age at Enkomi in Cyprus (No. =393=; fig. 162_c_). These are pierced with eyes in which chains were fastened to secure the pins to the dress or to each other. Three pins crowned by large ivory knobs come from the same site and belong to the same period (No. =394=; fig. 162_d_). The bronze pin with a head made of several discs is Greek of the sixth century B.C., as it appears in the paintings of the François Vase at Florence, which is an Attic work of that date (No. =395=; figs. 162_e_, 163). Another classical type is the silver pin with a moulded head (No. =396=; fig. 162_f_). Others of less remarkable designs cannot be definitely dated.

=Toilet.=--In the most personal aspects of life and manners there is least room for change, for in the course of ages it is not man that has altered, but his surroundings; and the study of such intimate details reveals a close similarity between the ancient and the modern worlds.

=Combs.=--To begin with the more necessary implements, the combs go back to a high antiquity. An ivory comb from Enkomi in Cyprus dates from the Mycenaean age (No. =397=; fig. 164). It is of simpler form than later combs, having only one row of teeth. The others are of the Greek and Roman periods, and are made both of wood and bone. The usual pattern is that of a modern tooth-comb, with a row of teeth on each side of the body--one coarse and one fine. There are wooden examples from Kertch, in South Russia (No. =398=). More elaborate is the ivory piece, which is decorated with reliefs, a Gryphon and a lion on one side and two cranes at a fountain on the other (No. =399=. The original is in the case of Ivories, L). Another of good Roman period is carved by an amateur hand with an inscription, doubtless in compliment to the lady to whom it belonged (No. =400=; fig. 164). The legend reads +MODESTINA·V·H·E·E+--the four letters at the end being perhaps abbreviated epithets of the fair Modestina, _V(irgo) H(onesta) E(t) E(gregia)_. A different type appears in the triangular pocket-comb, which fits into a protecting case (No. =401=; fig. 164). This belongs to the end of the Roman Empire, the fourth century A.D., and may already show the influence of barbarian art. Similar combs were brought to England by the Danes, and some of them which have been found at York and elsewhere are exhibited in the British and Mediaeval Department.

With the combs is a brush of vegetable bristles from an Egyptian rubbish heap of a late period of the empire (No. =402=).

=Toilet Boxes.=--Other relics of the dressing-table are the toilet-boxes and scent-bottles. There is a Greek toilet-box from Naukratis still coloured by the rouge which it contained (No. =403=); and another has a carved wooden lid in the shape of a woman's head of great beauty (No. =404=). A leaden box was found in a Greek tomb at Halikarnassos (No. =405=). Another was given by Kratylos of Aegina to Eulimine. The inscription, the modern turn of which is perhaps not free from suspicion, describes it as a "slight token of respect from a certain small Aeginetan" (No. =406=; fig. 165).[43] Other boxes of bronze and ivory date from the Roman period. Most of the wooden boxes are carved in fantastic or frivolous shapes: a swimming duck, a crouching boar, and a shoe (Nos. =407=, =408=, =409=). These are divided into compartments for the various powders, and some blocks of paint are still preserved. For liquid ointments there are an alabaster box (No. =410=) and three bottles of the same material and remains of a leather bottle with its cork (No. =411=). An Etruscan bronze _cista_, which stands on three human feet, contains a set of movable tubes, each for a different unguent (No. =412=). The lid of this receptacle was crowned by the small bronze statuette which stands beside it. Besides cosmetics for the complexion, the toilet-boxes may have held tooth-powders, for which there are many receipts in the works of ancient writers on medicine.

=Mirrors.=--For mirrors the ancients were at a disadvantage. The use of glass was known, but was not common, and the ordinary reflecting medium was a sheet of burnished metal. There are, however, two genuine looking-glasses--one in a leaden frame, from Olbia (No. =413=), and the other set, with several fragments, in a plaster slab, from Gheyta, in Egypt (No. =414=). The glass was probably backed with foil, and it is remarkable that the reflectors are convex, so that the image must have been distorted. A similar surface is attempted on the square sheet of metal, which is glazed with a vitreous enamel (No. =415=).

The more usual metal mirrors have two principal forms: a circular reflector, mounted on a handle like the modern hand-glass, which is represented by a specimen in silver from Naukratis (No. =416=), and a similar disc enclosed in a folding box (No. =417=). Both these varieties were often decorated with engraving. See No. =417=, a mirror from Hermione, with an engraved design of Aphrodite and Eros. In the Bronze Room there are large collections of all types. A small pocket-mirror in this Case has on one side of the bronze box a head of Nero, and on the other the god Dionysos standing by a vine (No. =418=). The disc is silver-plated, like most of these examples. Two similar boxes have been turned out of large brass coins of Nero (No. =419=). A fragment of a silvered mirror from Amathus in Cyprus has a palm-tree engraved on its face (No. =420=). Though the design indicates that this side is the front, yet the reflector was the convex back, and thus, in a spirit quite foreign to Greek art, the purpose of the thing was subordinated to its decoration.

=Razors.=--The razor is another toilet instrument which existed in the earliest times. No prehistoric specimens are in this collection, but a primitive shape is represented by two circular blades with stirrup-like handles (No. =421=, fig. 166). Others are of square spade shape, with a twisted loop handle and a hole in the blade. One of these is from Athens (No. =422=; fig. 167). A third type is shown in three razors of Phoenician origin (from Sardinia and Carthage), with long hatchet blades (No. =423=; fig. 168). These are ornamented with engraving and have handles in the shape of swan's heads. All are made of bronze, and were no doubt capable of taking an edge so keen as to render them far more efficacious than their present appearance would suggest.

=Miscellaneous Toilet Implements.=--Next to the razors are placed various tools of which the functions are easily understood. There are several nail-files with a roughened surface, and a smooth notch for polishing (No. =424=; fig. 169). Two of these are combined with ear-picks, which were in general use at Rome. They have a minute bowl at the end of a slender arm. A very elegant ear-pick, which has a leaf-shaped scraper at the other end, is made of silver (No. =425=; fig. 170). Others end in a sharp point, which may have been used either for a tooth-pick or in emergency for a _stilus_ pen (cf. p. 199). Another ear-pick is combined with a pair of tweezers and some other tools now lost (No. =426=). The tweezers were used for plucking out such hairs as Roman fashion deemed unsightly.

For _Fibulae_, see _Catalogue of Bronzes_, and _Guide to
Antiquities of Early Iron Age_ (Dept. of B. & M. Antiqs.);
(375) _Cat. of Jewellery_, 2775; (406) _B.M. Inscr._, 947;
(420) _Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 149.

[Footnote 43: [Greek: Smikrou tinos Aiginêtou endees eimi
endeigma latreias.]]

XII.--DOMESTIC ARTS.

(Table-Case G.)

In this Table Case, under the general heading of "The Domestic Arts," objects are exhibited connected with the house industries of spinning, weaving, and sewing, together with various groups of objects connected with home life, such as locks and keys, seals, knives, etc.

=Spinning and Weaving.=--(_a_) _Preparation of yarn._--The process of spinning is clearly seen in the accompanying drawings from Greek vases of the fourth and fifth centuries exhibited in this Case (Nos. =421-2=; figs. 171-2). In each, a woman is holding up in her left hand the distaff, a rod which is thrust through a bunch of unspun wool. With the fingers of her right hand she is twisting fibres drawn from the wool. The yarn is attached below to the top of the spindle, a rod of wood or metal with a disc (whorl) near the bottom to assist the rotation. When some quantity of yarn had been twisted it was wound round the body of the spindle and hitched into a hook at its upper end (see figs. 171, 173), to prevent it from unwinding. The twisting process was then recommenced. An impressive description of the ancient spindle is given by Plato in the vision of Er at the end of the _Republic_,[44] where he likens the axis of the universe to the shaft of a spindle suspended by a hook of adamant, and the revolving starry heavens to a whorl made up of eight concentric rims, fitting one into the other like boxes. Two bronze spindles (No. =423=) are seen in the Case and are illustrated on either side of fig. 173. In the same figure are shown four ivory whorls from spindles (No. =424=). Before the wool was placed upon the distaff it appears to have been rubbed, with a view to the separation of the fibres, upon an instrument known as the _epinetron_ or _onos_. This was semi-cylindrical in form and was placed upon the knee. Several examples in terracotta had long been known, and were explained with little plausibility as covering-tiles. One, however, was found with a painted design which first gave the clue to its real use (Fig. 174). One of these _epinetra_ B 96 (No. =425=) is exhibited in this Case, together with a fragment of a second. Other examples are to be seen in the Second Vase Room (Cases 24 and 25), and one of these is illustrated here (No. =426=; fig. 175). A miniature example was found with the girl doll seated in a chair, exhibited in Table-Case J with the other dolls (p. 195, fig. 234, below).

(_b_) _The Loom._--The only kind of loom in use in Greek and Roman times was probably the upright loom. A good idea of its form is obtained from the illustration (fig. 176), taken from a Greek vase-painting[45] of the fifth century B.C., representing Penelope seated beside the loom, with one of the suitors or Telemachos before her. The primary part of the loom is the wooden frame (_jugum_) resembling two posts with a cross-bar. Near the top is a roller, about which the threads of the warp and the finished cloth are wound. The threads of the warp hang downwards, strained by weights attached to their ends. The row of nine rods fitted into sockets in the top framework is probably for holding the balls of different coloured wool used in the weaving. Coloured patterns are woven towards each selvedge of the fabric. The band of winged figures must be regarded as a piece of embroidery. (For tapestry weaving see below.) The two horizontal rods lower down are the _canons_, which effect the alternation of the threads of the warp. It may be noted that the threads are alternately long and short at the lower end, so that the _canon_ would be inserted correctly with great ease. The loom weights, which hang at the bottom, closely resemble in form the sets (No. =427=) of pyramidal terracotta and lead weights in this Case. The terracotta discs (figs. 173 and 177), which are pierced with two holes and sometimes have a stamped design, are also probably loom-weights. No. =428= (fig. 177) has a design of two dolphins plunging into the sea; No. =429= (fig. 173) is stamped with a name--Kleodamos. As a loom weight was needed for every thread of a warp, it is not surprising that they are found in great numbers. Possibly the small bronze object (No. =430=) seen at the bottom of fig. 173 may be an ancient shuttle, for passing the thread of the woof to and fro in a horizontal direction, alternately before and behind the threads of the warp. Afterwards they were driven close together by the batten ([Greek: spathê]), a possible example of which is the toothed bone object seen in this Case (No. =431=).

Various specimens of ancient cloth are shown here. A piece from the Crimea (No. =432=), with pretty geometric patterns in black on a light ground, and a large fragment from an Egyptian tomb (No. =433=), inscribed in paint "Diogenes, who was a patcher in his lifetime,"[46] may be specially mentioned.

The art of tapestry weaving was highly developed during the later Roman Empire, especially in Egypt. See a fragment from Antinoe, fourth to fifth centuries A.D. (No. =434=). The art of embroidery, that is, of working with a needle on an already woven fabric, was practised from very early times. See the small vase with a woman seated working on a four-sided embroidery frame, supported on her lap (No. =435=).

The objects illustrating ancient sewing, etc., speak pretty well for themselves. Such are the bronze thimble (No. =436=; fig. 178), the iron scissors (No. =437=; fig. 179), and the series of pins, needles, bodkins, netting needles, etc. (figs. 180, 181). The needles and pins are arranged in the Case according to their supposed order of development, starting from the thorn or bone fragment with a hole pierced in it. The Roman bronze needle-case from France (No. =438=; fig. 182) is worthy of note. Similar cases were used by Roman surgeons for their instruments.

(421) _Cat. of Vases_, III., D 13; (433) Petrie, _Hawara_, pl.
viii., 2; (435) _Journ. of Hellen. Stud._, xxxi., p. 15;
cf. Blümner, _Technologie_, 2nd ed., pp. 220, 221; (438) Cf.
Deneffe, _La trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain_, pl. 2.

On the ancient loom, see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v.
_Textrinum_; Blümner, _Technologie_, I., 2nd. ed., p. 135 ff.

=Cutlery.=--At the east end of Table-Case G will be seen a series of Greek and Roman knives, ranging from the long Mycenaean hunting knife from Ialysos in Rhodes (No. =438=) to the numerous Roman pocket-knives with bronze handles, frequently in the form of animals (No. =439=). The iron blade has often rusted away, as will be seen from the illustration (fig. 183), which gives a selection of these knives. (_a_) represents a handle in the form of a panther catching a deer, (_b_) one in the form of a ram's head, with a leg projecting below to assist the grip, (_e_) a hound catching a hare. The iron blades are still preserved in the case of (_c_) and (_d_). The first, from Nîmes, has a bronze handle ending in a woman's head; (_d_) has a handle of the same material in the form of a hound catching a hare.

For two reliefs of a cutler's forge and a cutler's shop, see below, pages 156, 157.

=Locks and Keys.=--The earliest and simplest form of door fastening used by the Greeks seems to have consisted of a bar of wood set behind the door, and made to slide into a hole or staple in the sidepost. An advance on this arrangement was soon made, when the bar was pulled to by a strap from the outside, and could be opened again from the outside by means of a key passed through a hole in the door, and adapted to lift up the pegs which held the bar fast in position. This is the type of lock mentioned in the _Odyssey_,[47] where Penelope releases the strap from the hook to which it was fastened, puts in the key, and lifts the pegs, "striking them fairly." The key for such a lock will probably have resembled No. =440=, marked _a_ in fig. 186 below, the working of which is shown in the sketch (fig. 184).[48] It was passed narrow-wise through the central slot, then turned, and drawn back so as to lift up the pegs fitted in grooves in the side slots. The bar below would thus be freed and could be drawn to and fro by the strap. This type of lock is still sometimes used in the East.[49]

The majority of Roman locks, though of a more complicated structure, are made on the same principle, as may be seen from the ancient lock No. =441= (probably from Pompeii) here exhibited, together with model lock of the same type (No. =442=) and a diagram showing its original arrangement (fig. 185_a-d_). Here the bolt has been shot through the end link of a chain, part of which remains (fig. 185_c_). It is secured by pins, the ends of which fit into a series of perforations in the bolt and are kept down by a spring. The bolt was released by a key fitted with teeth corresponding to the perforations (fig. 185_d_). The key lifted the pins out of the holes and took their place. The bolt was then drawn aside, as the key was moved along the horizontal slot. On account of the double movement, first vertical and then horizontal, the keyhole is in the shape |¯. Several bolts, keys (_e.g._ No. =442=; fig. 186_c_), and door plates for locks of this type are exhibited in this Case. Three keys from Syria are shown (No. =443=) fitted into the wards of the actual bolts for which they were made. Notice the projections on the ring of key _c_, which were used for shooting a supplementary bolt, a common device in Roman locks.

The modern type of lock, in which the key works on a pivot and moves the bolt backwards and forwards by a rotatory movement, after passing through a series of wards, was also known to the Romans. This is proved by the existence of several Roman keys solely adapted to a lock of this character (_e.g._, No. =444=; fig. 186_d_). Such keys are frequently found combined with finger-rings, a convenient method of lessening the danger of loss. We may conclude that this type of key was a favourite one for use with small padlocks.

Padlocks of Roman date are common. In this Case three of a barrel form are shown. One (No. =445=; fig. 187) has the key still rusted in it. The padlock has traces of a chain attachment at one end, and was probably kept hanging to a doorpost, while the bolt was shot into the end link of a chain attached to the door. Two other Roman padlocks illustrated (fig. 188) are more ornamental in character. One (No. =446=) is in the form of a circular box with hinged handle, the free end of which was fastened by pin-bolts within the box. There is also a secret catch underneath. The other padlock (No. =447=) is furnished with a chain attached to one side of it. The last link of the free end was fastened inside the box, the lid of which was closed with a secret catch. The head on the cover is that of a Sphinx, a hint that the riddle of opening was not easy to solve. A hole in the floor of the box makes it probable that it was fastened to the object to be secured.

Other objects deserving mention are the keys for raising latches (No. =448=; fig. 186_b_), and the combined ward and pin keys (No. =449=; fig. 186_e_), and also the very interesting Graeco-Roman bronze strong-box from Tarentum (No. =450=; fig. 189). The box (_a_) has a sliding lid (_b_), originally furnished on the inside with four separate fastenings. Two are horizontal bolts shot home by turning toothed discs from the outside; the third is the catch seen at the end, which was held fast in the slot by a pin-bolt (_c_). This bolt was moved by a disc on the outside of the cover, and was itself locked by the turning of another disc behind it; it could only be drawn back when the slot in that disc was brought into line with the bolt, as indicated in design _d_ of the figure. The small catch on the right at the end of the box fell into position automatically when the cover was closed, and could only be unfastened by turning the box on its side. The outside of the lid shows four similar circles, over which were the revolving or sliding discs now lost (fig. 190).

=Seals.=--These were closely connected with locks in ancient life, and often in fact took their place. Aristophanes makes the women complain that not only did their husbands carry the patent Laconian key, but that they also (at the instigation of Euripides) carried very complicated "worm-eaten" seals,[50] not likely to be forged. Several objects in this Case illustrate the use of seals. When a man wished to secure an object he tied it up with string and put a lump of clay over the knot, impressing the clay with his signet. Such impressions are seen on several baked lumps of clay here exhibited. One large lump (No. =451=) has no fewer than eight Roman seal impressions (several from the same seal), while the knot of the cord remains embedded in the clay underneath. This Case also contains examples (No. =452=) of Roman seal-locks (one in wood and several in ivory). The wooden lock, found in Egypt, is shown in fig. 191_a_, where its probable use is indicated. The lock was suspended from the door-jamb on a pivot passed through the small hole seen at the left end. The loop or staple attached to the door was then inserted in the groove, and the movable cover slid through it, as shown in the figure. The clay or wax was next pressed into the hole behind the lid, and sealed with a signet (as in fig. 191_b_, top view). The door could then not be opened unless the seal or the lock was broken. Such a lock would be very useful to prevent the often-mentioned pilfering by slaves.[51] Another interesting class of objects is that of the seal-boxes (No. =453=). They are small bronze boxes with hinged lids, and resemble in form a pear-shaped or circular lamp. Each box has a small slot cut out on either side, and three or four holes pierced in its floor. The cover not infrequently has a design in relief (such as might be impressed from a seal), _e.g._, a frog (fig. 191_d_). The illustration (fig. 191_e_) shows a suggested method of using them. The box is fastened by studs (passed through the holes in its floor) to the lid of the object to be secured. The string is inserted in a staple on the front of it and tied in a knot, which is placed in the seal-box and held fast by wax stamped with a seal. The projecting stud-heads would assist the natural tenacity of the wax, so that it would be impossible to remove the string without breaking the seal. Other arrangements are, of course, possible. For instance, the staple might not be used, and string might instead be tied round the object to be secured. The ends would be brought into the seal-box by two of the holes, there be secured by the sealed knot, and would leave it by two other holes.

Another form of seal was that consisting of two lead discs connected by a loop (No. =454=). The discs were pressed together and stamped on the outer surfaces with a design (as in fig. 191_c_). In this way the loop was securely attached to the object to be protected. Probably these seals were attached to merchandise by manufacturers or customs officials, just in the same way as lead seals are used in our own time. Their use appears to have been confined almost, if not entirely, to Sicily.

A variety of labels in lead, bronze, and ivory is shown in this Case. They generally have a hole for attachment, and bear the name and initials of their owner. The bronze label (No. =455=), to which a portion of the iron object to which it was attached still adheres, has the name of the owner, C. Junius Hermetus, inscribed upon it. A second label has the name of another member of the family, Decius Junius Hermetus (No. =456=).

Seals were applied by the use of signet rings of gold, silver, or bronze with the impression of the seal cut in the metal or on a gem set in the bezel (see p. 136). The engraved ring was usually employed for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing of a letter or document, and the device of the seal was more or less ornamental. For the somewhat allied group of bronze tablets, used for marking objects, rather than securing them, see p. 192.

(441) On ancient locks, see Diels, _Parmenides_, p. 117 ff.;
Fink, _Der Verschluss bei den Griechen u. Römern_; Daremberg
and Saglio, s.v. _Sera_; (453) Cf. _Num. Chron._, 1897, p.
293 ff.; (454) Cf. _Annali dell' Inst._, 1864, p. 343 ff., and
_Mon. dell' Inst._, VIII., pl. xi.

[Footnote 44: 616 C, D.]

[Footnote 45: _Mon. d. Inst._, ix. pl. 42.]

[Footnote 46: [Greek: Diogenês êpêtês men ôn hote ezê ...]]

[Footnote 47: xxi. 46 ff.; [Greek:

autik' ar' hê g' himanta thoôs apelyse korônês,
en de klêid' hêke, thyreôn d' anekopten ochêas,
anta tityskomenê.]
]

[Footnote 48: After Jacobi, _Das Römerkastell Saalburg_,
p. 469, fig. 74, 1, 2 (modified).]

[Footnote 49: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, IX.,
p. 190 ff.]

[Footnote 50: Ar., _Thesm._ 421 ff.]

[Footnote 51: Cf. Plin., _H.N._ xxxiii. 26: nunc cibi quoque
ac potus anulo vindicantur a rapina.]

XIII-XVIII.--TRADE AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.

(Wall-Cases 41-53, Table Case H.)

XIII.--TRADE.

The part of the collection now to be described deals generally with commerce and the industrial arts. We have already seen the bird-catcher (p. 115), the baker (p. 117), and the shoemaker at work (p. 130).

In the corners of Cases 41 and 48 are casts of reliefs from the gravestone of L. Cornelius Atimetus, a Roman cutler of the first century A.D. One relief (No. =457=; fig. 192) shows the cutler's workshop, with two men working at some object placed on an anvil in front of a furnace. One man holds the object with the tongs, the other hammers it into shape. Above them hang a knife, sickle, tongs, etc. Behind on the left is the bellows. The other relief (No. =458=; fig. 193) represents the cutler's shop, with numerous knives and sickles hanging in an open cupboard. The cutler on the right, who wears the tunic only, is showing a knife to a customer on the left, who wears the toga, as a mark of dignity.

In Case 41 is a cast of a relief of a pork-butcher's shop, in the Dresden Museum (No. =459=). On the left, the butcher's wife, seated in a high chair, is busy with a set of tablets, for the accounts. The butcher is jointing a side of bacon on a massive block. Portions of bacon hang on hooks. Behind the butcher is a spare chopper and a steelyard, at present hung out of the way. The details of the steelyard such as the weight, the alternative hook for suspension, and the scalepan are shown (see below p. 161).

XIV.--WEIGHTS AND SCALES.

(Wall-Cases 41-44.)

=Greek Weights.=--In Case B of the First Vase Room will be seen the plaster model of a large stone object of triangular form, pierced towards the apex with a hole.[52] It has the design of an octopus on either side, and may with some probability be regarded as a standard hanging weight (64 pounds). This object was found by Sir A. Evans at Knossos in Crete, in the "Palace of Minos," and may be dated roughly at 2000 B.C. A set of very early weights of the Mycenaean period from Cyprus is in Case 41, consisting of haematite objects in the form of sling bolts (No. =460=), passing in a series of gradations from large to small. No definite system can, however, be deduced from these weights.

The Greek weights of the historic period here shown are mainly of two leading standards, known as the Aeginetan and the Solonian or Attic. The standard weight of the Aeginetan system was the heavy mina of 9,722 grains (about 1-2/5 lb. avoirdupois). The Solonian (Euboic) mina weighed normally 6,737 grains (nearly 1 lb. avoirdupois), but there was a special heavy mina in use which weighed exactly double the normal. This last was the original mina introduced by Solon, which gradually gave way to the light mina of half its weight. Weights of the Aeginetan and Solonian systems are here exhibited. Through incompleteness or inaccuracy they often show considerable variation from the norm. The mina was subdivided into 100 drachmae, and the drachma into 6 obols. Certain stamped devices distinguish these Attic weights, viz., the astragalos or knuckle-bone, the amphora, the tortoise, the dolphin, and the crescent. Fig. 194 shows three weights of the later Solonian standard: (_a_) a mina in lead stamped with a dolphin and inscribed [Greek: MNA] (7,010 grs.) (No. =461=); (_b_) a half mina in lead (3,399 grs.) with the device of a tortoise and the inscription [Greek: DÊMO] (= [Greek: dêmou]), "of the people," (No. =462=); and (_c_) a bronze weight of 4 drachmae (283 grs.) stamped with an amphora and the word [Greek: TESSARES] (No. =463=). Sometimes a half tortoise occurs, as in No. =464=, a quarter mina, or a half amphora, as on No. =465=, a one-third mina. Various other standards are represented in this Case, _e.g._ that of Kyzikos in Asia Minor, but these need not be particularly described. A noteworthy weight is the bronze one (No. =466=), in the form of a series of rising steps, inscribed on the top [Greek: DIOS]. This probably is a temple-weight, very likely used to weigh votive objects. Weights of a similar type have been found at Olympia. The peculiar series of stone weights (No. =467=) decorated with female breasts was found in the precincts of the temple of Demeter at Knidos, and may be regarded as temple-weights, probably made as a votive offering. They do not seem to correspond to any known standard.

Some weights are marked as standards. A lead weight of 10,863 grains, with a design of two cornucopias (No. =468=) is inscribed [Greek: Etous dls' dêmosia mna], _i.e._, "In the year 234 a public (or standard) mina." The date is probably by the Seleucid era, and equivalent to 78 B.C. Another example is the large square weight from Herakleia in Bithynia, with a head of Herakles in relief (No. =469=; fig. 195). It is inscribed "To the divine Augusti and the people" ([Greek: theois Sebastois kai tô damô]) on the rim in front, and on the sides with the names of the aediles P. Clodius Rufus and Tertius Vacilius (weight 41,494 grs., nearly 6 lb. avoirdupois).

We have instances of weights of artistic form in these Cases. The hanging weights from steelyards in particular (No. =470=; fig. 195) are often in the form of a head or bust.

=Roman Weights.=--The standard was here the _libra_ or pound, which weighed 5,050 grains (being ·721 of the pound avoirdupois, which is equal to 7,000 grains), and was subdivided into 12 _unciae_ or ounces, the ounce again being divided into 24 _scripula_ or scruples. The Roman weights are here grouped according to multiples or divisions of the pound, and generally have their values marked upon them in dotted characters. Thus the pound is marked +I+, the half pound +S+(_emis_), and so on. The series, beginning at the bottom of Case 51, runs 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1-1/2, and 1 pounds. Fractions of the pound are 1/2lb. (semis) = 6 oz; 1/3lb. (triens) = 4 oz.; 1/4lb. (quadrans) = 3 oz.; 1/6lb. (sextans) = 2 oz.; and one ounce. Fractions of the ounce are 1/2oz. = 12 scruples; 1/3oz. = 8 scruples; 1/4oz. = 6 scruples; 1/8oz. = 3 scruples; 1/12oz. = 2 scruples; and one scruple. Some of the numerous dark stone weights have inscriptions, showing that they had been certified by proper authority. Thus one _libra_ (No. =472=) is inscribed: "On the authority of Q. Junius Rusticus, city-prefect" [167 A.D.]. In Sicily and Magna Graecia a weight called a _litra_ was used instead of the Roman pound, weighing rather less than the _libra_. A set of _litra_ weights in bronze, of late Imperial date, is shown in Case 41 (No. =473=). An ounce weight (marked in silver, and weighing 389 grains), belonging to this series, is seen in fig. 194 above.

=Weighing Instruments.=--Of these there are two chief varieties, the simple balance (_libra_), and the steelyard (_statera_). In the former weight is set against, weight, at equal distances from the point of suspension. In the latter the object to be weighed, suspended from the short arm of the lever, is set against a small weight in an appropriate position on the long arm. The Greeks seem to have used the former only; the Romans used both. The use of the balance is illustrated by the Greek vase with the design of Hermes weighing the souls of Achilles and Memnon, and by the Roman lamp showing a stork weighing an elephant and a mouse (No. =474=). The steelyard was widely used in the Roman world. Owing to its portability, it was doubtless much employed by hawkers and street-sellers, as at the present day. We have also seen it above (p. 158) in the pork-butcher's shop (No. =459=). Out of the several steelyards exhibited here, one example, from Catania in Sicily (No. =475=; fig. 196), may be described in detail. It consists of a bronze rod of square section, divided into two unequal portions. The shorter portion has (_a_) two hooks suspended from chains attached to the end of the rod by a movable collar working in a groove (the object to be weighed was of course attached to these hooks); (_b_) three hooks, placed at intervals of about 3/4, 1-1/2, and 3 in. respectively from the collar, and suspended from small movable rings. These hooks are in different planes, corresponding to three of the four edges in the longer portion of the bar. The bar is graduated on three of its four faces, viz., on the first with nine divisions, each subdivided into twelfths. This scale was used when the steelyard was suspended by the hook nearest the graduated bar (as in the fig.). Objects weighing up to nine Roman pounds could thus be weighed by moving a sliding weight along the bar. The figure V will be seen at the fifth pound, the half pounds are marked by three dots, and the twelfths correspond to the _unciae_. The second face begins with VI and goes up to twenty-three pounds. It was used when the steelyard was suspended by the middle hook. The third face starts with XXII pounds, and goes up to fifty-nine pounds. In the second and third scales, multiples of five and ten pounds are marked by the figures V and X. Fifty pounds is indicated by the letter [Greek: N] +N+, which has that numerical value in the Greek notation. This third scale was used in conjunction with the hook nearest the collar. The sliding weight (now lost) must have weighed about 17,000 grs. (2-3/7 lb. avoirdupois). All the other steelyards here shown work on this principle, though many have only two graduated scales and two suspending hooks.

Fig. 197 shows a highly ornate example of a steelyard (No. =476=), lately acquired from the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The weight is in the form of a bust of Silenus. The larger hooks are designed as heads of serpents, and the smaller hooks as heads of eagles.

The steelyard principle was also applied by the Romans to balances, with a view to avoiding the use of numerous small weights. An example is No. =477= (fig. 198), where one half of the bronze arm is graduated with twelve divisions corresponding to scruples (1/24 of an ounce). The sliding weight would thus be used to determine weights of less than half an ounce. The bar of another balance (No. =478=) had 24 such divisions for determining any weight below the ounce. A saucepan from Pompeii (No. =479=) in the Naples Museum has the same principle applied to its handle, for weighing the liquid contents. An interesting little balance (No. =480=; fig. 198) may be mentioned here. At one end is a fixed weight in the form of a head (of the Sun-god?). This balance was adapted to test the weight of an object weighing about 69 grains, perhaps a Roman coin such as the _denarius_ or _solidus_.

In the lower part of Cases 43, 44 it will be noted that the arm of a steelyard and one of the arms of a balance are shown, with a bronze fitting (No. =481=; fig. 199) designed to check the amplitude of the oscillations. A corresponding piece may be seen on a railway platform weighing machine. This piece was long misinterpreted as a standard, etc., but its real intention is made certain by reliefs at Treves (fig. 200) and Capua.

(457, 458) Amelung, _Sculpt. d. Vat._, pl. 30, p. 275 ff.;
(459) _Arch. Anzeiger_, IV., p. 102; (460) _Excavations in
Cyprus_, pl. xi., 368, etc. On Greek and Roman weights see
Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pondus_; _Cambridge Companion
to Greek_ and _to Latin Studies_; (466) Cf. _Olympia,
V. (Inschriften)_, p. 801 ff.; (467) Newton, _Disc. at
Halicarnassus_, II., pp. 387 and 804; (469) _Mon. dell'
Inst._, 1855, pl. 1; (472) _C.I.L._, XIII., 10030 (10); (474)
_Cat. of Lamps_, 595; (481) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2909. For
Treves relief (fig. 200) cf. Hettner, _Illustr. Führer_, p.
6; for Capua relief, cf. _Jahreshefte d. Oesterr. Arch. Inst.,
XVI., Beibl._, p. 10; for the standing balance, see also
Stuart and Revett, IV., p. 15.

[Footnote 52: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, VII.,
p. 42, fig. 7.]

XV.--TOOLS, BUILDING, AND SCULPTURE.

(Wall-Cases 45-48.)

=Tools.=--These are exhibited in Cases 45-46. The objects for the most part speak for themselves, but attention may be called to one or two of the most interesting. Such is the Roman bronze set-square (No. =482=; fig. 201), furnished with a base to enable it to stand. Its outer edges would be used by masons or carpenters to determine angles of 90° and 45° respectively. The inner angle of 90° would be useful for testing the true position of objects set at right angles to one another, such as the sides of a box, etc. The simplest type of set-square, that formed by two edges at right angles to one another, is seen in No. =483=. Notice the set of bronze plummets (No. =484=), which were suspended from strings. The one illustrated (fig. 201) has _Bassi_, "belonging to Bassus," inscribed on it in punctured letters. Two other inscribed tools are of interest. The one is the sickle-like iron blade from, perhaps, a gardener's knife, with the inscription, "Durra made me" (No. =485=), the other a finely made Greek bronze chisel, bearing the name of Apollodoros (No. =486=).

=Building materials and Sculptures.=--Cases 45-48 contain objects illustrating the materials and methods of Greek and Roman builders and sculptors. There are several Greek tiles dated by the impression of a magistrate's name, _e.g._, "Under Aeschyliskos," "Under Apollodoros," the latter (No. =487=) bearing traces of the feet of a dog which has run across the tile before it was dry.

The characteristic stamps on the Roman bricks of the Empire were impressed by wooden blocks in which the legend was engraved direct with a broad lettering, tending to exaggeration in the 3rd century and later. The beginning of the inscription is marked by a small raised circle, and the information given includes the name of the estate (often imperial) from which the clay comes, the name of the potter and his kiln, and sometimes the date by the consulship, though all these pieces of information do not necessarily occur on the same tile. As typical examples may be given: No. =488=, here illustrated (fig. 202), bearing the device of a pine-cone between two branches, and the inscription _ex fig(linis) M. Herenni Pollionis dol(iare) L. Sessi Successi_, "From the pottery of M. Herennius Pollio; baked by L. Sessus Successus"; and No. =489=, with the device of Victory, and the inscription: "Brick from the Publinian pottery (made with clay from) the estate of Aemilia Severa." A large number of the estates from which the clay came were, it should be noted, owned by women.

No. =490= is an example of a dated brick--_Imp. Antonino II (= iterum) et Br(u)ttio Co(n)s(ulibus)_ _i.e._, 139 A.D. The stamp was first engraved by error with the name of Balbinus, consul of 137 A.D., and afterwards corrected by re-engraving +RTTIO+ on +ALBIN+. No. =491= refers to the _portus_, _i.e._, the depot of Licinius.

Many of the bronze accessories of building are shown here, such as two pairs of bronze door-knockers from Syria (No. =492=).

The bronze dowels (No. =493=) were employed for fastening together stone sections, such as the drums of columns. They are often in the form of truncated cones placed base to base, the thickest part being thus in the position where the strain was greatest (fig. 203_a_). Other dowels from the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos are in the form of bronze cylinders in collars of bronze, rigidly fixed by three key-pieces. The cylinders were set in the great stone which closed the entrance of the Mausoleum, and were intended to drop half their length into the corresponding sockets in the lower sill of the entrance (Nos. =494-495=).

A series of bronze coverings (No. =496=) for the pivots of doors reminds us of the fact that in ancient times most of the doors worked on a different principle from our own. The bronze-covered pivots (fig. 203_b_), rigidly fixed to the door by a key-piece, turned in bronze sockets(_c_) fitted into the lintel or threshold. This arrangement explains the allusions to the grating of doors met with in ancient writers.[53] Hinges of the modern type were, however, well known. Examples are to be seen in Cases 47, 48, among them a hinge with the fragments of the wood, to which it was originally attached, still adhering (No. =497=).

Towards the end of the Republic and under the Empire the Romans devoted much attention to the adornment of their buildings, public and private. For this purpose marbles of every variety were imported from all parts of the world, while an elaborate system of wall-painting was also developed. Mamurra, an officer of Julius Caesar, is said to have been the first to veneer the walls of his house with marble. A few selected examples from the Tolley collection of polished specimens of the materials used in ancient Rome are here exhibited (No. =498=). The whole collection comprises some 700 specimens, so that we cannot be surprised that Pliny declines to enumerate the varieties known in his day, on account of the vastness of their number.[54] The simpler building materials used at Rome were, besides the tiles or bricks already mentioned, the hard limestone rock known as travertine and the volcanic tufa and peperino. A specimen of the last is shown here.

The place of hanging pictures in ancient houses was largely taken by fresco wall-paintings, several fragments of which are here shown. The floors of the houses were not covered with carpets, but were frequently decorated with mosaics, which might range from simple geometric patterns in black and white (as in many of the specimens here seen) to elaborate pictorial designs. The construction of these pavements, out of small stone cubes (_tesserae_) set in cement, is clearly seen in the examples exhibited. Genuine mosaic was sometimes imitated in painted plaster. One or two such fragments can be seen in the Case.

As examples of the processes of sculpture, note a half-finished figure of a seated Sphinx (No. =499=); and a cast (No. =500=) of a half-finished figure of Hermes, from a private collection. The sculptor has made free use of the drill for the roughing out of the figure, and at the same time has brought the exposed parts to a high degree of finish. A piece of bead and reel moulding (No. =501=) is also unfinished.

(=484=) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v., _Perpendiculum_.

(=488=) For the stamped Roman bricks see, _Cat. of
Terracottas_, E 148-153. For _C.I.L._ reff., see _ibid._ (but E
151 = _C.I.L._ xv. 214).

(=494=, =495=) Newton, _Disc. at Halicarnassus_, II (1) p. 97;
_Cat. of Sculpture_, II, 990, 991.

(=498=) Cf. Pullen, _Handbook of Ancient Roman Marbles_.

[Footnote 53: Virgil, _Ciris_, 222:

Marmoreo aeratus stridens in limine cardo.
]

[Footnote 54: _H.N._ xxxvi. 54.]

XVI.--HORSES AND CHARIOTS.

(Wall-Cases 49-51.)

=Chariots and Carts.=--The war-chariot plays a conspicuous part in the Homeric poems, and the horse and chariot are there so closely identified that we find the phrase "he leapt from his horses" used as equivalent to "he leapt from his chariot." After the Homeric age, however, the use of the chariot in war died out in Greece and it thenceforward appears most conspicuously in the great Greek games, where it was used for racing purposes. A very early example of this racing chariot may be seen on a Boeotian bowl of the eighth century (on the top of Case D, First Vase Room).[55] Here are depicted two chariots with a high open framework at front and back, each drawn (apparently) by a single horse, and driven by a man clothed in a long robe distinctive of the Greek charioteer. There is little doubt that in reality the chariots are meant to be drawn by two horses, and that the deceptive appearance is due to the limitations of the artist. On Greek monuments of a later date than this vase, the light racing chariot is constantly represented. Some primitive chariots in terracotta and stone from Cyprus are also shown in Case 50.

Roman chariots are represented by a good bronze model (No. =502=; fig. 204) found in the Tiber. This is a racing car, drawn at full speed by two horses, one of which is now lost. It corresponds closely to the cars used for racing in the circus, such as may be seen in Case 110. At the end of the pole (appearing just behind the horse's mane) is a decoration in the form of a ram's head, an ornament of the same character as the four bronze objects placed with the horse-muzzles in the upper part of Case 51 (No. =503=). These have decorations in the form of the bust of a Satyr blowing a horn, and busts of a boy, an Amazon, and a Cupid respectively. In the lowest parts of Cases 50 and 51 are various bronze decorations, which have no doubt belonged to axle-boxes and other parts of a chariot, but their exact arrangement is not clear.

Another form of Roman car is illustrated by the fine hanging bronze lamp representing the Moon-goddess (Luna), drawn in her chariot by a pair of bulls (No. =504=). The lamp was for three wicks, two on the outer sides of the bulls, and one at the back of Luna's head. The goddess is represented on coins of the second and third century after Christ in a similar bull-car.[56] A terracotta (No. =505=) is in the form of a four-wheeled hooded waggon, probably a travelling car of the type called [Greek: apênê] by the Greeks and _raeda_ by the Romans. In the top of Case 49 is a marble relief (No. =506=; fig. 205) representing a covered two-wheeled cart drawn by four horses. The sides of the cart are decorated with reliefs, depicting Jupiter and the two Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux. Probably the car is a _tensa_, used to convey images of the gods to and from the circus on the occasion of the games, and for other religious purposes. The relief formed part of a sarcophagus of about the third century after Christ.

=Horse-trappings.=--Case 50 contains two interesting sets of bronze harness of an early date from Italy, probably of the eighth century B.C. (No. =507=). They are mounted upon leather, and placed on models of horses' heads; the sidepieces of the bits are themselves in the form of horses. Of much later date, perhaps of the fifth or fourth century B.C., is the Greek bit from Achaea (No. =508=; fig. 206). It is remarkable for its severe character, but was certainly not out of the ordinary, for a bit of precisely similar character is described by Xenophon in his treatise on horsemanship (early fourth century B.C.).[57] He says there were two varieties of this type of bit, the mild and the severe. In the present example we may probably recognise the severe variety, which had "the 'wheels' heavy and small and the 'hedgehogs' sharp, in order that the horse when he got it into his mouth might be distressed by its roughness and give up resisting." The "wheels" are clearly the central discs for pressing on the tongue, while the prickly cylinders at the sides were aptly termed "hedgehogs" by the Greeks. In this same Case there are also examples of the milder Roman bit, one in iron and another in lead, perhaps intended for votive use.

Case 51 contains three examples of muzzles for horses (No. =509=), nearly complete, with a fragment of a fourth. These muzzles are in bronze, but we can hardly expect that this was the usual material. Probably the bronze examples were reserved for state occasions or else only used by the very wealthy. The muzzles depicted on vases seem rather to be of some pliant material--leather, for example. It is probable that all the bronze examples in this Case belong to the Greek period, though the one here illustrated (fig. 207) has been assigned to as late a date as the fourth century after Christ. The muzzle was only used when the horse was being rubbed down or led, not when he was ridden or driven. Xenophon[58] observes that "the groom must understand how to put the muzzle on the horse, when he takes him out to rub him or to roll him. And, indeed, wherever he takes him without a bridle, he ought to muzzle him." The muzzles must have been fastened to the horse's head by straps attached to the rings seen on each side of them.

It has been a subject of controversy whether Greek and Roman horses were shod. There is no mention of horse-shoes in Greek literature, and it seems improbable that they were used by the Greeks. Xenophon advises the use of a specially constructed stone floor for hardening the horse's hoofs,[59] but in spite of such precautions, it is not surprising to hear that the Athenian cavalry horses sometimes went lame as a result of continuous work on hard ground.[60] Horse-shoes are occasionally (though rarely) spoken of in Roman literature. Their use seems to have been quite exceptional as when Nero, for instance, had his mules shod with silver.[61] In the lower part of Case 51 will be seen a series of iron shoes of the Roman period (No. =510=; fig. 208), for the most part found in the south of France. It is impossible to believe that these were ever used as ordinary horse-shoes. The most plausible theory is that they were "hobbles," put on the feet of horses and other quadrupeds to prevent them straying. The upper part of this same Case contains sets of spurs (No. =511=), most of them probably Roman. The arrangement for attaching the spurs to the heel varies. Two have loops formed by the head and neck of swans, three have discs or knobs, while another has holes for laces.