Chapter VII: Introduction: Of the Mount's Bay, and the Land's End District (5)

The desolate and barren appearance of the country in the neighbourhood of Hayle Sands, is much relieved by the woodland scenery of _Trevethoe_, the seat of the family of _Praed_; the father of the present possessor first introduced the _Pineaster Fir_, as a nurse for the growth of forest trees, and the estate of Trevethoe, as well as many others in the county, affords a striking evidence of the expediency of the plan. To the same gentleman we are indebted for the introduction of the _Arundo arenaria_, above mentioned.

Arriving at the bridge of _Saint Erth_, the traveller will perceive that a considerable portion of the breadth of the peninsula is here penetrated by an arm of the sea, and that the land which succeeds it in a direction towards the south is so low, that a canal might easily be cut along the hills which terminate at Marazion, and a communication be thus opened between the English and Irish Channels; or that an iron rail-way for the conveyance of coals, sand, &c. might be constructed at a comparatively small expense.

At _Saint Erth_, were formerly situated the "_Rolling Mills_" for reducing blocks, or bars of Copper, into flat sheets, as described in the first edition of this "Guide;" since, however, the Copper-works at Hayle have been abandoned, these mills have been used for rolling and hammering iron.

In the neighbourhood of _Saint Erth_ is _Tredrea_, the Cornish residence of Davies Gilbert, Esq. M. P.

On our return to Penzance an opportunity occurs of witnessing the operation of _smelting_ Tin ore.[81] It consists in first heating the ore, with about an eighth part of _Culm_,[82] in a reverbatory furnace for six hours, during which period the sulphur and arsenic are volatilized, and the ore is reduced to its metallic state; the furnace is then _tapped_, and the liquid metal _run out_; a second melting, however, is necessary before it is sufficiently pure to be cast into _blocks_,[83] and assayed at the Coinage. After this last melting, and before the Tin is poured into the moulds, a piece of green apple-tree wood is thrown into the liquid metal, and kept under its surface; the effect of which is to throw up the _scoria_ with rapidity; it would seem to act merely in producing a violent ebullition by the sudden disengagement of steam. One hundred parts of the oxide of Tin ("_Black Tin_") at an average will yield about 65 parts of metal, or _White Tin_, as it is technically termed.

_Ludgvan Church_, which appears upon an elevation on the right of the road leading to Penzance, and which forms so prominent a feature on the shores of the bay, will be visited by the Antiquary with sensations of respect, when he learns that it contains the mortal remains of Dr. Borlase the venerable and learned author of the Natural History and Antiquities of Cornwall. From the Latin Inscription on his tomb it appears that he was fifty-two years rector of this parish, and that he died August 31st 1772, in the 77th year of his age. Although Dr. Borlase spent the greater part of a long life in this retired district, his fame as a scholar had spread through all the literary circles of the age. If we require any other testimony of his talents than that which his own works will afford, we may receive it from no less an oracle than POPE, with whom he regularly corresponded. In a letter written by the Poet, to express his thanks for the present of a Cornish diamond, presented by Dr. Borlase for the decoration of his grotto, Pope thus expresses himself, "I have received your gift, and have so placed it in my grotto, that it will resemble the donor--_in the shade, but shining_."

If in the course of the present work we have ventured any remarks upon the opinions of Dr. Borlase which may be considered in the slightest degree disrespectful to his talents, we willingly offer this expiation at his shrine. His errors, whatever they may have been, were the inevitable consequence of the infant state of those sciences indirectly connected with his pursuits, not the result of literary incapacity, or of depraved judgment.

"Custodiat Urnam
Cana Fides, vigilentque perenni lampade Musæ."

About half a mile below the _Church-Town_, crossing the road to Marazion, is a _vallum_ thrown up in the civil war by the Parliament forces when they besieged Saint Michael's Mount.

FOOTNOTES:

[66] Kenegie became the seat of the younger branch of Harris of Heyne, in about the year 1600.

[67] There is also a very considerable similarity in their mode of migration. The word _Herring_ is derived from the German "_Heer_," an Army, to express their numbers, and order of array.

[68] The first outfit of a Seine, with its boats, oars, ropes, sails, nets, and a quantity of salt sufficient to cure five hundred hogsheads of fish, if purchased new, cannot be estimated at less than a Thousand pounds. The preparations for the water consists of three boats, i. e. two large ones and a small one; each large boat containing seven men, and in the small one are the master, another man, and two boys. The "_Seine Boat_" and the "_Follower_" are the names by which the two large boats are distinguished; and the small one is called the "_Lurker_."

[69] The whiteness of the sand in the Bay of St. Ives renders the shoals of fish easily distinguishable, and contributes very greatly to the success of the fishery upon this coast.

[70] The _Tunny_ fish in the Archipelago was caught by a similar process, "Ascendebat quidam (Anglice the _Huer_, Græce _Thunnoscopos_) in ultum promontorium, unde Thunnorum gregem specularetur, quo viso, signum piscatoribus dabat, qui ratibus totum gregem includebant." _Vide Blomfield's Notes on the Persæ of Eschylus, p. 148._ The seine was as familiar to the Athenians, as the Pilchard fishery is to the inhabitants of Cornwall; and it is said that Eschylus took great delight in witnessing it.

[71] The boats which attend for the purpose of conveying the fish from the _tuck net_ to the shore are termed "_Dippers_," the proprietors of which are differently compensated in different places; they either receive a certain proportion of the fish, as from one-fourth to one-sixth, according to the distance from the shore, or else they receive a certain sum of money for each boat load. When the fish are caught in the night, fires are instantly kindled on the nearest shore, as a signal for the boats in the bay to repair to the spot.

[72] These nets are of far greater antiquity than the _Seine_, the latter having been introduced from Ireland.

[73] These dregs are sold to the curriers, at about sixteen pence per gallon.

[74] The skimmings which float on the water in which the pilchards are washed, bear the name of _Garbage_, and are sold to the soap-boilers.

[75] In salting, packing, pressing, and preparing the fish for the market, there are at least 5000, 4-5ths of which are women; the rope-makers, blacksmiths, shipwrights, &c. upwards of 400; the twine spinners are women, about 150 in number; the makers and menders of nets are chiefly women and children, in all about 600. Nets are also made during the winter season, by the fishermen and their families. These numbers are of course exclusive of the seamen employed.

[76] _One and All_,--the motto of the Cornish arms.

[77] Cornwall is exempted from the payment of any duties on coal, so far as it is used for the working of the mines.

[78] All the walls in the neighbourhood are built of the same material; and since these vitreous cubes are so piled upon each other as to leave interstices, it has been facetiously observed that "_in Cornwall the walls are built of glass, and that you may distinctly see through them_."

[79] The value of this useful rush in checking the progress of sand, has been long known; there was an act of parliament in Scotland, so long ago as the year 1695, to prevent persons who collected this rush (then known by the name of _Starre_ or _Bent_) for the purpose of making mats, from plucking it up, and thereby loosening the sand. A clause to the same effect was introduced into a multifarious act of parliament in the year 1742. The operation of this clause extends generally to the north-west coast of England; but such persons as claimed prescriptive right of cutting it on the sea coast of Cumberland are exempted from its operation.

[80] A highly illustrative series of this rock is deposited in the Geological Cabinet at Penzance.

[81] Tin appears to have been formerly smelted by the Jews, who in the reign of King John monopolized the tin trade, by merely hollowing out a plot of ground, and fusing the oxide with wood, in an open fire. Many ancient remains of this operation have been discovered in different parts of Cornwall, in which portions of metallic tin embedded in a stratum of charred wood, or charcoal, have been found; and which have given rise to the fallacy respecting the discovery of this metal in a _native state_. In examining a fragment of this kind which was found under the surface of a low and boggy ground in the parish of Kea, the late eminent chemist, _Mr. William Gregor_, observed a _vein of saline matter running through the mass_, which he ascertained to be _muriate of tin_; a full account of this interesting phenomenon is published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Cornish Society.

[82] _Culm._ A species of very pure coal containing no sulphur. It is imported from Wales.

[83] It is a favourite custom to dress a beef-steak on the pure Tin in the mould, as soon as the surface becomes sufficiently hard to bear it; and it must be admitted to be very far superior to that which is cooked in the ordinary manner.

EXCURSION V.

TO REDRUTH, AND THE MINING DISTRICTS IN ITS VICINITY.

In the present excursion, the traveller in search of the Picturesque will meet with but meagre fare; for many a mile has the face of nature been robbed of all ornament, and the interior of the earth has been scattered over its surface in the anxious pursuit of mineral treasures. The unsightly mounds of rubbish thus produced have been accumulating for centuries, and are so highly impregnated with mineral matter that not a blade of grass will vegetate upon them.

The intelligent traveller, however, must not anticipate an excursion as destitute of interest and variety as the surface of the country which he is about to traverse, for like the shabby mien of the miser, its aspect but ill accords with its hoards; and the total absence of cultivation and rural ornament, is soon forgotten amidst the richest field of mineralogical enquiry which any country ever afforded.

As our present object is to afford the stranger such directions as may enable him to inspect this mining district with advantage, and to visit whatever is interesting and instructive in connection with it, it may in the first instance be expedient to offer a general outline of the modes in which the Cornish mines are worked, before we enter into the details of topographical description.

For many centuries[84] the Tin Mines in Cornwall have given to the country a very important place in the oeconomical history of nations, and furnished a perpetual source of employment to a very large population, which exclusive of the artisans, tradesmen, and merchants, cannot be estimated at less than sixty thousand persons.

All the transactions connected with the Tin Mines are under the controul of the Stannary Laws. Courts are held every month, and they decide by juries of six persons, with a progressive appeal to the Lord Warden, and Lords of the Duke of Cornwall's council; no custom, however, or ancient law, prevails as to the working of Copper or Lead in the Stannaries, and therefore all agreements are made upon such terms as are decided on by the contracting parties.

At present the greatest metallic product of the county is Copper,[85] although this metal is, comparatively of modern discovery, and has not been worked longer than a century. The reason assigned for its having so long remained concealed is the assumed fact, that Copper generally occurs at a much greater depth than Tin, and that, consequently, the ancients for want of proper machinery to drain off the water were compelled to relinquish the metallic vein before they reached the Copper; it is stated by Pryce, in his _Mineralogia Cornubiensis_, as a general rule, that Tin seldom continued rich and worth working lower than 50 fathoms; but of late years the richest Tin mines in Cornwall have been much deeper. _Trevenen Mine_ was 150,--_Hewas Downs_ 140,--_Poldice_ 120, and _Huel Vor_ is now upwards of 130 fathoms in depth.

Upon the first discovery of Copper ore, the miner to whom its nature was entirely unknown, gave it the name of _Poder_; and it will hardly be credited in these times, when it is stated, that he regarded it not only as useless, but upon its appearance was actually induced to abandon the mine, the common expression upon such an occasion was, that "_the ore came in and spoilt the Tin_."[86] About the year 1735, Mr. Coster, a mineralogist of Bristol, observed this said _Poder_ among the heaps of rubbish, and seeing that the miners were wholly unacquainted with its value, he formed the design of converting it to his own advantage; he accordingly entered into a contract to purchase as much of it as could be supplied. The scheme succeeded, and Coster long continued to profit by Cornish ignorance.

The mines in the county of Cornwall consist chiefly of Tin and Copper, besides which there are some which yield Lead[87], Cobalt,[88] and Silver.[89] The ores are in veins which are provincially termed _Lodes_, the most important of which run in an east and west direction; during their course they vary considerably in width, from that of a barley-corn to 36 feet;[90] the average may be stated at from one to four feet. It is, however, by no means regular, the same lode will vary in size from six inches to two feet, in the space of a few fathoms. No instance has yet occurred of lodes having been cut out in depth; the deepest mine now at work is _Dolcoath_, which is about 235 fathoms from the surface to the lowest part.[91] _Crenver_ and _Oatfield_ have lately been stopped; they were 240 fathoms deep. The rocks through which the lodes descend are of different kinds, thus are Copper and Tin found in _granite_, as well as in _slate_.[92] The Tin in these veins[93] generally occurs in the state of an _oxide_; the only Copper ore of any consequence is _Copper Pyrites_, or Sulphuret of Copper; the _arseniates_, _carbonates_, &c. being too small in quantity to be of any importance in a mining point of view. _Iron_ and _Arsenical Pyrites_ are also very common attendants, and are both confounded under the name of _Mundic_. Besides the metalliferous veins which run easterly and westerly, we have already stated that there are others, not generally containing ore, which maintain a direction from North to South, and on that account are called _cross courses_, and often prove to the miner a great source of trouble and vexation; for they not only cut through the other veins, but frequently alter their position, or _heave_ them, as it is termed; and it is a very curious fact that most of the _Tin_ and _Copper_ lodes, thus _heaved_, are shifted in such a manner, as to be generally found by turning to the _right_ hand; _left_ handed heaves being comparatively rare. In _Huel Peever_ this vexatious phenomenon occurred, and it was not until after a search of forty years that the _lode_ was recovered.[94] The discovery of metalliferous veins is effected by various methods, the most usual one is by sinking pits to the solid rock, and then driving a trench north and south, so as to meet with every vein in the tract through which it passes; the process is a very ancient one, and is termed _Costeening_.[95] The operation, however, of opening a new mine from the surface, or from _Grass_,[96] as it is called, is not one of frequent occurrence.[97] The reworking of mines which have been formerly abandoned, on account of the produce being insufficient to pay the costs, from the fall of the standard price of ore, is quite sufficient to absorb all the speculative spirit of the country.

But by whatever accident or method a lode may be discovered, the leave of the proprietor of the soil must be obtained before any operations can be commenced, except in such cases of Tin Mines as are anciently _embounded_ according to the provisions of the Stannary Laws. The owner of the land is technically called the _Lord_, whose share (which is termed his _Dish_) is generally one-sixth, or one-eighth of the profits; the parties who engage to work the mine are called _Adventurers_, their shares depending upon their original contributions and agreements.

When it has been determined to work a mine, three material points are to be considered; viz. the discharge of the water,--the removal of the barren rock and rubbish (_deads_),--and the raising of the ore. One of the first objects, therefore, is to cut an _Adit_,[98] as it is called, which in an inclined underground passage, about six feet high, and 2½ wide, and is generally commenced at the bottom of a neighbouring valley, and is driven up to the vein, for the purpose of draining it of water above their point of contact; these _Adits_ are sometimes continued to a very considerable distance, and although the expense of forming them is necessarily very considerable, yet they are found to afford the most oeconomical method of getting rid of the water, in as much as it saves the labour of the steam-engine in raising it to (_Grass_) the surface. As soon as the vertical aperture, or _Shaft_, is sunk to some depth, a machine called a _Whim_ is erected, to bring up the _deads_, and ore. It consists of a perpendicular axis on which a large hollow cylinder of timber, termed the _Cage_, revolves; and around this a rope, directed down the _Shaft_ by a pulley, winds horizontally. In the axis a transverse beam is fixed, at the ends of which two horses are fastened, and going their rounds haul up a basket (or _Kibbul_) full of ore, or _deads_, whilst an empty one is descending.[99] As the lode never runs down perpendicularly it is necessary to cut galleries, called _Levels_, horizontally on the vein, one above another. These levels are, in the first instance, about two feet wide, and six feet high, but varying according to circumstances, and being frequently extended much beyond their original dimensions. They are driven one above the other at intervals of from 10 to 20, or 30 fathoms. When extended to a certain distance from the original vertical _Shaft_, it is necessary, for the sake of ventilation, as well as for other reasons, to form a second which is made to traverse all the levels in the same manner as the first. A communication is frequently only made between two galleries by a partial shaft (called a _Wins_) in the interval between the two great shafts. When there are more than one lode worked in the same mine, as frequently happens, _Levels_ often run parallel to each other at the same depth. In this case they communicate by intermediate _Levels_ driven through the rock (or _Country_ as it is called) which are denominated _Cross-cuts_. A mine thus consists of a series of horizontal galleries, generally one above the other, but sometimes running parallel, traversed at irregular intervals by vertical shafts, and all, either directly or indirectly, communicating with each other.[100]

The subterranean excavations are effected by breaking down the looser parts by the pickaxe, and by _blasting_ the more solid rock by gunpowder.[101] In accomplishing this latter operation the most melancholy accidents have occurred, in consequence of the iron rammer coming in contact with some siliceous substance, and thus striking fire. The recurrence of this evil it is hoped has been prevented by the laudable efforts of the Geological Society as above related (see page 30), and that the "_Iron Age_" has taken its final departure.

If the traveller is inclined to descend into a mine he is to be first accoutred in a flannel jacket and trowsers, a close cap, an old broad-brimmed hat, and a thick pair of shoes; a lighted candle is put into one hand, and a spare one suspended to a button of his jacket. The flannel dress is worn close to the skin, in order to absorb the perspiration, and every part of the ordinary dress is laid aside; thus equipped, if he possess sufficient strength of nerve, he may descend the vertical ladders with the most perfect ease and security;--but will a view of the mine repay all this trouble and fatigue?--let us hear what Dr. Forbes has said upon this occasion.[102] "A person unacquainted with the details of mining, on being informed of many hundreds of men being employed in a single mine, might naturally imagine that a visit to their deep recesses would afford a picturesque and imposing spectacle of gregarious labour and bustle, tremendous noise, and much artificial brilliancy to cheer the gloom. Nothing, however, is further from the truth, as far as regards the mines of Cornwall; for, like their fellow labourers the moles, the miners are solitary in their operations. Seldom do we find more than three or four men in one _level_, or gallery, at a time, where they are seen pursuing the common operations of digging or boring the rock, by the feeble glimmering of a small candle, stuck close by them, with very little noise or much latitude for bodily movement; besides whom there are generally one or two boys employed in wheeling the broken ore, &c. to the shaft. Each of these boys has also a candle affixed to his wheelbarrow, by the universal subterranean candlestick, a piece of clay. A certain band of men, who, however numerous, are always called "_a Pair_," generally undertake the working of a particular _Level_. These subdivide themselves into smaller bodies, which, by relieving each other at the end of every six or eight hours, keep up the work uninterruptedly, except on Sunday. By means of this subdivision of _the Pairs_, there is in general not more than one-third of the underground labourers below at any one time. Very seldom are the miners within the sound of each other's operations, except occasionally when they hear the dull report of the explosions. In the vicinity of the main shaft, indeed, the incessant action of the huge chain of pumps, produces a constant, but not very loud noise, while the occasional rattling of the metallic buckets against the walls of the shaft, as they ascend and descend, relieves the monotony both of the silence and the sound. Still every thing is dreary, dull, and cheerless; and you can be with difficulty persuaded, even when in the richest and most populous mines, that you are in the centre of such extensive and important operations." For keeping the workings from being inundated, each mine is furnished with a chain of pumps, extending from the bottom to the _adit-level_, worked by a single pump-rod; each pump receiving the water brought up by the one immediately below it. All the water of the deepest level finds its way into the bottom of the mine, technically called the _Sump_, whence it is finally elevated to the adit, through which it flows by a gentle descent to the surface.[103]

We have yet to notice a fact connected with the natural history of these subterranean recesses, which has lately excited a very considerable share of interest in the members of the Cornish Geological Society,--that _the natural temperature of the earth in these mines is considerably above that of the mean of the climate, and increases with the depth, at the rate of about one degree for every 50 or 60 feet_.[104] Does there exist then a permanent source of heat in the interior of the earth?

The business of a mine is managed by a foreman, called the _Captain_, who keeps the accounts, and pays and regulates the miners; there are also _Under-ground Captains_, who have the immediate inspection of the works below. There exists a popular belief that the Cornish miner frequently lives under ground for many days, or weeks, without ever visiting the surface. This is never the case at any time, or under any circumstances. He does not even eat, much less sleep, in the mine, but returns _to grass_, and to his home, often many miles distant, at whatever depth he may have been working, when relieved from his labours.

With respect to the value of the mines, considered as property, it may be observed, that the whole concern is a Lottery, in which there exist many blanks to a prize, and were the whole of the speculation to be invested in any one individual, there is no doubt but that, after paying the required dues to the lords of the soil, and defraying the necessary expenses for working the mines, he would at the conclusion of the year be a loser by many thousand pounds. It is very true that there are many cases of extraordinary gain,[105] but these are balanced by more numerous concerns in which loss is incurred. How then does it happen that any capitalists can be induced to engage in the speculation? The answer is obvious, for the very same reason that they are induced to purchase tickets in the State Lottery. There are moreover additional motives which induce individuals of a certain description to embark in the speculation, although, as simple adventurers, they may scarcely anticipate success, such are landholders, who are naturally desirous of promoting an undertaking from which they must necessarily receive considerable dues; or merchants, who by becoming shareholders, are empowered to supply the mines with timber, candles,[106] gunpowder, and other articles which are required for its working.

Having thus considered the mode in which the ore is excavated from the mine, and brought to the surface, let us examine the processes which it ultimately assumes the state of marketable metal.

The Tin ore is first _spalled_, as it is termed, that is, broken into smaller fragments, and separated from the worthless parts; it is then pounded in the _Stamping mill_,[107] an operation which is essential to the complete separation of the oxide from the hard matrix through which it is disseminated: if full of slime it is first thrown into a pit called a _buddle_, where it is worked in order to render the _Stamping_ more free, and to prevent it from choaking the grates; if however it is free from slime, the ore is shoveled into a kind of sloping canal of timber, called the _Pass_, whence it slides by its own, weight, and the assistance of a small stream of water, into the box where the _Lifters_ work; the _Lifters_ are raised by a water wheel, and they are armed at the bottom with large masses of iron weighing nearly two hundred weight, which pound or _stamp_ the ore small enough for its passage through the holes of an iron grate fixed in one end of the box, a rill of water carries it by a small gutter into the _fore pit_, where it makes its first settlement, the lighter particles running forward with the water into the _middle pit_, and thence into the third, where what is called the _slime_, or finest portion, settles; from these pits the ore is carried to the _Keeve_, which is a large vat containing water, in which it is farther purified by an operation called _tozing_, and which consists in stirring the water round by means of a small shovel, with such velocity as to keep the _tin stuff_ in a state of suspension, until the whole quantity which can be managed by one operation is thrown into the vat, and when the _Tozer_ slackens his efforts, the Tin subsides to the bottom, from its greater specific gravity, leaving the sand and other impurities at the top; while this is going on the upper part of the vessel is beaten with mallets for some minutes, in order more effectually to ensure this separation.

A third process still remains to be described, that of Dressing the sand on an inclined plain with the assistance of a small stream of water; a great degree of manual dexterity is here requisite; the object, however, is effected with less trouble and expense, and much more completely, by the German "_Repercussion Frames_," of which there is a model in the Geological Museum at Penzance.

Upon the same mechanical principle of separation, founded on the relative specific gravities of the Tin oxide, and the earthy matters with which it may be mixed, the Tinner is at once enabled to estimate the value of any given sample of ore; for which purpose the _Tin stuff_ is placed on a shovel, and washed under a stream of water, until the impure earthy particles are carried off from its sides, when by a peculiar and dextrous motion, not easily described, all the particles of the ore are collected together on the fore part of the shovel. This operation is called _Vanning_.

When the Tin ore is contaminated with _Mundic_, that is, with _Arsenical_ and _Iron Pyrites_, it is first roasted in the _Burning House_, and then washed; by which means the Tin, which is heavy, is easily separated from the other ores, which are comparatively light. If any _Sulphuret of Copper_ be present, the same process is calculated to separate it, by thus converting it into a _Sulphate_,[108] as described at page 128.

When the ore is dressed, the lord of the soil receives that portion which is his due, after which it is divided into as many _doles_ or shares, as there are adventurers; and these are measured out by barrows, an account of which is kept, in the manner of the old times, by a person who notches a stick.

The manner of dressing and cleansing _Copper_ ore is nearly similar to that of Tin, except indeed that as it is raised in large masses, and is tolerably pure, it does not generally require _Stamping_, nor much washing.

All these different processes furnish employment for a great number of women and children, and it is really interesting to see the dexterity and cheerfulness with which they pursue the occupation. There is, however, one practice which ought to be reformed--the burthen of the _Standard Barrow_ used in carrying Copper, and which is said to contain three hundred weight; in addition to which we must allow for the weight of the barrow itself, and that of the water held by the recently washed ore, so that it cannot be estimated at less than four hundred weight. This is an enormous burthen, which is borne by all descriptions of persons who are employed in dressing and weighing, and it has given rise to many evils.

Those who work below have generally a wretched and emaciated appearance, although they seldom continue longer under ground than six hours in the twenty-four, but are relieved by a fresh corps. Pulmonary consumption may be said to be the disease to which they are more particularly liable.

The names by which the Cornish mines are distinguished are usually invented by the first adventurers, and are often whimsical enough, the usual prefix, _Huel_, (always pronounced, and generally erroneously spelt, _Wheel_) signifies in the Cornish language _a hole_; while the specific name of the mine is taken from some trivial or accidental circumstance, thus _Dolcoath_ was the name of an old woman, _Dorothy Koath_, who lived upon the spot where the working of the mine commenced; _Huel Providence_ was so called from the accidental way in which it was discovered; and _Huel Boys_ from the lode having been first noticed by children who had been playing, and digging pits in imitation of shafts.

By a rough calculation it may be stated that there are about 130 mines in the county, but the number is of course subject to variation; old workings being frequently given up, and new mines opened, or forsaken ones resumed.

Besides the mines, there are also "_Stream Works_," which afford a large quantity of the purest _oxide_.[109] They occur in vallies, and derive their name from the manner in which they are worked; which merely consists in washing the alluvial soil by directing a stream of water over it, when the finer particles being washed away, the _Tin ore_ is procured in a separate form.[110] The process is termed _Streaming for Tin_. It is a singular fact that the only traces of Gold to be found in Cornwall[111] are in these alluvial depositions, in which it sometimes occurs in small grains, mostly detached, but occasionally adhering to quartz. The miners engaged in the stream works are generally prepared with quills, into which they drop these particles as they find them, and when the quill is full, it is carried to the goldsmith for sale, and considered as a perquisite.

But it is time for us to resume our topographical descriptions--

In our road to Redruth we pass _Clowance_ the seat of Sir John St. Aubyn, Baronet. _Pendarves_ the residence of Edward William Wynne Pendarves, Esq. son of the late John Stackhouse, Esq. the elegant author of "_Nereis Britannica_," and _Tehidy Park_, the mansion of Francis Basset, Lord de Dunstanville, &c.

About two miles west of Redruth, is DOLCOATH, a copper mine which every intelligent traveller ought to visit, not only on account of the immensity of the concern, and the ability and liberality with which it is conducted, but because it is so situated on the brow of a hill, that the spectator can at one glance see all the principal machinery by which it is worked. It is quite impossible to convey an idea of this singular and interesting scene;--Steam Engines;--Water Wheels;--Horse Whims;--Stamping Mills,--are all in motion before us, while in the glen beneath us many hundred labourers are to be seen busily engaged in the different operations of separating, dressing, and carrying the ore. The same stream of water pouring down the hill turns successively numerous overshot wheels, and serves various other purposes in its course; and, having thus performed upon the surface, all that ingenuity could devise, or the operations of mining require, it is conducted into the bowels of the earth, where, at a hundred and fifty feet beneath its surface, it again turns an overshot wheel of fifty feet in diameter, and becomes again subservient to the skilful exertions of the miner. In the whole circle of human inventions there is nothing which so fully manifests the resources of intellect, for the production of immense effects, as the stupendous art of mining; and it is impossible that the workings of Dolcoath can be viewed without the strongest sensation of wonder and exultation. The works of the mine stretch upwards of a mile in length from east to west; an extent of ground penetrated by innumerable shafts, and honey-combed by subterranean galleries. Upon the summit of the hill is another rich copper mine, _Cook's Kitchen_, which is on the same suite of lodes as _Dolcoath_, but separated by a cross-course which forms a natural boundary to both. This cross-course has so _heaved_ the lodes, that many which are worked with great profit in the former mine cannot be discovered in the latter, notwithstanding the laborious search which has been made for that purpose.

The picturesque effect of this scenery is not a little heightened by the bold elevation of _Carn-breh Hill_, which, crowned with the mouldering remains of past ages, rises, as if in mockery of the boasted prowess of art, and forms a most striking and impressive contrast to the active scene before us.

REDRUTH is a very populous town of high antiquity, situated in the bosom of the mining district, and capable of affording very excellent accommodation to the mineralogist who may be desirous of remaining some days for the purpose of inspecting, at his leisure, the numerous mines by which it is surrounded. The general level of this metalliferous district is from 350 to 450 feet above the sea; and being frequently intersected by vallies, great opportunities are presented for the advantageous construction of _Adits_.

We next proceed to visit the great Steam-Engine of Chacewater mine, situated three miles south of Redruth. It was erected about the year 1813, and was at that period the most powerful machine in the world. It is a double engine upon the improved principle of Bolton and Watt, and the style and elegance with which its different parts are finished, reflect no inconsiderable credit upon the engineer. The following are its dimensions; the cylinder is 66 inches, the box 19, in diameter. The depth of the engine shaft is 128 fathoms. From the _Adit_ to the bottom 90 fathoms. It makes eight strokes in a minute, and at every stroke it raises 108 gallons of water to the _Adit_;[112] and, at the same time also, 60 gallons, 10 fathoms high, for the purpose of condensing the steam. The quantity of coals consumed in twenty-four hours is estimated at about eight chaldrons. To give at once a popular idea of its immense power, it may be stated that, if it were applied as a mill, it could grind a Winchester bushel of wheat every minute. Notwithstanding the immensity of its force, and complexity of parts, so completely is it under the discretion and guidance of the engineer, that in one instant he is able to stop its motions by the mere application of his finger and thumb to a screw.--"We put a hook in the nose of the Leviathian;--play with him as a child, and take him as a servant for ever."

From Chacewater we proceed southward about two miles to visit the extensive Copper mines, called "_The Consolidated Mines_," the working of which has been lately resumed. Here we shall find two immense Steam Engines, with cylinders of 90 inches in diameter, constantly at work; the interior of which is kept as clean as a drawing-room. The capital expended in setting these mines at work was not less than £65,000, and under the arrangement of Mr. William Davey, the concern has proved so profitable, that shares are now selling in London at £100 per cent. profit.

Near the _Consolidated Mines_ are _Huel Unity_ and _Poldice_; the former is a Copper mine; the latter produces both Copper and Tin. The most beautiful specimens of _Arseniate of Copper_, and _Arseniate of Lead_ have been found in these mines.

Having concluded our account of the mining district, it remains for us to offer to the mineralogical tourist a few observations upon the subject of Cornish Minerals, and upon the best method of procuring them; before the stranger, however, attempts to purchase any specimens, it will be well for him to inspect the several splendid cabinets in the county; besides that in the museum of the Royal Geological Society, at Penzance, he should see those in the possession of William Rashleigh, Esq. M. P. of _Menabilly_;[113] John Williams, Esq. of _Scorrier House_, and Joseph Carne, Esq. of _Penzance_. The one in possession of Mr. Rashleigh, if not the most accessible to the mineralogist, must be confessed to be without comparison, the most splendid. Its chief excellence consists in the magnificence and variety of the _Oxide of Tin_,[114] _Fluors_, _Malachite_, and some of the rarer varieties of _Sulphuret of Copper_, from mines which have long since ceased to be worked. Among the more remarkable specimens are those of _Oxide of Tin_ (from Saint Agnes) some of the more interesting varieties of which present the following forms,--very large octohedrons with, and without, truncations;--the crystal described by Klaproth as one of the rarest occurrence, _viz._--the four-sided prism, with a four-sided pyramid at each extremity; this is to be seen in its simple form, and also with a rich variety of truncations;--a group of four-sided pyramids covered with a thin coating of _Calcedony_, which, being _hydrophanous_, shews the form of the crystal very distinctly after immersion in water; _Wood-tin_ forming a vein in a matrix of quartz, to one side of which adheres a fragment of rock; it is hardly necessary to remind the mineralogist of the importance of this specimen in a geognostic point of view;[115] Tin crystals having a coating of black _hæmatite_; _Sulphuret of Tin_, a mineral which has never been found in any part of the world except at _Huel Rock_, in Saint Agnes, _Stenna-gwyn_, in Saint Stephen's, and _Huel Scorrier_ in Gwennap.[116] In the collection of Tins may be seen several small blocks[117] of that metal, as prepared by the Jews, for commerce, during the early workings of the Cornish mines, among which is a fraudulent one consisting of a mass of stone covered with a thin coating of metal. In the collection of Coppers may be noticed _Yellow_ _Copper ore_ with _Opal_ (from Roskeir); _the triple Sulphuret of Antimony, Copper, and Lead_ in various forms; _Ruby Copper_ in cubes; _Quartz_ containing globules of water; the _Hydrargyllite_ or _Wavellite_, in a plumose form accompanied by _Apatite_ in a matrix of Quartz (from Saint Stephen's), _Topazes_ of considerable lustre (from Saint Agnes), _Green Fluor_ in crystals of twenty-four sides (Saint Agnes). A most beautiful and instructive cube of _Fluor_, the surface of which reflects a delicate green hue, but upon being held to the light the crystal exhibits its octohedral nucleus of a purple colour. The mineralogist should also notice a superb octohedron _of Gold_, and a mass of _Stalactitical Arragonite_ from the grotto of Antiparos. Before quitting Menabilly he ought to visit the grotto, built in a beautiful and secluded part of the grounds, near the shore in the port of Polredmouth. It stands at the extremity of a large grove, and is constructed with the finest species of marble and serpentine, with brilliant crystals, pebbles, and shells; its form is that of an octagon, two of the sides of which are appropriated to the door and window which front each other, while the six remaining sides form receptacles for minerals, four of which contain specimens of ores found in the county, and two are filled with organic fossils, polished agates, and jaspers; the intermediate spaces are occupied by shells, coralloids, and various other substances. The roof is composed of _Stalactites_ of singular beauty, and which produce a very striking effect as they are seen through the roughly formed arch which composes the entrance. In this grotto are preserved two links of the chain which were found in Fowey harbour by some fishermen in the year 1776; they are of a triangular form, incrusted with shells and corals, and are supposed to have formed a part of the chain which extended from tower to tower, for the ancient defence of the harbour. Among the mineralogical specimens in this place there is one of _Calcedony_ which deserves particular notice for its beauty as well as magnitude. In the centre of the grotto is a table inlaid with thirty-two polished specimens of granite, all found in the county of Cornwall.

THE CABINET OF JOHN WILLIAMS, ESQ. is at Scorrier House, about two miles east of Redruth, and may therefore be visited by the mineralogist in the present excursion. This collection stands unrivalled in the magnificence of its specimens of _Red Oxide of Copper_, in octohedrons, cubes, and capillary crystals; it also contains the finest specimens of _Arseniate of Copper_ in very perfect obtuse octahedrons;--a mass of _Uranite_, which in size and beauty is superior to any specimens ever discovered;--_Blende_, in octohedrons and cubes;--_Native, and Ruby Silver_; and a specimen of the _Muriate_ of that metal (_Horn_ Silver) so well known for its value, that it may be said to constitute one of the most interesting objects in the collection. The _Arseniate of Lead_, in six-sided prisms, a most beautiful mineral, which was first analysed by Mr. Gregor, and has been found only in _Huel Unity_, may be seen in this cabinet in its most perfect forms.

The collection of Mr. Carne has been already noticed in our account of Penzance, at _page_ 31.

In order to collect the various minerals of the county the stranger must apply to the different dealers,[118] (_rapax et sordidum pecus_) and make the best bargain he is able; he may also occasionally purchase some good specimens of the miners at the various mines he may happen to visit. In his rambles we recommend him to visit Saint Agnes, where are the _Trevaunance_, and _Seal Hole_ mines, from which have been raised the most beautiful specimens of crystallized Tin in the world, accompanied occasionally with _Topazes_, and twenty-four-sided _Fluor_. Here too may be seen a geological phenomenon of considerable interest,--the slate of the coast intersected with _Porphyry Dykes_, Saint Agnes' Beacon is also well worthy of observation; it is an insulated eminence of a pyramidal form, entirely covered with _debris_, and is composed of _Slate_, although it rises 664 feet above the level of the sea. Saint Agnes is the birth place of the celebrated artist OPIE,[119] and the tourist may be gratified by inspecting many of the earlier productions of his pencil. But we now take our leave of the Mineralogist, and shall attend the Antiquary in order to inspect _Carn-breh hill_, which rises a little to the south-west of Redruth, to an elevation of 697 feet; its principal interest is derived from the lucubrations of Dr. Borlase, who regarded it as having been the grand centre of Druidical worship, and he asserts that, in his time, the remains of the monuments which were peculiar to that priesthood were to be easily recognized, such as _Rock Basins_; _Circles_; _Cromlechs_; _Rock Idols_; _Karns_; _Caves_; _religious enclosures_; _Logan Stones_; a _Gorseddau_, or place of elevation, whence the Druids pronounced their decrees; and the traces of a _Grove of Oaks_!--this is all very ingenious and imposing, but is there any rational testimony in support of such an hypothesis? are there any just grounds for considering the objects to which he alludes as the works of art?--most certainly none, they are unquestionably the results of the operation of time and the elements, and have never been formed by any agents except those which Nature employs in the decomposition of granitic masses; but the age of Antiquarian illusion is past; the light of geological science dispels the phantoms which the wizard fancy had created, just as the rising sun dissolves the mystic forms which the most common object assumes in twilight, when viewed through the medium of credulity and superstition. The _rock basins_ of Antiquaries are rounded cavities on the surface of rocks, and are occasionally as spheroidal, internally, as if they had been actually shaped by a turning lathe; it was this artificial appearance which first suggested the hypothesis concerning their origin, and induced the Antiquary to regard them as pools of lustration. Dr. Mac Culloch,[120] however, very justly observes, that their true nature is very easily traced by inspecting the rocks themselves; on examining the excavations they will be always found to contain distinct grains of _Quartz_, and fragments of the other constituent parts of the granite; a small force is sufficient to detach from the sides of these cavities additional fragments, shewing beyond doubt, that a process of decomposition is still going on under favourable circumstances; these circumstances are the presence of water, or rather the alternate action of air and moisture; if a drop of water can only make an effectual lodgement on a surface of this granite a small cavity must be sooner or later produced, this insensibly enlarges as it becomes capable of holding more water, and the sides as they continue to waste necessarily retain an even and rounded cavity, on account of the uniform texture of the granite. This explanation is sufficiently satisfactory; in addition to which it may be further stated, that these very _basins_ not unfrequently occur on the perpendicular sides of rocks,[121] which at once excludes the idea of their artificial origin.

The other grotesque and whimsical appearances of rocky masses, such as "_rock idols_, _logan stones_," &c. are to be explained upon the tendency which granite possesses of wearing more rapidly on the parts which are most exposed to the action of the weather, as already explained at page 104. There occurs upon the western part of the ridge of _Carn-breh_ an equipoised stone, about 20 feet in diameter, affording a very singular illustration of these views, and of which we shall here present a sketch to our readers.

Thus upon simple and philosophical principles are such appearances to be easily explained, and this _Phantasmagoria_ of the learned antiquary vanishes.

For the information of the Geologist who may visit this spot, we shall state, that in a porphyritic granite on the summit, Mr. W. Phillips has lately discovered that some of the crystals formerly considered as _Felspar_, were _Cleavelandite_;[122] and we have little doubt that this curious discovery might be extended to many of the granitic masses in Western Cornwall.

At the eastern end of the hill is _Carn-breh Castle_; the rocks upon which this building stands, not being contiguous, are connected by arches turned over the cavities; one part of the fortress pierced with loopholes is evidently very ancient, and is supposed to have been of British work; the other is of modern construction, and was probably erected as an ornamental object from the grounds of Tehidy. There were formerly some outworks to the north-west; and, near the summit of the hill is a circular fortification called the _Old Castle_, which appears to have been included within a strong wall. The hill itself, on which the spectator stands, is quite in unison with the scene around him; its silence and desolation,--the awful vestiges of its convulsion,--and the immense rocky fragments which lie scattered on its brow, are well calculated to harmonize with an extended and barren tract of country, every where broken up by mining operations, and whose horizon is bounded by the ocean.

FOOTNOTES:

[84] The Phoenicians traded upon the western coasts of Cornwall, for at least six hundred years before the birth of our Saviour, and that for the sake of Tin;--so that the antiquity of our tin trade has been established upon mercantile principles for not less than twenty-four centuries. But in the earlier ages this metal was all procured from _Stream Works_, the method of working mines not having been known and practised for more than seven hundred years.

[85] In the year 1822, the produce of the Copper mines in Cornwall amounted to 106,723 tons of ore, which produced 9,331 tons in Copper, and £676,285 in money. Whereas the quantity of Tin Ore raised did not exceed 20,000 tons.

[86] The Saxon Miners formerly regarded _Cobalt_ in the same way. They considered it so troublesome when they found it among other ores, that a prayer was used in the German Church, _that God would preserve Miners from Cobalt, and from Spirits_.

[87] _Lead_ is principally found in cross courses, or north and south veins. _Pentire Glaze_, near Padstow, which has lately produced the finest cabinet specimens of _Carbonate of Lead_, ever found in this country; and _Huel Golding_ in Perranzabuloe, are the principal mines in which the Lead occurs in cross courses. Lately, however, East and West Lodes of Lead have been discovered in the Parish of Newlyn, by Sir C. Hawkins, in draining a marsh. They are about two feet wide. Besides the Lead and a little quartz, they consist entirely of Clay; neither Copper nor Tin have been seen in them. The Lead yields about Sixty Ounces of Silver per Ton.

[88] _Cobalt._ _Huel Sparnon_ Tin and Copper Mine in the Parish of Redruth, is the only mine in the county that ever produced any considerable quantity of Cobalt; one fragment raised from it weighed 1333 lbs.

[89] _Silver._ In the Copper Lode of Huel Ann, there occurred a distinct vein of _black_ and _grey Silver ore_, with _Native Silver_, from two to five inches wide with a wall of Quartz, on each side. It was however very short. See Mr. Carne's paper on the Silver Mines of Cornwall, _Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall_, _vol._ i. _p._ 118.

[90] Only one Lode in Cornwall has, however, been found of this size, and that only for the length of 20 fathoms in _Relistian_. In _Nangiles_ the lode is, in some parts, 30 feet wide.

[91] As the Counting House of Dolcoath has been determined to be 360 feet above the level of the sea, the mine extends 1050 feet below it; which is probably deeper under the sea level than any mine in the globe.

[92] Clay-slate is provincially called _Killas_; and Porphyry is known by the name of _Elvan_.

[93] For a full account of this subject, the reader must consult Mr. Carne's laborious paper, "_On the Veins of Cornwall_," in the 2nd Volume of the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.