Chapter XXIII: Introduction (17)

p. 59: For Shang Yang and this whole period, the classical work in English is still J.J.L. Duyvendak, _The Book of Lord Shang_, London 1928; the translation by Ma Perleberg of _The Works of Kung-sun Lung-tzu_, Hongkong 1952 as well as the translation of the _Economic Dialogues in Ancient China: The Kuan-tzu_, edited by L. Maverick, New Haven 1954 have not found general approval, but may serve as introductions to the way philosophers of our period worked. Han Fei Tz[)u]; has been translated by W.K. Liao, _The Complete Works of Han Fei Tz[)u]_, London 1939 (only part 1).

p. 60: Needham does not have such a positive attitude towards Tsou Yen, and regards Western influences upon Tsou Yen as not too likely. The discussion on pp. 60-1 follows mainly my own researches.

p. 61: The interpretation of secret societies is influenced by general sociological theory and detailed reports on later secret societies. S. Murayama and most modern Chinese scholars stress almost solely the social element in the so-called "peasant rebellions".

_Chapter Five_

p. 63: The analysis of the emergence of Ch'in bureaucracy has profited from general sociological theory, especially M. Weber (see the new analysis by R. Bendix, _Max Weber, an Intellectual Portrait_, Garden City 1960, p. 117-157). Early administration systems of this type in China have been studied in several articles in the journal _Yü-kung_ (vol. 6 and 7).

p. 65: In the discussion of language, I use arguments which have been brought forth by P. Serruys against the previously generally accepted theories of B. Karlgren.--For weights and measures I have referred to T. Sekino, Liu Fu and Wu Ch'eng-lo.

p. 66: For this period, D. Bodde's _China's First Unifier_, Leiden 1938 and his _Statesman, Patriot, and General in Ancient China_, New Haven 1940 remain valuable studies.

_Chapter Six_

p. 71: The basic historical text for this whole period, the _Dynastic History of the Han Dynasty_, is now in part available in English translation (H.H. Dubs, _The History of the Former Han Dynasty_, Baltimore 1938, 3 volumes).

p. 72: The description of the gentry is based upon my own research. Other scholars define the word "gentry", if applied to China, differently (some of the relevant studies are discussed in my note in the _Bull. School of Orient. & African Studies_, 1955, p. 373 f.).

p. 73: The theory of the cycle of mobility has been brought forth by Fr. L.K. Hsu and others. I have based my criticism upon a forthcoming study of _Social Mobility in Traditional Chinese Society_. The basic point is not the momentary economic or political power of such a family, but the social status of the family (_Li-shih yen-chiu_, Peking 1955, No. 4, p. 122). The social status was, increasingly, defined and fixed by law (Ch'ü T'ung-tsu).--The difference in the size of gentry and other families has been pointed out by a number of scholars such as Fr. L.K. Hsu, H.T. Fei, O. Lang. My own research seems to indicate that gentry families, on the average, married earlier than other families.

p. 74: The Han system of examinations or rather of selection has been studied by Yang Lien-sheng; and analysis of the social origin of candidates has been made in the _Bull. Chinese Studies_, vol. 2, 1941, and 3, 1942.--The meaning of the term "Hundred Families" has been discussed by W. Eichhorn, Kuo Mo-jo, Ch'en Meng-chia and especially by Hsü T'ung-hsin. It was later also a fiscal term.

p. 75: The analysis of Hsiung-nu society is based mainly upon my own research. There is no satisfactory history of these northern federations available in English. The compilation of W.M. MacGovern, _The Early Empires of Central Asia_, Chapel Hill 1939, is now quite antiquated.--An attempt to construct a model of Central Asian nomadic social structure has been made by E.E. Bacon, _Obok, a Study of Social Structure in Eurasia_, New York 1958, but the model constructed by B. Vladimirtsov and modified by O. Lattimore remains valuable.--For origin and early-development of Hsiung-nu society see O. Maenchen, K. Jettmar, B. Bernstam, Uchida Gimpu and many others.

p. 79: Material on the "classes" (_sz[)u] min_) will be found in a forthcoming book. Studies by Ch'ü T'ung-tsu and Tamai Korehiro are important here. An up-to-date history of Chinese education is still a desideratum.

p. 80: For Tung Chung-shu, I rely mainly upon O. Franke.--Some scholars do not accept this "double standard", although we have clear texts which show that cases were evaluated on the basis of Confucian texts and not on the basis of laws. In fact, local judges probably only in exceptional cases knew the text of the law or had the code. They judged on the basis of "customary law".

p. 81: Based mainly upon my own research. K.A. Wittfogel, _Oriental Despotism_, New Haven 1957, has a different interpretation.

p. 82: Cases in which the Han emperors disregarded the law code were studied by Y. Hisamura.--I have used here studies published in the _Bull, of Chinese Studies_, vol. 2 and 3 and in _Tôyô gakuho_, vol. 8 and 9, in addition to my own research.

p. 85: On local administration see Kat[=o] Shigeru and Yen Keng-wang's studies.

p. 86: The problem of the Chinese gold, which will be touched upon later again, has gained theoretical interest, because it could be used as a test of M. Lombard's theories concerning the importance of gold in the West (_Annales, Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations_, vol. 12, Paris 1957, No. 1, p. 7-28). It was used in China from c. 600 B.C. on in form of coins or bars, but disappeared almost completely from A.D. 200 on, i.e. the period of economic decline (see L.S. Yang, Kat[=o] Shigeru).--The payment to border tribes occurs many times again in Chinese history down to recent times; it has its parallel in British payments to tribes in the North-West Frontier Province in India which continued even after the Independence.

p. 88: According to later sources, one third of the tributary gifts was used in the Imperial ancestor temples, one third in the Imperial mausolea, but one third was used as gifts to guests of the Emperor.--The trade aspect of the tributes was first pointed but by E. Parker, later by O. Lattimore, recently by J.K. Fairbank.--The importance of Chang Ch'ien for East-West contacts was systematically studied by B. Laufer; his _Sino-Iranica_, Chicago 1919 is still a classic.

p. 89: The most important trait which points to foreign trade, is the occurrence of glass in Chinese tombs in Indo-China and of glass in China proper from the fifth century B.C. on; it is assumed that this glass was imported from the Near East, possibly from Egypt (O. Janse, N. Egami, Seligman).

p. 91: Large parts of the "Discussions" have been translated by Esson M. Gale, _Discourses on Salt and Iron_, Leiden 1931; the continuation of this translation is in _Jour. Royal As. Society, North-China Branch_ 1934.--The history of eunuchs in China remains to be written. They were known since at least the seventh century B.C. The hypothesis has been made that this custom had its origin in Asia Minor and spread from there (R.F. Spencer in _Ciba Symposia_, vol. 8, No. 7, 1946 with references).

p. 92: The main source on Wang Mang is translated by C.B. Sargent, _Wang Mang, a translation_, Shanghai 1950 and H.H. Dubs, _History of the Former Han Dynasty_, vol, 3, Baltimore 1955.

p. 93: This evaluation of the "Old character school" is not generally accepted. A quite different view is represented by Tjan Tjoe Som and R.P. Kramers and others who regard the differences between the schools as of a philological and not a political kind. I follow here most strongly the Chinese school as represented by Ku Chieh-kang and his friends, and my own studies.

p. 93: Falsification of texts refers to changes in the Tso-chuan. My interpretation relies again upon Ku Chieh-kang, and Japanese astronomical studies (Ijima Tadao), but others, too, admit falsifications (H.H. Dubs); B. Karlgren and others regard the book as in its main body genuine. The other text mentioned here is the _Chou-li_ which is certainly not written by Wang Mang (_Jung-chai Hsü-pi_ 16), but heavily mis-used by him (in general see S. Uno).

p. 94: I am influenced here by some of H.H. Dubs's studies. For this and the following period, the work by H. Bielenstein, _The Restoration of the Han Dynasty_, Stockholm 1953 and 1959 is the best monograph.--The "equalization offices" and their influence upon modern United States has been studied by B. Bodde in the _Far Eastern Quarterly_, vol. 5, 1946.

p. 95: H. Bielenstein regards a great flood as one of the main reasons for the breakdown of Wang Mang's rule.

p. 98: For the understanding of Chinese military colonies in Central Asia as well as for the understanding of military organization, civil administration and business, the studies of Lao Kan on texts excavated in Central Asia and Kansu are of greatest importance.

p. 101: Mazdaistic elements in this rebellion have been mentioned mainly by H.H. Dubs. Zoroastrism (Zoroaster born 569 B.C.) and Mazdaism were eminently "political" religions from their very beginning on. Most scholars admit the presence of Mazdaism in China only from 519 on (Ishida Mikinosuke, O. Franke). Dubs's theory can be strengthened by astronomical material.--The basic religious text of this group, the "Book of the Great Peace" has been studied by W. Eichhorn Maspero and Ho Ch'ang-ch'ün.

p. 102: For the "church" I rely mainly upon H. Maspero and W. Eichhorn.

p. 103: I use here concepts developed by Cheng Chen-to and especially by Jung Chao-tsu.

p. 104: Wang Ch'ung's importance has recently been mentioned again by J. Needham.

p. 105: These "court poets" have their direct parallel in Western Asia. This trend, however, did not become typical in China.--On the general history of paper read A. Kroeber, _Anthropology_, New York 1948, p. 490f., and Dard Hunter, _Paper Making_, New York 1947 (2nd ed.).

_Chapter Seven_

p. 109: The main historical sources for this period have been translated by Achilles Fang, _The Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms_, Cambridge, Mass. 1952; the epic which describes this time is C.H. Brewitt-Taylor, _San Kuo, or Romance of the Three Kingdoms_, Shanghai 1925.

p. 112: For problems of migration and settlement in the South, we relied in part upon research by Ch'en Yüan and Wang Yi-t'ung.

p. 114: For the history of the Hsiung-nu I am relying mainly upon my own studies.

p. 117: This analysis of tribal structure is based mainly upon my own research; it differs in detail from the studies by E. Bacon, _Obok, a Study of Social Structure in Eurasia_, New York 1958, B. Vladimirtsov, O. Lattimore's _Inner Asian Frontiers of China_, New York 1951 (2nd edit.) and the studies by L.M.J. Schram, _The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier_, Philadelphia 1954 and 1957.

p. 118: The use of the word "Huns" does not imply that we identify the early or the late Hsiung-nu with the European Huns. This question is still very much under discussion (O. Maenchen, W. Haussig, W. Henning, and others).

p. 119: For the history of the early Hsien-pi states see the monograph by G. Schreiber, "The History of the Former Yen Dynasty", in _Monomenta Serica_, vol. 14 and 15 (1949-56). For all translations from Chinese Dynastic Histories of the period between 220 and 960 the _Catalogue of Translations from the Chinese Dynastic Histories for the Period 220-960_, by Hans H. Frankel, Berkeley 1957, is a reliable guide.

p. 125: For the description of conditions in Turkestan, especially in Tunhuang, I rely upon my own studies, but studies by A. von Gabein, L. Ligeti, J.R. Ware, O. Franke and Tsukamoto Zenryû have been used, too.

p. 133: These songs have first been studied by Hu Shih, later by Chinese folklorists.

p. 134: For problems of Chinese Buddhism see Arthur F. Wright, _Buddhism in Chinese History_, Stanford 1959, with further bibliography. I have used for this and later periods, in addition to my own sociological studies, R. Michihata, J. Gernet, and Tamai Korehiro.--It is interesting that the rise of landowning temples in India occurred at exactly the same time (R.S. Sharma in _Journ. Econ. and Soc. Hist. Orient_, vol. 1, 1958, p. 316). Perhaps even more interesting, but still unstudied, is the existence of Buddhist temples in India which owned land and villages which were donated by contributions from China.--For the use of foreign monks in Chinese bureaucracies, I have used M. Weber's theory as an interpretative tool.

p. 135: The important deities of Khotan Buddhism are Vai['s]ramana and Kubera, (research by P. Demiéville, R. Stein and others).--Where, how, and why Hinayana and Mahayana developed as separate sects, is not yet studied. Also, a sociological analysis of the different Buddhist sects in China has not even been attempted yet.

p. 136: Such public religious disputations were known also in India.

p. 137: Analysis of the tribal names has been made by L. Bazin.

pp. 138-9: The personality type which was the ideal of the Toba corresponded closely to the type described by G. Geesemann, _Heroische Lebensform_, Berlin 1943.

p. 142: The Toba occur in contemporary Western sources as Tabar, Tabgaç, Tafkaç and similar names. The ethnic name also occurs as a title (O. Pritsak, P. Pelliot, W. Haussig and others).--On the _chün-t'ien_ system cf. the article by Wan Kuo-ting in E-tu Zen Sun, _Chinese Social History_, Washington 1956, p. 157-184. I also used Yoshimi Matsumoto and T'ang Ch'ang-ju.--Census fragments from Tunhuang have been published by L. Giles, Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars.

p. 143: On slaves for the earlier time see M. Wilbur, _Slavery in China during the Former Han Dynasty_, Chicago 1943. For our period Wang Yi-t'ung and especially Niida Noboru and Ch'ü T'ung-tsu. I used for this discussion Niida, Ch'ü and Tamai Korehiro.--For the _pu-ch'ü_ I used in addition Yang Chung-i, H. Maspero, E. Balazs, W. Eichhorn. Yang's article is translated in E-tu Zen Sun's book, _Chinese Social History_, pp. 142-56.--The question of slaves and their importance in Chinese society has always been given much attention by Chinese Communist authors. I believe that a clear distinction between slaves and serfs is very important.

p. 145: The political use of Buddhism has been asserted for Japan as well as for Korea and Tibet (H. Hoffmann, _Quellen zur Geschichte der tibetischen Bon-Religion_, Mainz 1950, p. 220 f.). A case could be made for Burma. In China, Buddhism was later again used as a tool by rulers (see below).

p. 146: The first text in which such problems of state versus church are mentioned is Mou Tz[)u] (P. Pelliot transl.). More recently, some of the problems have been studied by R. Michihata and E. Zürcher. Michihata also studied the temple slaves. Temple families were slightly different. They have been studied mainly by R. Michihata, J. Gernet and Wang Yi-t'ung. The information on T'an-yao is mainly in _Wei-shu_ 114 (transl. J. Ware).--The best work on Yün-kang is now Seiichi Mizuno and Toshio Nagahiro, _Yün-kang. The Buddhist Cave-Temples of the Fifth Century A.D. in North China_, Kyoto 1951-6, thus far 16 volumes. For Chinese Buddhist art, the work by Tokiwa Daijô and Sekino Tadashi, _Chinese Buddhist Monuments_, Tokyo 1926-38, 5 volumes, is most profusely illustrated.--As a general reader for the whole of Chinese art, Alexander Soper and L. Sickman's _The Art and Architecture of China_, Baltimore 1956 may be consulted.

p, 147: Zenryû Tsukamoto has analysed one such popular, revolutionary Buddhist text from the fifth century A.D. I rely here for the whole chapter mainly upon my own research.

p. 150: On the Ephtalites (or Hephtalites) see R. Ghirshman and Enoki.--The carpet ceremony has been studied by P. Boodberg, and in a comparative way by L. Olschki, _The Myth of Felt_, Berkeley 1949.

p. 151: For Yang Chien and his time see now A.F. Wright, "The Formation of Sui Ideology" in John K. Fairbank, _Chinese Thought and Institutions_, Chicago 1957, pp. 71-104.

p. 153: The processes described here, have not yet been thoroughly analysed. A preliminary review of literature is given by H. Wiens, _China's March towards the Tropics_, Hamden 1954. I used Ch'en Yüan, Wang Yi-t'ung and my own research.

p. 154: It is interesting to compare such hunting parks with the "_paradeisos"_ (Paradise) of the Near East and with the "Garden of Eden".--Most of the data on gardens and manors have been brought together and studied by Japanese scholars, especially by Kat[=o] Shigeru, some also by Ho Tzû-ch'üan.--The disappearance of "village commons" in China should be compared with the same process in Europe; both processes, however, developed quite differently. The origin of manors and their importance for the social structure of the Far East (China as well as Japan) is the subject of many studies in Japan and in modern China. This problem is connected with the general problem of feudalism East and West. The manor (_chuang_: Japanese _shô_) in later periods has been studied by Y. Sudô. H. Maspero also devotes attention to this problem. Much more research remains to be done.

p. 158: This popular rebellion by Sun En has been studied by W. Eichhorn.

p. 163: On foreign music in China see L.C. Goodrich and Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, H.G. Farmer, S. Kishibe and others.--Niida Noboru pointed out that musicians belonged to one of the lower social classes, but had special privileges because of their close relations to the rulers.

p. 164: Meditative or _Ch'an_ (Japanese: _Zen_) Buddhism in this period has been studied by Hu Shih, but further analysis is necessary.--The philosophical trends of this period have been analysed by E. Balazs.--Mention should also be made of the aesthetic-philosophical conversation which was fashionable in the third century, but in other form still occurred in our period, the so-called "pure talk" (_ch'ing-t'an_) (E. Balazs, H. Wilhelm and others).

_Chapter Eight_

p. 167: For genealogies and rules of giving names, I use my own research and the study by W. Bauer.

p. 168: For Emperor Wen Ti, I rely mainly upon A.F. Wright's above-mentioned article, but also upon O. Franke.

p. 169: The relevant texts concerning the T'u-chüeh are available in French (E. Chavannes) and recently also in German translation (Liu Mau-tsai, _Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost-T[vu]rken_, Wiesbaden 1958, 2 vol.).--The Tölös are called T'e-lo in Chinese sources; the T'u-yü-hun are called Aza in Central Asian sources (P. Pelliot, A. Minorsky, F.W. Thomas, L. Hambis, _et al_.). The most important text concerning the T'u-yü-hun had been translated by Th. D. Caroll, _Account of the T'u-yü-hun in the History of the Chin Dynasty_, Berkeley 1953.

p. 171: The transcription of names on this and on the other maps could not be adjusted to the transcription of the text for technical reasons.

p. 172: It is possible that I have underestimated the role of Li Yüan. I relied here mainly upon O. Franke and upon W. Bingham's _The Founding of the T'ang Dynasty_, Baltimore 1941.

p. 173: The best comprehensive study of T'ang economy in a Western language is still E. Balazs's work. I relied, however, strongly upon Wan Kuo-ting, Yang Chung-i, Kat[=o] Shigeru, J. Gernet, T. Naba, Niida Noboru, Yoshimi Matsumoto.

pp. 173-4: For the description of the administration I used my own studies and the work of R. des Rotours; for the military organization I used Kikuchi Hideo. A real study of Chinese army organization and strategy does not yet exist. The best detailed study, but for the Han period, is written by H. Maspero.

p. 174: For the first occurrence of the title _tu-tu_ we used W. Eichhorn; in the form _tutuq_ the title occurs since 646 in Central Asia (J. Hamilton).

p. 177: The name T'u-fan seems to be a transcription of Tüpöt which, in turn, became our Tibet. (J. Hamilton).--The Uighurs are the Hui-ho or Hui-hu of Chinese sources.

p. 179: On relations with Central Asia and the West see Ho Chien-min and Hsiang Ta, whose classical studies on Ch'ang-an city life have recently been strongly criticized by Chinese scholars.--Some authors (J.K. Rideout) point to the growing influence of eunuchs in this period.--The sources paint the pictures of the Empress Wu in very dark colours. A more detailed study of this period seems to be necessary.

p. 180: The best study of "family privileges" (_yin_) in general is by E.A. Kracke, _Civil Service in Early Sung China_, Cambridge, Mass. 1953.

p. 180-1: The economic importance of organized Buddhism has been studied by many authors, especially J. Gernet, Yang Lien-sheng, Ch'üan Han-sheng, K. Tamai and R. Michihata.

p. 182: The best comprehensive study on T'ang prose in English is still E.D. Edwards, _Chinese Prose Literature of the T'ang Period_, London 1937-8, 2 vol. On Li T'ai-po and Po Chü-i we have well-written books by A. Waley, _The Poetry and Career of Li Po_, London 1951 and _The Life and Times of Po Chü-i_, London 1950.--On the "free poem" (_tz[)u]_), which technically is not a free poem, see A. Hoffmann and Hu Shih. For the early Chinese theatre, the classical study is still Wang Kuo-wei's analysis, but there is an almost unbelievable number of studies constantly written in China and Japan, especially on the later theatre and drama.

p. 184: Conditions at the court of Hsüan Tsung and the life of Yang Kui-fei have been studied by Howard Levy and others, An Lu-shan's importance mainly by E.G. Pulleyblank, _The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-shan_, London 1955.

p. 187: The tax reform of Yang Yen has been studied by K. Hino; the most important figures in T'ang economic history are Liu Yen (studied by Chü Ch'ing-yüan) and Lu Chih (754-805; studied by E. Balazs and others).

pp. 187-8: The conditions at the time of this persecution are well described by E.O. Reischauer, _Ennin's Travels in T'ang China_, New York 1955, on the basis of his _Ennin's Diary. The Record of a Pilgrimage to China_, New York 1955. The persecution of Buddhism has been analysed in its economic character by Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars.--Metal statues had to be delivered to the Salt and Iron Office in order to be converted into cash; iron statues were collected by local offices for the production of agricultural implements; figures in gold, silver or other rare materials were to be handed over to the Finance Office. Figures made of stone, clay or wood were not affected (Michihata).

p. 189: It seems important to note that popular movements are often not led by simple farmers of members of the lower classes. There are other salt merchants and persons of similar status known as leaders.

p. 190: For the Sha-t'o, I am relying upon my own research. Tatars are the Ta-tan of the Chinese sources. The term is here used in a narrow sense.

_Chapter Nine_

p. 195: Many Chinese and Japanese authors have a new period begin with the early (Ch'ien Mu) or the late tenth century (T'ao Hsi-sheng, Li Chien-nung), while others prefer a cut already in the Middle of the T'ang Dynasty (Teng Ch'u-min, Naito Torajiro). For many Marxists, the period which we called "Modern Times" is at best a sub-period within a larger period which really started with what we called "Medieval China".

p. 196: For the change in the composition of the gentry, I am using my own research.--For clan rules, clan foundations, etc., I used D.C. Twitchett, J. Fischer, Hu Hsien-chin, Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, Niida Noboru and T. Makino. The best analysis of the clan rules is by Wang Hui-chen in D.S. Nivison, _Confucianism in Action_, Stanford 1959, p. 63-96.--I do not regard such marriage systems as "survivals" of ancient systems which have been studied by M. Granet and systematically analysed by C. Lévy-Strauss in his _Les structures élémentaires de la parenté_, Paris 1949, pp. 381-443. In some cases, the reasons for the establishment of such rules can still be recognized.--A detailed study of despotism in China still has to be written. K.A. Wittfogel's _Oriental Despotism_, New Haven 1957 does not go into the necessary detailed work.

p. 197: The problem of social mobility is now under study, after preliminary research by K.A. Wittfogel, E. Kracke, myself and others. E. Kracke, Ho Ping-ti, R.M. Marsh and I are now working on this topic.--For the craftsmen and artisans, much material has recently been collected by Chinese scholars. I have used mainly Li Chien-nung and articles in _Li-shih yen-chiu_ 1955, No. 3 and in _Mem. Inst. Orient. Cult_. 1956.--On the origin of guilds see Kat[=o] Shigeru; a general study of guilds and their function has not yet been made (preliminary work by P. Maybon, H.B. Morse, J. St. Burgess, K.A. Wittfogel and others). Comparisons with Near-Eastern guilds on the one hand and with Japanese guilds on the other, are quite interesting but parallels should not be over-estimated. The _tong_ of U.S. Chinatowns (_tang_ in Mandarin) are late and organizations of businessmen only (S. Yokoyama and Laai Yi-faai). They are not the same as the _hui-kuan_.

p. 198: For the merchants I used Ch'ü T'ung-tsu, Sung Hsi and Wada Kiyoshi.--For trade, I used extensively Ch'üan Han-sheng and J. Kuwabara.--On labour legislation in early modern times I used Ko Ch'ang-chi and especially Li Chien-nung, also my own studies.--On strikes I used Kat[=o] Shigeru and modern Chinese authors.--The problem of "vagrants" has been taken up by Li Chien-nung who always refers to the original sources and to modern Chinese research.--The growth of cities, perhaps the most striking event in this period, has been studied for the earlier part of our period by Kat[=o] Shigeru. Li Chien-nung also deals extensively with investments in industry and agriculture. The problem as to whether China would have developed into an industrial society without outside stimulus is much discussed by Marxist authors in China.

p. 199: On money policy see Yang Lien-sheng, Kat[=o] Shigeru and others.

p. 200: The history of one of the Southern Dynasties has been translated by Ed. H. Schafer, _The Empire of Min_, Tokyo 1954; Schafer's annotations provide much detail for the cultural and economic conditions of the coastal area.--For tea and its history, I use my own research; for tea trade a study by K. Kawakami and an article in the _Frontier Studies_, vol. 3, 1943.--Salt consumption according to H.T. Fei, _Earthbound China, 1945, p_. 163.

p. 201: For salt I used largely my own research. For porcelain production Li Chien-nung and other modern articles.--On paper, the classical study is Th. F. Carter, _The Invention of Printing in China_, New York 1925 (a revised edition now published by L.C. Goodrich).

p. 202: For paper money in the early period, see Yang Lien-sheng, _Money and Credit in China_, Cambridge, Mass., 1952. Although the origin of paper money seems to be well established, it is interesting to note that already in the third century A.D. money made of paper was produced and was burned during funeral ceremonies to serve as financial help for the dead. This money was, however, in the form of coins.--On iron money see Yang Lien-sheng; I also used an article in _Tung-fang tsa-chih_, vol. 35, No. 10.

p. 203: For the Kitan (Chines: Ch'i-tan) and their history see K.A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, _History of Chinese Society. Liao_, Philadelphia 1949.

p. 204: For these dynasties, I rely upon my own research.--Niida Noboru and Kat[=o] Shigeru have studied adoption laws; our specific case has in addition been studied by M. Kurihara. This system of adoptions is non-Chinese and has its parallels among Turkish tribes (A. Kollantz, Abdulkadir Inan, Osman Turan).

p. 207: For the persecution I used K. Tamai and my own research.

p. 211: This is based mainly upon my own research.--The remark on tax income is from Ch'üan Han-sheng.

p. 212: Fan Chung-yen has been studied recently by J. Fischer and D. Twitchett, but these notes on price policies are based upon my own work.--I regard the statement, that it was the gentry which prevented the growth of an industrial society--a statement which has often been made before--as preliminary, and believe that further research, especially in the growth of cities and urban institutions may lead to quite different explanations.--On estate management I relied on Y. Sudô's work.

p. 213: Research on place names such as mentioned here, has not yet been systematically done.--On _i-chuang_ I relied upon the work by T. Makino and D. Twitchett.--This process of tax-evasion has been used by K.A. Wittfogel (1938) to construct a theory of a crisis cycle in China. I do not think that such far-reaching conclusions are warranted.

p. 214: This "law" was developed on the basis of Chinese materials from different periods as well as on materials from other parts of Asia.--In the study of tenancy, cases should be studied in which wealthier farmers rent additional land which gets cultivated by farm labourers. Such cases are well known from recent periods, but have not yet been studied in earlier periods. At the same time, the problem of farm labourers should be investigated. Such people were common in the Sung time. Research along these lines could further clarify the importance of the so-called "guest families" (_k'o-hu_) which were alluded to in these pages. They constituted often one third of the total population in the Sung period. The problem of migration and mobility might also be clarified by studying the _k'o-hu_.

p. 215: For Wang An-shih, the most comprehensive work is still H. Williamson's _Wang An-shih_, London 1935, 3 vol., but this work in no way exhausts the problems. We have so much personal data on Wang that a psychological study could be attempted; and we have since Williamson's time much deeper insight into the reforms and theories of Wang. I used, in addition to Williamson, O. Franke, and my own research.

p. 216: Based mainly upon Ch'ü T'ung-tsu.--For the social legislation see Hsü I-t'ang; for economic problems I used Ch'üan Han-sheng, Ts'en Chung-mien and Liu Ming-shu.--Most of these relief measures had their precursors in the T'ang period.

p. 217: It is interesting to note that later Buddhism gave up its "social gospel" in China. Buddhist circles in Asian countries at the present time attempt to revive this attitude.

p. 218: For slaughtering I used A. Hulsewé; for greeting R. Michihata; on law Ch'ü T'ung-tsu; on philosophy I adapted ideas from Chan Wing-sit.

p. 219: A comprehensive study of Chu Hsi is a great desideratum. Thus far, we have in English mainly the essays by Feng Yu-lan (transl. and annotated by D. Bodde) in the _Harvard Journal of Asiat. Stud_., vol. 7, 1942. T. Makino emphasized Chu's influence upon the Far East, J. Needham his interest in science.

p. 220: For Su Tung-p'o as general introduction see Lin Yutang, _The Gay Genius. The Life and Times of Su Tung-p'o_, New York 1947.--For painting, I am using concepts of A. Soper here.

p. 222: For this period the standard work is K.A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-sheng, _History of Chinese Society, Liao_, Philadelphia 1949.--Po-hai had been in tributary relations with the dynasties of North China before its defeat, and resumed these from 932 on; there were even relations with one of the South Chinese states; in the same way, Kao-li continuously played one state against the other (M. Rogers _et al_.).

p. 223: On the Kara-Kitai see Appendix to Wittfogel-Feng.

p. 228: For the Hakka, I relied mainly upon Lo Hsiang-lin; for Chia Ssu-tao upon H. Franke.

p. 229: The Juchên (Jurchen) are also called Nü-chih and Nü-chen, but Juchên seems to be correct (_Studia Serica_, vol. 3, No. 2).

_Chapter Ten_

p. 233: I use here mainly Meng Ssu-liang, but also others, such as Chü Ch'ing-yüan and Li Chien-nung.--The early political developments are described by H.D. Martin, _The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China_, Baltimore 1950.

p. 236: I am alluding here to such Taoist sects as the Cheng-i-chiao (Sun K'o-k'uan and especially the study in _Kita Aziya gakuh[=o]_, vol. 2).

pp. 236-7: For taxation and all other economic questions I have relied upon Wan Kuo-ting and especially upon H. Franke. The first part of the main economic text is translated and annotated by H.F. Schurmann, _Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty_, Cambridge, Mass., 1956.

p. 237: On migrations see T. Makino and others.--For the system of communications during the Mongol time and the privileges of merchants, I used P. Olbricht.

p. 238: For the popular rebellions of this time, I used a study in the _Bull. Acad. Sinica_, vol. 10, 1948, but also Meng Ssu-liang and others.

p. 239: On the White Lotus Society (Pai-lien-hui) see note to previous page and an article by Hagiwara Jumpei.

p. 240: H. Serruys, _The Mongols in China during the Hung-wu Period_, Bruges 1959, has studied in this book and in an article the fate of isolated Mongol groups in China after the breakdown of the dynasty.

pp. 241-2: The travel report of Ch'ang-ch'un has been translated by A. Waley, _The Travels of an Alchemist_, London 1931.

p. 242: _Hsi-hsiang-chi_ has been translated by S.I. Hsiung. _The Romance of the Western Chamber_, London 1935. All important analytic literature on drama and theatre is written by Chinese and Japanese authors, especially by Yoshikawa Kôjirô.--For Bon and early Lamaism, I used H. Hoffmann.

p. 243: Lamaism in Mongolia disappeared later, however, and was reintroduced in the reformed form (Tsong-kha-pa, 1358-1419) in the sixteenth century. See R.J. Miller, _Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia_, Wiesbaden 1959.

p. 245: Much more research is necessary to clarify Japanese-Chinese relations in this period, especially to determine the size of trade. Good material is in the article by S. Iwao. Important is also S. Sakuma and an article in _Li-shih yen-chiu_ 1955, No. 3. For the loss of coins, I relied upon D. Brown.

p. 246: The necessity of transports of grain and salt was one of the reasons for the emergence of the Hsin-an and Hui-chou merchants. The importance of these developments is only partially known (studies mainly by H. Fujii and in _Li-shih-yen-chiu_ 1955, No. 3). Data are also in an unpublished thesis by Ch. Mac Sherry, _The Impairment of the Ming Tributary System_, and in an article by Wang Ch'ung-wu.

p. 247: The tax system of the Ming has been studied among others by Liang Fang-chung. Yoshiyuki Suto analysed the methods of tax evasion in the periods before the reform. For the land grants, I used Wan Kuo-ting's data.

p. 248: Based mainly upon my own research. On the progress of agriculture wrote Li Chien-nung and also Kat[=o] Shigeru and others.

p. 250: I believe that further research would discover that the "agrarian revolution" was a key factor in the economic and social development of China. It probably led to another change in dietary habits; it certainly led to a greater labour input per person, i.e. a higher number of full working days per year than before. It may be--but only further research can try to show this--that the "agrarian revolution" turned China away from technology and industry.--On cotton and its importance see the studies by M. Amano, and some preliminary remarks by P. Pelliot.

pp. 250-1: Detailed study of Central Chinese urban centres in this time is a great desideratum. My remarks here have to be taken as very preliminary. Notice the special character of the industries mentioned!--The porcelain centre of Ching-tê-chen was inhabited by workers and merchants (70-80 per cent of population); there were more than 200 private kilns.--On indented labour see Li Chien-nung, H. Iwami and Y. Yamane.

p. 253: On _pien-wen_ I used R. Michihata, and for this general discussion R. Irvin, _The Evolution of a Chinese Novel_, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, and studies by J. Jaworski and J. Pru[vs]ek. Many texts of _pien-wen_ and related styles have been found in Tunhuang and have been recently republished by Chinese scholars.

p. 254: _Shui-hu-chuan_ has been translated by Pearl Buck, _All Men are Brothers_. Parts of _Hsi-yu-chi_ have been translated by A. Waley, _Monkey_, London 1946. _San-kuo yen-i_ is translated by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor, _San Kuo, or Romance of the Three Kingdoms_, Shanghai 1925 (a new edition just published). A purged translation of Chin-p'ing-mei is published by Fr. Kuhn _Chin P'ing Mei_, New York 1940.

p. 255: Even the "murder story" was already known in Ming time. An example is R.H. van Gulik, _Dee Gong An. Three Murder Cases solved by Judge Dee_, Tokyo 1949.

p. 256: For a special group of block-prints see R.H. van Gulik, _Erotic Colour Prints of the Ming Dynasty_, Tokyo 1951. This book is also an excellent introduction into Chinese psychology.

p. 257: Here I use work done by David Chan.

p. 258: I use here the research of J.J.L. Duyvendak; the reasons for the end of such enterprises, as given here, may not exhaust the problem. It may not be without relevance that Cheng came from a Muslim family. His father was a pilgrim (_Bull. Chin. Studies_, vol. 3, pp. 131-70). Further research is desirable.--Concerning folk-tales, I use my own research. The main Buddhist tales are the _Jataka_ stories. They are still used by Burmese Buddhists in the same context.

p. 260: The Oirat (Uyrat, Ojrot, Ölöt) were a confederation of four tribal groups: Khosud, Dzungar, Dörbet and Turgut.

p. 261: I regard this analysis of Ming political history as unsatisfactory, but to my knowledge no large-scale analysis has been made.--For Wang Yang-ming I use mainly my own research.

p. 262: For the coastal salt-merchants I used Lo Hsiang-lin's work.

p. 263: On the rifles I used P. Pelliot. There is a large literature on the use of explosives and the invention of cannons, especially L.C. Goodrich and Feng Chia-sheng in _Isis_, vol. 36, 1946 and 39, 1948; also G. Sarton, Li Ch'iao-p'ing, J. Pru[vs]ek, J. Needham, and M. Ishida; a comparative, general study is by K. Huuri, _Studia Orientalia_ vol. 9, 1941.--For the earliest contacts of Wang with Portuguese, I used Chang Wei-hua's monograph.--While there is no satisfactory, comprehensive study in English on Wang, for Lu Hsiang-shan the book by Huang Siu-ch'i, _Lu Hsiang-shan, a Twelfth-century Chinese Idealist Philosopher_, New Haven 1944, can be used.

p. 264: For Tao-yen, I used work done by David Chan.--Large parts of the _Yung-lo ta-tien_ are now lost (Kuo Po-kung, Yüan T'ung-li studied this problem).

p. 265: Yen-ta's Mongol name is Altan Qan (died 1582), leader of the Tümet. He is also responsible for the re-introduction of Lamaism into Mongolia (1574).--For the border trade I used Hou Jen-chih; for the Shansi bankers Ch'en Ch'i-t'ien and P. Maybon. For the beginnings of the Manchu see Fr. Michael, _The Origins of Manchu Rule in China_, Baltimore 1942.

p. 266: M. Ricci's diary (Matthew Ricci, _China in the Sixteenth Century_. The Journals of M. Ricci, transl. by L.J. Gallagher, New York 1953) gives much insight into the life of Chinese officials in this period. Recently, J. Needham has tried to show that Ricci and his followers did not bring much which was not already known in China, but that they actually attempted to prevent the Chinese from learning about the Copernican theory.

p. 267: For Coxinga I used M. Eder's study.--The Szechwan rebellion was led by Chang Hsien-chung (1606-1647); I used work done by James B. Parsons. Cheng T'ien-t'ing, Sun Yueh and others have recently published the important documents concerning all late Ming peasant rebellions.--For the Tung-lin academy see Ch. O. Hucker in J.K. Fairbank, _Chinese Thought and Institutions_, Chicago 1957. A different interpretation is indicated by Shang Yüeh in _Li-shih yen-chiu_ 1955, No. 3.

p. 268: Work on the "academies" (shu-yüan) in the earlier time is done by Ho Yu-shen.

pp. 273-4: Based upon my own, as yet unfinished research.

p. 274: The population of 1953 as given here, includes Chinese outside of mainland China. The population of mainland China was 582.6 millions. If the rate of increase of about 2 per cent per year has remained the same, the population of mainland China in 1960 may be close to 680 million. In general see P.T. Ho. _Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953_, Cambridge, Mass., 1960.

p. 276: Based upon my own research.--A different view of the development of Chinese industry is found in Norman Jacobs, _Modern Capitalism and Eastern Asia_, Hong Kong 1958. Jacobs attempted a comparison of China with Japan and with Europe. Different again is Marion Levy and Shih Kuo-heng, _The Rise of the Modern Chinese Business Class_, New York 1949. Both books are influenced by the sociological theories of T. Parsons.

p. 277: The Dzungars (Dsunghar; Chun-ko-erh) are one of the four Ölöt (Oirat) groups. I am here using studies by E. Haenisch and W. Fuchs.

p. 278: Tibetan-Chinese relations have been studied by L. Petech, _China and Tibet in the Early 18th Century_, Leiden 1950. A collection of data is found in M.W. Fisher and L.E. Rose, _England, India, Nepal, Tibet, China, 1765-1958_, Berkeley 1959. For diplomatic relations and tributary systems of this period, I referred to J.K. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yü.

p. 279: For Ku Yen-wu, I used the work by H. Wilhelm.--A man who deserves special mention in this period is the scholar Huang Tsung-hsi (1610-1695) as the first Chinese who discussed the possibility of a non-monarchic form of government in his treatise of 1662. For him see Lin Mou-sheng, _Men and Ideas_, New York 1942, and especially W.T. de Bary in J.K. Fairbank, _Chinese Thought and Institutions_, Chicago 1957.

pp. 280-1: On Liang see now J.R. Levenson, _Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and the Mind of Modern China_, London 1959.

p. 282: It should also be pointed out that the Yung-cheng emperor was personally more inclined towards Lamaism.--The Kalmuks are largely identical with the above-mentioned Ölöt.

p. 286: The existence of _hong_ is known since 1686, see P'eng Tse-i and Wang Chu-an's recent studies. For details on foreign trade see H.B. Morse, _The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China 1635-1834_, Oxford 1926, 4 vols., and J.K. Fairbank, _Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast. The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854_, Cambridge, Mass., 1953, 2 vols.--For Lin I used G.W. Overdijkink's study.

p. 287: On customs read St. F. Wright, _Hart and the Chinese Customs_, Belfast 1950.

p. 288: For early industry see A. Feuerwerker, _China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916_), Cambridge, Mass., 1958.

p. 289: The Chinese source materials for the Mohammedan revolts have recently been published, but an analysis of the importance of the revolts still remains to be done.--On T'ai-p'ing much has been published, especially in the last years in China, so that all documents are now available. I used among other studies, details brought out by Lo Hsiang-lin and Jen Yu-wen.

p. 291: For Tsêng Kuo-fan see W.J. Hail, _Tsêng Kuo-fan and the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion_, New Haven 1927, but new research on him is about to be published.--The Nien-fei had some connection with the White Lotus, and were known since 1814, see Chiang Siang-tseh, _The Nien Rebellion_, Seattle 1954.

p. 292: Little is known about Salars, Dungans and Yakub Beg's rebellion, mainly because relevant Turkish sources have not yet been studied. On Salars see L. Schram, _The Monguors of Kansu_, Philadelphia 1954, p. 23 and P. Pelliot; on Dungans see I. Grebe.

p. 293: On Tso Tsung-t'ang see G. Ch'en, _Tso Tung T'ang, Pioneer Promotor of the Modern Dockyard and Woollen Mill in China_, Peking 1938, and _Yenching Journal of Soc. Studies_, vol. I.

p. 294: For the T'ung-chih period, see now Mary C. Wright, _The Last Stand of Chinese Conservativism. The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874_, Stanford 1957.

p. 295: Ryukyu is Chinese: Liu-ch'iu; Okinawa is one of the islands of this group.--Formosa is Chinese: T'ai-wan (Taiwan). Korea is Chinese: Chao-hsien, Japanese: Chôsen.

p. 297: M.C. Wright has shown the advisers around the ruler before the Empress Dowager realized the severity of the situation.--Much research is under way to study the beginning of industrialization of Japan, and my opinions have changed greatly, due to the research done by Japanese scholars and such Western scholars as H. Rosovsky and Th. Smith. The eminent role of the lower aristocracy has been established. Similar research for China has not even seriously started. My remarks are entirely preliminary.

p. 298: For K'ang Yo-wei, I use work done by O. Franke and others. See M.E. Cameron, _The Reform Movement in China, 1898-1921_, Stanford 1921. The best bibliography for this period is J.K. Fairbank and Liu Kwang-ching, _Modern China: A Bibliographical Guide to Chinese Works, 1898-1937_, Cambridge, Mass., 1950. The political history of the time, as seen by a Chinese scholar, is found in Li Chien-nung, _The Political History of China 1840-1928_, Princeton 1956.--For the social history of this period see Chang Chung-li, _The Chinese Gentry_, Seattle 1955.--For the history of Tz[)u] Hsi Bland-Backhouse, _China under the Empress Dowager_, Peking 1939 (Third ed.) is antiquated, but still used. For some of K'ang Yo-wei's ideas, see now K'ang Yo-wei: _Ta T'ung Shu. The One World Philosophy of K'ang Yu Wei_, London 1957.

_Chapter Eleven_

p. 305: I rely here partly upon W. Franke's recent studies. For Sun Yat-sen (Sun I-hsien; also called Sun Chung-shan) see P. Linebarger, _Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Republic_, Cambridge, Mass., 1925 and his later _The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen_, Baltimore 1937.--Independently, Atatürk in Turkey developed a similar theory of the growth of democracy.

p. 306: On student activities see Kiang Wen-han, _The Ideological Background of the Chinese Student Movement_, New York 1948.

p. 307: On Hu Shih see his own _The Chinese Renaissance_, Chicago 1934 and J. de Francis, _Nationalism and Language Reform in China_, Princeton 1950.

p. 310: The declaration of Independence of Mongolia had its basis in the early treaty of the Mongols with the Manchus (1636): "In case the Tai Ch'ing Dynasty falls, you will exist according to previous basic laws" (R.J. Miller, _Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mongolia_, Wiesbaden 1959, p. 4).

p. 315: For the military activities see F.F. Liu, _A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949_, Princeton 1956. A Marxist analysis of the 1927 events is Manabendra Nath Roy, _Revolution and Counter-Revolution in China_, Calcutta 1946; the relevant documents are translated in C. Brandt, B. Schwartz, J.K. Fairbank, _A Documentary History of Chinese Communism_, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.

_Chapter Twelve_

For Mao Tse-tung, see B. Schwartz, _Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao_, second ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1958. For Mao's early years; see J.E. Rue, _Mao Tse-tung in Opposition_, 1927-1935, Stanford 1966. For the civil war, see L.M. Chassin, _The Communist Conquest of China: A History of the Civil War, 1945-1949_, Cambridge, Mass., 1965. For brief information on communist society, see Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell, _The China Reader_, vol. 3, _Communist China_, New York 1967. For problems of organization, see Franz Schurmann, _Ideology and Organization in Communist China_, Berkeley 1966. For cultural and political problems, see Ho Ping-ti, _China in Crisis_, vol. 1, _China's Heritage and the Communist Political System_, Chicago 1968. For a sympathetic view of rural life in communist China, see J. Myrdal, _Report from a Chinese Village_, New York 1966; for Taiwanese village life, see Bernard Gallin, _Hsin Hsing, Taiwan: A Chinese Village in Change_, Berkeley 1966.

INDEX

Abahai, ruler
Abdication
Aborigines
Absolutism (_see_ Despotism, Dictator, Emperor, Monarchy)
Academia Sinica
Academies
Administration;
provincial
(_see_ Army, Feudalism, Bureaucracy)
Adobe (Mud bricks)
Adoptions
Afghanistan
Africa
Agriculture;
development;
Origin of;
of Shang;
shifting (denshiring)
(_see_ Wheat, Millet, Rice, Plough, Irrigation, Manure, Canals,
Fallow)
An Ti, ruler of Han
Ainu, tribes
Ala-shan mountain range
Alchemy (_see_ Elixir)
Alexander the Great
America (_see_ United States)
Amithabha, god
Amur, river
An Chi-yeh, rebel
An Lu-shan, rebel
Analphabetism
Anarchists
Ancestor, cult
Aniko, sculptor
Animal style
Annam (Vietnam)
Anyang (Yin-ch'ü)
Arabia;
Arabs
Architecture
Aristocracy (_see_ Nobility, Feudalism)
Army, cost of;
organization of;
size of;
Tibetan
(_see_ War, Militia, tu-tu, pu-ch'ü)
Art, Buddhist (_see_ Animal style, Architecture, Pottery, Painting,
Sculpture, Wood-cut)
Arthashastra, book, attributed to Kautilya
Artisans;
Organizations of
(_see_ Guilds, Craftsmen)
Assimilation (_see_ Colonization)
Astronomy
Austroasiatics
Austronesians
Avars, tribe (_see_ Juan-juan)
Axes, prehistoric
Axis, policy

Babylon
Baghdad, city
Balasagun, city
Ballads
Banks
Banner organization
Barbarians (Foreigners)
Bastards
Bath
Beg, title
Beggar
Bengal
Boat festival
Bokhara (Bukhara), city
Bon, religion
Bondsmen (_see pu-ch'ü_, Serfs, Feudalism)
Book, printing;
B burning
Böttger, inventor
Boxer rebellion
Boycott
Brahmans, Indian caste
Brain drain
Bronze (_see_ Metal, Copper)
Brothel (Tea-house)
Buddha;
Buddhism
(_see_ Ch'an, Vinaya, Sects, Amithabha, Maitreya, Hinayana,
Mahayana, Monasteries, Church, Pagoda, Monks, Lamaism)
Budget (_see_ Treasury, Inflation, Deflation)
Bullfights
Bureaucracy;
religious B
(_see_ Administration; Army)
Burgher (_liang-min_)
Burma
Businessmen (_see_ Merchants, Trade)
Byzantium

Calcutta, city
Caliph (Khaliph)
Cambodia
Canals;
Imperial C
(_see_ Irrigation)
Cannons
Canton (Kuang-chou), city
Capital of Empire (_see_ Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, etc.)
Capitalism (_see_ Investments, Banks, Money, Economy, etc.)
Capitulations (privileges of foreign nations)
Caravans (_see_ Silk road, Trade)
Carpet
Castes, (_see_ Brahmans)
Castiglione, G., painter
Cattle, breeding
Cavalry, (_see_ Horse)
Cave temples (_see_ Lung-men, Yün-kang, Tunhuang)
Censorate
Censorship
Census (_see_ Population)
Central Asia (_see_ Turkestan, Sinkiang, Tarim, City States)
Champa, State
Ch'an (Zen), meditative Buddhism
Chan-kuo Period (Contending States)
Chancellor
Ch'ang-an, capital of China (_see_ Sian)
Chang Ch'ien, ambassador
Chang Chü-chan, teacher
Chang Hsien-chung, rebel
Chang Hsüeh-hang, war lord
Chang Ling, popular leader
Chang Ti, ruler
Chang Tsai, philosopher
Chang Tso-lin, war lord
Chao, state;
Earlier Chao;
Later Chao
Chao K'uang-yin (T'ai Tsu), ruler
Chao Mêng-fu, painter
Charters
Chefoo Convention
Ch'en, dynasty
Ch'en Pa-hsien, ruler
Ch'en Tu-hsiu, intellectual
Ch'eng Hao, philosopher
Cheng Ho, navy commander
Ch'eng I, philosopher
Cheng-i-chiao, religion
Ch'eng Ti, ruler of Han;
ruler of Chin
Ch'eng Tsu, ruler of Manchu
Ch'engtu, city
Ch'i, state;
short dynasty;
Northern Ch'i
Ch'i-fu, clan
Chi-nan, city
Ch'i-tan (_see_ Kitan)
Ch'i Wan-nien, leader
Chia, clan
Chia-ch'ing, period
Chia Ss[)u]-tao, politician
Ch'iang, tribes, (_see_ Tanguts)
Chiang Kai-shek, president
Ch'ien-lung, period
_ch'ien-min_ (commoners),
Chin, dynasty, (_see_ Juchên);
dynasty;
Eastern Chin dynasty;
Later Chin dynasty,
Ch'in, state;
Ch'in, dynasty;
Earlier Ch'in dynasty;
Later Ch'in dynasty;
Western Ch'in dynasty
Ch'in K'ui, politician
Chinese, origin of
Ching Fang, scholar
Ching-tê (-chen), city
_ching-t'ien_ system
Ching Tsung, Manchu ruler
Ch'iu Ying, painter
Chou, dynasty;
short Chou dynasty;
Later Chou dynasty;
Northern Chou dynasty
Chou En-lai, politician
Chou-k'ou-tien, archaeological site
Chou-kung (Duke of Chou)
Chou-li, book
Chou Tun-i, philosopher
Christianity (_see_ Nestorians, Jesuits, Missionaries)
Chronology
Ch'u, state
Chu Ch'üan-chung, general and ruler
Chu Hsi, philosopher
Chu-ko Liang, general
Chu Tê, general
Chu Tsai-yü, scholar
Chu Yüan-chang (T'ai Tsu), ruler
_chuang_ (_see_ Manors, Estates)
Chuang Tz[)u], philosopher
Chün-ch'en, ruler
Ch'un-ch'iu, book
_chün-t'ien_ system (land equalization system)
_chün-tz[)u]_ (gentleman)
Chung-ch'ang T'ung, philosopher
Chungking (Ch'ung-ch'ing), city
Church, Buddhistic
Taoistic
(_see_ Chang Ling)
Cities
spread and growth of cities
origin of cities
twin cities
(_see_ City states, Ch'ang-an, Sian, Loyang, Hankow, etc.)
City States (of Central Asia)
Clans
Classes, social classes
(_see_ Castes, _ch'ien-min, liang-min_, Gentry, etc.)
Climate, changes
Cliques
Cloisonné
Cobalt
Coins (_see_ Money)
Colonialism (_see_ Imperialism)
Colonization (_see_ Migration, Assimilation)
Colour prints
Communes
Communism (_see_ Marxism, Socialism, Soviets)
Concubines
Confessions
Confucian ritual
Confucianism
Confucian literature
false Confucian literature
Confucians
(_see_ Neo-Confucianism)
Conquests (_see_ War, Colonialism)
Conservatism
Constitution
Contending States
Co-operatives
Copper (_see_ Bronze, Metal)
Corruption
Corvée (forced labour) (_see_ Labour)
Cotton
Courtesans (_see_ Brothel)
Coxinga, rebel
Craftsmen (_see_ Artisans)
Credits
Criminals
Crop rotation

Dalai Lama, religious ruler of Tibet
Dance
Deflation
Deities (_see_ T'ien, Shang Ti, Maitreya, Amithabha, etc.)
Delft, city
Demands, the twenty-one
Democracy
Denshiring
Despotism (_see_ Absolutism)
Dewey, J., educator
Dialects (_see_ Language)
Dialecticians
Dictators (_see_ Despotism)
Dictionaries
Diploma, for monks
Diplomacy
Disarmament
Discriminatory laws (_see_ Double Standard)
Dog
Dorgon, prince
Double standard, legal
Drama
Dress, changes
Dungan, tribes
Dynastic histories (_see_ History)
Dzungars, people

Eclipses
Economy
Money economy
Natural economy
(_see_ Agriculture, Nomadism, Industry, Denshiring, Money, Trade, etc.)
Education (_see_ Schools, Universities, Academies, Script,
Examination system, etc.)
Elements, the five
Elephants
Élite (_see_ Intellectuals, Students, Gentry)
Elixir (_see_ Alchemy)
Emperor, position of
Emperor and church
(_see_ Despotism, King, Absolutism, Monarchy, etc.)
Empress (_see_ Lü, Wu, Wei, Tz[)u] Hsi)
Encyclopaedias
England (_see_ Great Britain)
Ephtalites, tribe
Epics
Equalization Office (_see chün-t'ien_)
Erotic literature
Estates (_chuang_)
Ethics (_see_ Confucianism)
Eunuchs
Europe
Europeans
Examination system
Examinations for Buddhists

Fables
Factories
Fallow system
Falsifications (_see_ Confucianism)
Family structure
Family ethics
Family planning
Fan Chung-yen, politician
Fascism
Federations, tribal
Felt
Fêng Kuo-chang, politician
Fêng Meng-lung, writer
Fêng Tao, politician
Fêng Yü-hsiang, war lord
Ferghana, city
Fertility cults
differential fertility
Fertilizer
Feudalism
end of feudalism
late feudalism
new feudalism
nomadic feudalism
(_see_ Serfs, Aristocracy, Fiefs, Bondsmen, etc.)
Fiefs
Finances (_see_ Budget, Inflation, Money, Coins)
Fire-arms (_see_ Rifles, Cannons)
Fishing
Folk-tales
Food habits
Foreign relations (_see_ Diplomacy, Treaty, Tribute, War)
Forests
Formosa (T'aiwan)
France
Frontier, concept of
Frugality
Fu Chien, ruler
Fu-lan-chi (Franks)
Fu-lin, Manchu ruler
Fu-yü, country
Fukien, province

Galdan, leader
Gandhara, country
Gardens
Geisha (_see_ Courtesans)
Genealogy
Genghiz Khan, ruler
Gentry (Upper class)
colonial gentry
definition of gentry
gentry state
southern gentry
Germany
Gök Turks
Governors, role of
Grain (_see_ Millet, Rice, Wheat)
Granaries
Great Britain (_see_ England)
Great Leap Forward
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
Great Wall
Greeks
Guilds