Chapter VIII: General Conclusions on the Importance and Influence of Greek Economics

Our conclusions as to the importance and influence of Greek economic thought have been fully presented in the previous discussion. A brief summary of the results, however, may be of advantage now, at the close of our survey. As seen above, despite the fact that Greek thought in this field was incidental to moral and political speculation, and despite a certain philosophic prejudice and limited economic vision, the contribution is by no means merely negative. We have seen that it included a recognition by one or more Greek thinkers of such important principles as the following: that society finds its origin in mutual need, and in the natural development of clan and family, not in the artificial social contract; that the state is a great business association, in which about the same economic laws apply as in private economy; that the final goal of economics is not property but human welfare; that the criteria of economic value are intrinsic utility, economic demand, and cost of production; that wealth must possess the quality of storableness; that true wealth consists only of commodities that minister to human welfare; that the three factors in production are land, labor and capital; that money originated in necessary exchange; that it serves as a medium of exchange, a standard of value, and a ticket of deferred payments; that it should possess intrinsic value, which is more stable than that of other commodities; that it should not be confused with wealth, but should be understood in its true function as representative wealth; that credit must play an exceedingly important part in business operations as representative capital; that agriculture is the basal industry, on which all others must depend; that the division of labor is the fundamental principle at the foundation of all exchange; that it results in certain important economic advantages, and that its extensive application depends upon large commercial development; that reciprocity is the fundamental principle in exchange, as also in the social structure; that exchange performs a legitimate social function in creating time and place values; that industrial expansion is limited by a law of diminishing returns; that the primary purpose of exchange should not be profit, but satisfaction of economic need; that commerce merely for its own sake does not necessarily increase the national store, but may produce only economic inequalities; that extremes of wealth and poverty cause industrial inefficiency, social strife, and crime; that excessive individual wealth is not usually compatible with just acquisition or just expenditure; that it also necessarily implies corresponding extremes of poverty; that the commercial spirit in nations is the chief cause of international differences; that the goal of economics is consumption rather than production, and that foolish consumption results in great economic waste; that all economic problems are moral problems; that private property is not a natural right, but a gift of society, and therefore that society may properly control its activities; that there is a certain unity in human nature, which is opposed to the doctrine of natural slavery; that the individual should have opportunity for personal development in accord with his capacities, aside from the mere struggle for physical existence; that true economic equality does not demand equal shares for all, but shares proportioned to capacities and services; and that gifts of charity merely for consumption are fruitful causes of poverty and indolence.

Besides the recognition of such principles, we have seen that many practical suggestions for the amelioration of economic and social conditions, which are being seriously presented today, were first proposed by Greek thinkers. Measures for the divorce of government from big business, state control of natural monopolies, conservation of natural resources, state supervision of trade and commerce, including regulation of prices and rates, publicity in business, pure food laws, and the socialization of industry and its products were all first proposed by Greeks. On the other hand, we have seen that practically all the modern stock arguments against socialism were long ago presented by Aristotle, and that the ideal of the Greek socialist was not primarily materialistic and selfish, as the modern, but moral and social.

Such a list of positive economic principles and practical suggestions should surely give the Greeks some claim to recognition in the field of economic thought. But they should be judged primarily, not by their positive contribution to economic theory or by the practical nature of their suggestions for legislation, but rather by the extent to which they realized the existence of the great economic and social problems, which are still crying for a solution. From this standpoint, we have seen that Plato and Aristotle especially reveal remarkable economic insight. Moreover, there still remains the outstanding fact that the Greeks were the forerunners of the moral, humanitarian, and social emphasis in present-day economy. This alone should give to them a distinct place in the evolution of economic thought, and should make it impossible for Souchon to conclude: “Ces mépris [of G. B. Say] sont pour nous apparaître plus justifiés que les admirations de Roscher.”[1060]

The influence of Greek thought upon later economic theory, however, seems not to have been very direct or extensive, probably owing to the incidental nature of their speculation. To be sure, mediaeval economic thought presents, in many respects, an unbroken continuity with the Greek. In their emphasis on the moral, in their doctrines on usury, just price, importance of agriculture, exchange for profit, and in their general conservative attitude toward money and commercial development, mediaeval thinkers are very similar to the Socratics.[1061] Doubtless much of this similarity may be traced to the direct influence of Aristotle, as is especially evident in the work of Thomas Aquinas and Nicholas Oresme.[1062] To a considerable extent, however, the economic ideas of the Middle Ages were a direct outgrowth of the economic and religious conditions under which the writers lived.[1063] In the following centuries, some Greek influence may be traced in Adam Smith, in the physiocrats,[1064] in utopian writers such as More, and in eighteenth-century thinkers like Rousseau.

It is usually asserted that the economic thought of the past century has been practically unaffected by Greek ideas. But our previous discussion has clearly shown that Plato and Xenophon, at least, dominated the economic thinking of Ruskin. If further evidence is needed, it is necessary only to turn to the names of Greek thinkers in the index to the monumental new edition of his works, which we have frequently cited above. He frankly and enthusiastically presents himself as an apostle of a “Greek theory of economics.”[1065] But despite some of his utopian and extravagant ideas, he is being ever more recognized by authorities in economics as having been one of the chief factors in the development of political economy to its present moral and humanitarian emphasis.[1066] His repudiation of the abstract “economic man,” his insistence upon human, moral, and social ideals in economics, his attempt to broaden the definition of economic value and wealth by emphasizing true utility, his constant stress upon proper consumption rather than upon production, his demand that all have opportunity up to their capacity, his opposition to the _laissez-faire_ policy in economics and politics, his emphasis upon right education, all have borne rich and abiding fruit in the last few decades, and these are all distinctively Greek ideas, as we have seen above. Thus indirectly, through Ruskin, Greek economic thought has exerted a potent influence upon the evolution of nineteenth-century economics, and thus there is much truth in the words of Wagner, as quoted by Oncken,[1067] not merely for German, but for all modern economy: “Es ist im Grunde uralter wahrhaft classischer Boden, auf den jetzt die deutsche ökonomische und soziale Theorie und Praxis sich bewusst wieder stellen.” Souchon’s characterization of Greek economy as “morale étatisme”[1068] could well be applied to much in the economic thought of today.

Footnote 1060:

_Op. cit._, p. 195; Roscher is, of course, extreme in his
appreciation.

Footnote 1061:

Cf. Brants, _Les théories écon. au XIII et XIV siècle_; Espinas,
_Histoire des doctrines économiques_, pp. 72 ff.; Haney, _op. cit._,
pp. 69 ff.

Footnote 1062:

In his _De origine, natura, jure, et mutationibus monetarum_
(fourteenth century). On their dependence upon Aristotle, cf. Zmavc,
_Zeitschr. f. d. gesammt. Staatswiss._, 1902, pp. 54 and 77 f.; and
_Archiv f. d. Gesch. der Phil._, 1899, 407 ff.

Footnote 1063:

Cf. Souchon, pp. 199 f., who observes that the Greek moral goal was
perfection of the individual through the state, while that of the
Middle Ages was individual salvation to another world.

Footnote 1064:

Cf. Oncken, _op. cit._, p. 38.

Footnote 1065:

He calls Plato the “master of economy” (_Fors Clav._ [Vol. XXVIII,
717]); cf. also Vol. XXXVIII, 112 on his Platonic discipleship. He
says (_Arrows of the Chace_, Vol. XXXIV, 547): “The economy I teach is
Xenophon’s”; cf. also Vol. XXXVII, 550, Letter to Professor Blackie,
II: “My own political economy is literally only the expansion and
explanation of Xenophon’s.” Cf. Vol. XXXI, Intro., pp. xv ff.; Vol.
XVII, pp. xlix and 18; cf. his preface to his translation of the
_Economicus_; cf. also E. Barker, _Pol. Thought in England from
Herbert Spencer to the Present Day_ (“Home University Library”), pp.
191-96, who emphasizes this Greek influence. Cf. above, p. 23, n. 5;
64, n. 3.

Footnote 1066:

Barker, cited above, in n. 2, also emphasizes this fact. Cf. the
edition of Ruskin above cited, Introduction to Vol. XVII, an excellent
discussion of Ruskin’s economic ideas and their influence, for a
bibliography (p. cxii) and citations from many modern economists on
the subject; e.g., the notable address in 1885, in recognition of his
work, signed by a number of leading English economists; the striking
citations from Ingram; from Stimson (_Quarterly Journal of Economics_,
II [1888], 445), that the future political economy will make its
bricks for building “from Ruskin’s earth rather than from Ricardo’s
straw”; from the late regius professor of modern history at Oxford,
“The political economy of today is the political economy of John
Ruskin, and not that of John Bright or even of John Stewart Mill.”

Footnote 1067:

P. 46, n. 3 (Wagner, _Die Akad. Nat.-oek. und der Socialismus_, 1895).

Footnote 1068:

_Op. cit._, p. 201.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography includes: (_a_) histories of economic thought; almost all of these have only a cursory chapter on Greek theory, and several of them deal largely with economic conditions; (_b_) histories of socialism and social theory, to which the foregoing statement applies to a large extent; (_c_) chapters in works on different phases of Greek economic history; (_d_) other works of a more general type, which deal more or less extensively with Greek economic or social ideas; (_e_) articles and dissertations; (_f_) editions of Greek authors that are of special interest for our subject. It is manifestly impossible to name many of these latter, and we shall content ourselves with the mention of a few that have proved especially helpful. The works are listed in alphabetical order, for greater convenience in reference, and those of chief interest are starred.

Adam, James (The Republic of Plato, 1902).

Adler, G. _Geschichte des Socialismus und Kommunismus von Plato bis zur Gegenwart_ (1899), pp. 6-52. On Greek.

Alesio. “Alcune riflessioni intorno ai concetti del valore nell’antichità classica,” _Archivio Giuridico_, 1889.

Ashley, W. J. “Aristotle’s Doctrine of Barter,” _Quarterly Journal of Economy_, 1895. An interpretation of Ar. _Pol._ i. 1258_b_27 ff.

Barker, E. _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_ (1906), pp. 357-404.*

Blanqui, M. _Histoire de l’économie politique en Europe_ (1842; 4th ed., 1860), I, 33-92. Somewhat indiscriminate in appreciation of Greek thinkers.

Bonar. _Philosophy and Political Economy_ (1893).*

Brants, V. _Xenophon Economiste_, reprint from _Revue Catholique de Louvain_, 1881.*

Bussy, M. _Histoire et Réfutation du Socialisme depuis l’antiquité, jusqu’à nos jours_ (1859). Superficial and prejudiced.

Cossa, L. _Histoire des doctrines économiques_ (1899) (trans. from the Italian of 1876), pp. 144-50.*

——. “Di alcuni studii storici sulle teorie economiche dei Greci,” _Saggi di Economia Politica_, 1878, pp. 3-14.

De Sam-Cognazzi. _Analisi dell economia publica e privata degli antichi_ (1830).

Du Mesnill-Marigny. _Histoire de l’économie politique des anciens peuples_ (1878, 3 vols.). Superficial.

De Villeneuve-Bargemont. _Histoire de l’économie politique_ (Paris, 1841, 2d ed.), I. Chiefly on the facts.

Dietzel. “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Socialismus und des Kommunismus,” _Zeitschrift für Literatur und Geschichte der Staatswissenschaften_, I (1893), 373 ff.*

Döring, A. _Die Lehre des Socrates als soziales Reform-System_ (1895).

DuBois, A. _Précis de l’histoire des doctrines économiques dans leurs rapports avec les faits et avec les institutions_ (1903), pp. 23-53. A good partial bibliography.*

Dühring, E. _Kritische Geschichte der Nationalökonomie und des Socialismus_ (3d ed., 1879), pp. 19-25.

Dunning, W. A. _Political Theories Ancient and Mediaeval_ (New York, 1913). Economic material only incidental.

Eisenhart, H. _Geschichte der Nationalökonomie_ (2d ed., 1891). Mostly on economic history.

Espinas. _Histoire des doctrines économiques_ (1891), chap, i.*

——. “L’art économique dans Platon,” _Revue des Etudes Grecques_, XXVI (1914), 105-29, 36-65.*

Ferrara, J. “L’economica politica degli antichi,” _Journal de Statis. de Palerme_, 1836.

Fontpertuis, F. de. “Filiation des ideés économiques, dans l’antiquité,” _Journal des écon._, September, 1871 ff.*

Francotte, H. _L’Industrie dans la Grèce ancienne_ (Brussels, 1900). Sections on Greek theories of labor and socialism.*

Glaser. “De Aristotelis doctrina de divitiis” (dissertation, 1850), _Jahrb. für Gesellschafts- und Staatswissenschaft_, 1865.

Göttling. _De Notione servitutis apud Aristotelem_ (dissertation, Jena, 1821).

Grote, G. _Plato_ (4 vols.).

——. _Aristotle_ (2 vols.).

Guiraud, P. _La main-d’œuvre industrielle dans l’ancienne Grèce_ (1900), pp. 36-50. On theory.*

——. _La propriété foncière en Grèce jusqu’à la conqûete Romaine_ (1893), pp. 573-612. On socialistic ideas.*

——. _Etudes économiques sur l’antiquité_ (1905), chap. i. On the importance of economic questions in Greece.*

Hagen. _Observationum oeconomico politicarum in Aeschinis dialogum qui Eryxias inscribitur_ (dissertation, 1822).

Haney, L. W. _History of Economic Thought_ (1911), pp. 39-52.*

Heidel, W. A. _Pseudo-Platonica_ (dissertation, Chicago, 1896), pp. 59-61. On Eryxias.

Herzog, C. “Communismus und Socialismus in Alterthum,” _Beilage zur allgemeine Zeitung_, 1894, No. 166. Conservative on the influence of socialism in the ancient world.

Hildebrand, B. _Xenophontis et Aristot. de oeconomia publico doctrinae illustrantur_ (dissertation, Marburg, 1845). Part on Aristotle not published.

Hoderman, M. “Quaestionum oeconomicarum specimen,” (dissertation, Berlin, 1896), _Berlin Studien für class. Philol. und Arch._, XVI, No. 4. On the so-called _Economica_.

Ingram, J. K. _History of Political Economy_ (1907), pp. 7-26.*

Jowett and Campbell. _Republic of Plato_ (3 vols., 1894).

Kaulla, R. _Die geschichtliche Entwickelung der modernen Werttheorien_ (1906), pp. 3 f. On Aristotle.

Kautsky, K. _Die Geschichte des Socialismus in Einzeldarstellungen_ (1897), I, 1.

Kautz. _Theorie und Geschichte der national Oekonomie_ (Wien, 2d ed., 1860), pp. 102-43.*

Knies, Karl. _Die politische Economie vom geschichtlichen Standpunkt_ (1883). Of but slight interest for ancient theory.

Loos, I. A. “Studies in the _Politics_ of Aristotle and the _Republic_ of Plato,” _Bull. of the University of Iowa_, 1899.

Mabille. “Le communisme et le féminisme à Athènes.” _Mémoires de l’académie de Dijon_, 4 série, t. 7, pp. 317 ff. (Paris, 1900).

Martiis, S. de. _Cognetti_ (Socialismo antico, Turin, 1899).*

Menger, Karl. Art. “Geld,” _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaft_ (2d ed.), IV, 82 ff.

Newman. _The Politics of Aristotle_ (Oxford, 1877, 4 vols.).*

Oncken, A. _Geschichte der Nationalökonomie_ (1902), I, 27-49.

Palgrave’s _Dictionary_. Art. “Aristotle.” This and the above-named article on “Geld” will serve as sufficient notice of the several Dictionaries of Political Economy, to which other references might be made.

Platon, G. “Le socialisme en Grèce,” _Devenir Social._, January, 1897 ff.

Poehlmann, R. _Geschichte des antiken Socialismus und Kommunismus_ (München, 1893-1901, 2 vols.; 2d ed., 1912, _Geschichte der sozialen Frage und des Socialismus in der antiken Welt_). A thorough treatment of Greek socialistic tendencies both in theory and in practice, though it exaggerates the development of capitalism in Greece, and draws analogies too freely between ancient and modern socialism. Our citations are from the second edition.*

——. “Die Anfänge des Sozialismus in Europa,” _Sybel’s Hist. Zeitschrift_, Bd. 79, H. 3, pp. 385-451.

Rambaud, J. _Histoire des Doctrines économiques_ (Paris, 1902).

Regnier, M. _L’économie politique et rurale des Grecs_.

Robin, L. “Platon et la science sociale,” _Revue de metaphysique et de morale_, March, 1913 (reprint by Armand Colin, Paris).*

Roscher. “Ueber das Verhältniss der national Oekonomik[** Nationalökonomie] zum klassischen Alterthume,” _Ansichten der Volkswirtschaft_, I (1878), 1-50.*

Roscher. _De doctrinae oeconomico politicae apud Graecos primordiis_ (Leipzig, 1866).

Salvio, G. Salomo. _Il concetto della schiavitu secundo Aristotile_ (Rome, 1881).

——. _Communismo nella Grecia antiqua_ (Padua, 1883).

Schneider. _Die staatswirtschaftlichen Lehren des Aristotles_ (dissertation, Neu Puppin, 1873).

Schrohl, O. _De Eryxias qui fertur Platonis_ (dissertation, 1901). Chiefly on the authorship of the _Eryxias_.

Schulte, J. _Quomodo Plato in legibus publico Atheniensium instituta respexerit_ (dissertation, 1907).

Sewall, H. “Theory of Value before Adam Smith,” _Publication of American Economic Association_, II, Part 3. Four pages on Aristotle.

Shorey, Paul (“Plato’s _Laws_,” _Classical Philology_, October, 1914).

Simey, Miss E. “Economic Theory among the Greeks and Romans,” _Economic Review_, October, 1900.

Souchon, A. _Les Théories économiques dans la Grèce antique_ (1898; a 2d ed. in 1906, but slightly changed).*

Stein, Ludwig. _Das erste Auftauschen der sozialen Frage bei den Griechen_ (dissertation, Bern, 1896).

——. _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie_ (Stuttgart, 1903, 2d ed.), pp. 150-82.

——. “Die staatswissenschaftliche Theorie der Griechen vor Arist. und Platon,” _Zeitschrift für die gesammte Wissenschaft_, 1853, pp. 115-82 (Tübingen).

Stewart. _Notes to Ar._, _Nic. Ethics_ (2 vols.).*

St. Hilaire, B. Preface to translation of the _Politics_ of Arist.

Thill, J. _Die Eigenthumsfrage im klassischen Alterthum_ (Luxembourg, 1892).

Thomissen. _Histoire du socialisms depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à la constitution française du 14 jan., 1852._

Trinchera, F. _Storia critica dell’ economia publia (epoca antica)_ (Naples, 1873).

Vanderkindere, L. “Le Socialisms dans la Grèce antique,” _Revue de l’Université de Brussels_, I, 4, pp. 241-46.

Vogel, G. _Die Oekonomik des Xenophon; eine Vorarbeit für die Geschichte der griechischen Oekonomik_ (Erlangen, 1895).

Walcker, K. _Geschichte der Nationalökonomie und des Socialismus_ (Leipzig, 1902).

Wallon. _Histoire de l’esclavage dans l’antiquité_ (Paris, 1879, 2d ed.). One chapter on theories of slavery.

Wolf, H. _Geschichte des antiken Sozialismus und Individualismus_ (1909). A merely popular treatment.

Wilhelm, F. “Die _Oeconomica_ der Neupythagoreer,” _Rhein. Mus._, XVII, No. 2 (1915), 162 ff.

Zmavc, J. “Die Werttheorie bei Arist. und Thos. Aquino,” _Archiv für die Geschichte der Philosophie_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 407 ff.*

Zmavc, J. “Die Geldtheorie und ihre Stellung innerhalb der Wirtschaft und staatswissenschaftliche Anschauungen des Arist.,” _Zeitschrift für die ges. Staatswissenschaft_, 1902, pp. 48-79.*

As stated, a large number of the foregoing list deal chiefly with actual conditions, rather than with theory. Besides these, many other works on phases of Greek economic history are cited in the course of our discussion, the names of which, with page-references, may be found in the index. All other works that are incidentally cited are also listed there. For an excellent presentation of the political economy of John Ruskin, and a selected bibliography on his work as a social and economic reformer, cf. the Library Edition of his works, from which we have often cited (George Allen, London, Introduction to Vol. XVII, 1905; bibliography, p. cxii).

INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS

Acquisition, 25, 27, 29, 59, 66, 78, 88, 89, 90, 93, 105, 111-15, 128,
138, 144, 147. _See also_ Chrematistik; Exchange.

Adam, 36, 96, 151.

Adler, 55, 151.

Aeschines, 62.

Agriculture, 14 f., 18, 29 f., 31, 34, 38, 59, 63, 66-68, 79, 89-91,
93, 96, 114, 116, 128, 145 f., 148.

Alcaeus, 14.

Alcidamas, 17.

Alesio, 151.

Antisthenes, 65, 126, 131 f., 134.

Apollodorus, 91.

Aquinas, 148.

Ardaillon, 75.

Aristippus, 129.

Aristo, 141.

Aristophanes, 57, 66, 93, 119, 138.

Aristotle, 9, 12, 16, 17, 19, 21 f., 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 37, 39, 43,
44, 46, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 66, 67, 68, 69, 74, 75, 79,
81-124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 136, 137, 140, 142,
143, 147, 148.

Ashley, 113 f., 151.

Athenaeus, 133, 140.

Aulus Gellius, 52.

Barker, 9, 15, 16, 17, 84, 85, 90, 97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 108,
110, 124, 130, 149, 151.

Barter, 35, 101, 106, 108, 113.

Bawerk, E. Boehm von, 106.

Bebel, 145.

Beloch, 9, 20, 45.

Bergk, 14.

Blanqui, 29, 48, 68, 82, 104, 151.

Boeckh, 9, 41, 47, 106, 134.

Bonar, 26, 28, 32, 36, 37, 48, 84, 90, 118, 134, 151.

Bright, 149.

Bryson, 126.

Bücher, 20.

Büchsenschütz, 65, 93.

Bussy, 48, 151.

Callicles, 16.

Callicratidas, 126.

Capital, 18, 30, 35, 47, 65, 67, 68 f., 91-93, 104, 117, 124, 137, 146.
_See also_ the Greek index for term.

Capitalism, 7, 8, 18, 19, 20, 21, 30, 40, 47, 62, 96, 106, 112.

Carlyle, 25, 44, 99, 101.

Caste system in Plato’s _Republic_, 37, 48 f.

Charetides, 91.

Chrematistik, 105, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 123, 124. _See also_
Acquisition; Exchange.

Christ, W., 63, 81.

Chrysippus, 141 f.

Cicero, 125, 126, 130, 139, 142.

Civic strife, 13, 25, 26, 54, 55, 62, 74, 78, 79, 87, 118, 144, 147.

Cleanthes, 141.

Clement Alex., 15, 140.

Cognazzi, De, 151.

Collectivism, 31, 61, 123, 124.

Columella, 91.

Commerce. _See_ Exchange.

Communism. _See_ Socialism.

Communism of family, 18, 54, 55, 56, 117, 120, 133, 140, 142, 143, 145.

Competition, 14.

Conservation, 30, 147.

Consumption, 27, 46, 68, 91, 92, 105, 113, 114, 137, 145, 147, 149.

Cope, 83, 93.

Cornford, 14, 18, 41, 53.

Cossa, 67, 82, 134, 151.

Crantor, 125.

Crates, 133, 138, 139.

Credit, 39, 105, 106, 146. _See_ the Greek index for term.

Croiset, 17, 63, 81.

Cynics, 16, 97, 103, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131-33, 134, 135, 136,
137, 139, 141.

Cyrenaics, 129, 130.

Decharme, 18.

Democritus, 15, 17, 23.

Demosthenes, 13, 45, 62, 66, 68, 69, 77 f., 105, 106, 114.

Dichaearchus, 143.

Diels, 15, 17.

Dietzel, 32, 57, 152.

Diminishing returns, 67, 146.

Dio Chrysostom, 13, 126, 130, 131, 132.

Diodorus, 145.

Diogenes, 131, 132 f., 138.

Diogenes Laertius, 17, 52, 100, 126, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136, 139,
140, 141, 142.

Distribution, 12, 46 f., 51, 57, 74, 84, 102, 115-17, 118, 140. _See
also_ the Greek index for term.

Distributive justice, 102, 107.

Dobbs, 16, 25.

Doering, 69, 152.

Droysen, 45.

Drumann, 29, 57.

DuBois, 28, 35, 55, 82, 92, 104, 109, 114, 152.

Dühring, 71, 82, 101, 152.

Dümmler, 17.

Dunning, 130, 152.

_Economica_, 9, 14, 63, 69, 81, 94, 125, 126 f., 127-29, 131, 133.

Economic demand, 34, 64, 70, 72, 82, 83, 84, 86, 104, 108, 109, 110,
135, 146. _See also_ the Greek index.

Economy:
and asceticism, 12, 25, 60, 65, 131, 136, 137, 139;
and ethics, 10, 18, 21, 29, 63, 81, 90, 146, 148, 149;
domestic and public, 9, 63, 81 f., 111, 112, 113, 126, 146;
influence of Greek, 8, 146-50;
mediaeval, 39, 148;
modern, 8, 11 f., 27, 44, 115;
Ricardian, 8, 10, 11, 50.

Education, 50, 54, 95, 118, 121, 122, 149.

Eisenhart, 32, 152.

Ely, 11.

Ephorus, 143.

Epictetus, 133.

Epicurus, Epicurean, 52, 126, 129, 130.

Equality, 55 f., 60 f., 62, 79 f., 83, 109, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121,
145, 147.

Eryxias, 17, 103, 132, 133-37.

Esmein, 52.

Espinas, 9, 28, 29, 38, 43, 60, 61, 63, 65, 142, 148, 152.

Eudemian ethics, 81, 83, 87, 98, 107, 112, 120, 125, 128.

Eudemus, 127.

Euhemerus, 144 f.

Euripides, 17 f., 96, 136.

Exchange:
Greek attitude toward, 14, 32, 33, 41-45, 56, 59, 66, 70, 73 f., 77,
79, 82, 91, 92, 94, 105, 109, 110, 111-15, 116, 123, 128, 140,
143, 145, 147, 148;
regulations for, 43, 123;
theory of, 35 f., 38, 40, 41, 83, 84, 89, 102, 104, 106-110, 115,
119, 128, 146, 147.
_See also_ Chrematistik; Acquisition; and the Greek index for terms.

Ferrara, 152.

Fontpertuis, 64, 67, 68, 96, 152.

Francotte, 20, 29, 32, 55, 57, 62, 124, 134, 152.

Gernet, 45.

Gilliard, 14.

Glaser, 152.

Göttling, 152.

Gold, 15, 40, 54, 133, 137.

Gomperz, 17, 49, 131, 133, 137.

Grain supply, 45.

Grote, 13, 49, 152.

Grundy, 45.

Guiraud, 29, 37, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 69, 123, 152.

Hagen, 134, 152.

_Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaft_, 108.

Haney, 7, 11, 19, 20, 21, 35, 48, 71, 72, 82, 84, 89, 105, 110, 113,
119, 148, 152.

Harpocration, 68.

Hasbach, 130.

Hecataeus, 144.

Heidel, 125, 133, 134, 137, 152.

Hense, 137.

Heraclitus, 15.

Hermann, 43.

Herodotus, 19, 45, 63, 66.

Herzog, 152.

Hesiod, 14, 17, 30, 33.

Hesychius, 93.

Hierocles, 126.

Hildebrand, 153.

Hippias, 16, 17.

Hippodamas of Miletus, 15, 52;
the Pythagorean, 52.

Hippolytus, 52.

Hobbes, 16.

Hoderman, 126, 127, 134, 153.

Homer, 14, 52.

Horace, 129.

Individualism, 16, 56, 57, 75, 79, 119, 122, 130, 140 f., 142, 143.

Industry, 14, 29, 32, 35, 36, 47, 66, 69 f., 79, 90, 92, 95, 111, 116.
_See also_ Labor; Production.

Ingram, 7, 10, 72, 89, 104, 149, 153.

Interest, 31, 39 f., 59 f., 78, 92, 93, 105, 106, 148. _See also_
Capital; Capitalism; and the Greek index for terms.

Isocrates, 13, 66, 68, 77-80, 88, 106, 143.

Jackson, 108.

Jamblichus, 15, 52, 127.

Jambulus, 145.

Jesus, 26, 49, 87, 136.

Jowett, 60, 95, 114, 153.

Just price, 23, 107, 108, 140.

Kaulla, 65, 153.

Kautsky, 153.

Kautz, 9, 12, 14, 15, 18, 31, 48, 65, 67, 70, 72, 89, 107, 134, 153.

Knies, 153.

Koutorga, 106.

Labor:
attitude toward, 14, 17, 20, 29, 31-34, 37, 59, 69 f., 77, 79, 89,
91, 93-96, 116, 128, 132, 142;
division of, 19, 29, 33, 34-47, 38, 41, 70 f., 73, 79, 96, 145, 146;
in production, 18, 31, 47, 67, 83, 84, 96, 108, 110, 146. _See also_
Production; Laborer; and the Greek index.

Laborer, attitude toward, 47-50, 74, 101, 116, 117, 145.

Lamb, 18.

Land tenure:
in Aristotle’s state, 122 f.;
in Greece, 51;
in Plato’s _Laws_, 58 f., 62, 122;
in other writers, 133, 144.

Law, overestimate of, 13, 51, 56, 61, 75.

_Laws_, historical basis of Plato’s, 43 f.

Leisure, 29, 87, 94, 95, 101, 116. _See also_ the Greek index.

Lenormant, 72.

Liberality, 87, 121.

Loos, 153.

Lychophron, 16, 17, 119.

Lycurgus, 69, 140, 143.

Lysias, 45, 68.

Mabille, 153.

Macaulay, 103.

_Magna Moralia_, 81, 84, 87, 88, 125.

Malthus, 45 f.

Malon, 55.

Martiis, De, 52, 57, 153.

Marx, 84, 124.

Menger, 108 f., 153.

Mercantilism, 41, 72, 86, 103, 104.

Mesnil-Marigny, Du, 151.

Metrodorus, 127.

Meyer, 9, 20, 21, 106.

Mill, 8, 27, 50, 68, 85, 86, 92, 117, 149.

Mines, mining, 13, 66, 67, 74, 75, 128.

Money:
and wealth, 72, 86, 103, 104, 135, 137, 146;
attitude toward, 73, 106, 105, 140, 141, 145, 148;
function, 15, 38 f., 41, 84, 101 f., 103, 106, 108, 113, 115, 146;
history of, 35, 38, 101 f., 112, 146;
intrinsic value of, 40, 72, 102, 103, 104, 135, 137, 146;
materials, 40, 60, 72, 105, 129;
stability, 72, 104, 146. _See also_ Interest; Gold; Silver;
Mercantilism; and the Greek index.

Monopoly, 110, 129, 147.

More, 149.

Mueller, 143.

Mullach, 15, 125, 131, 132, 133.

Nationalism, 62, 124.

Nauck, 17 f.

Nearing, 40.

Nettleship, 37.

Newman, 17, 86, 89, 91, 97, 101, 103, 112, 114, 132, 153.

New Pythagoreans, 127.

Nic. Damasc., 143.

Oncken, 37, 48, 55, 129, 134, 140, 149, 150, 153.

Oresme, 148.

Paley-Sandys, 106.

Palgrave’s _Dictionary_, 104, 153.

Pericles, 12.

Periktione, 126.

Peters, 108.

Phaleas, 16, 53, 118, 120, 142.

Philodemus, 126, 127, 130.

Phintys, 126.

Photius, 52.

Physiocratic tendencies, 28 f., 30, 41, 89, 110, 140, 149. _See also_
Exchange; Production.

Pindar, 83.

Plato, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22-62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70,
71, 74, 75, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95,
96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 104, 106, 107, 108, 111, 115, 116, 118, 119,
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136,
137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, 148, 149.

Platon, G., 153.

Plutarch, 125, 126, 127, 140, 143 f.

Poehlmann, 7, 20, 21, 29, 32, 33, 36, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 74, 75, 76, 101, 105, 106, 112, 117, 119,
120, 124, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 153.

Pohlenz, 53, 56, 57.

Pollux, 93.

Polybius, 143 f.

Population, 45 f., 59, 74, 115, 120.

Porphyry, 52, 126, 143.

Poverty, 14, 15, 27, 47, 48, 50, 55, 56, 59, 60, 74, 75, 78, 79, 87,
109, 115, 120, 130, 132, 133, 138, 139, 140, 144, 147.

Prices, regulation of, 43, 45, 47, 108, 110, 147.

Private property. _See_ Socialism.

Prodicus, 17.

Production, 27-37, 66-69, 74, 83, 88-93, 96, 146, 149. _See also_
Industry; Physiocratic tendencies; and the Greek index.

Profits, 46, 74, 109, 110, 116.

Protagoras, 17.

Publicity, 45, 60, 61, 147.

Pythagoras, 15, 52.

Quesnay, 89.

Rambaud, 153.

Rassow, 108.

Reciprocity, 34, 41, 96, 146.

Regnier, 153.

Ricardo. _See_ Ricardian economy.

Ritchie, 83.

Robin, 22, 27, 28, 37, 43, 52, 153.

Rodbertus, 20.

Roscher, 9, 18, 32, 72, 148, 153.

Rousseau, 131, 143, 149.

Ruskin, 9, 11, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40,
42, 44, 45, 46, 55, 61, 63, 64, 67, 87, 92, 93, 95, 99, 100, 101,
105, 109, 110, 111, 135, 137, 138, 145, 149, 150, 154.

Salvio, 154.

Sappho, 14.

Say, 148.

Schaeffle, 112.

Schneider, 154.

Schoenberg, 11.

Schrohl, 134, 136, 154.

Schulte, 43 f., 154.

Seligman, 11.

Seneca, 130, 139, 141.

Sewall, 64, 83, 154.

Shorey, 18, 28, 36, 55, 56, 58, 62, 99, 154.

Silver, 40, 54, 65, 72, 133, 137.

Simey, 72, 134, 154.

Slavery, 16, 18, 21, 32, 37 f., 62, 67, 70, 86, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97-101,
123, 126, 128, 129, 132, 133, 142, 147.

Smith, Adam, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 64, 71, 75, 82, 86, 91, 92, 93,
115, 149.

Social contract, 15, 16, 22, 119, 130, 146.

Social origins, 22, 34, 119 f., 146.

Socialism and communism, 12 f., 45, 51, 53, 79, 147, 151;
in Aristotle, 96, 105, 118-24;
in Greece, 12 f., 51, 143;
in _Laws_, 58-62;
in _Republic_, 48, 49, 50, 54-58;
in Xenophon, 75 f.;
in other writers, 15, 52-54, 79 f., 130, 140 f., 142-45.

Socrates, 22, 26, 31, 57, 63, 67, 69, 73, 74, 129, 134, 136, 144.

Solon, 13, 14.

Sophists, 16, 17, 18, 22, 36, 73, 97, 111, 119, 130, 131, 142.

Souchon, 7, 10, 17, 31, 36, 37, 41, 48, 49, 52, 53, 55, 57, 62, 72, 82,
88, 89, 93, 104, 106, 123, 124, 141, 142, 143, 148, 150, 154.

Spencer, 35.

Speusippus, 125.

Stein, 55, 140, 154.

Steinhart-Mueller, 134.

Stewart, 83, 84, 92, 94, 95, 102, 107, 108, 116, 119, 154.

St. Hilaire, 81, 82, 154.

Stimson, 149.

Stobaeus, 15, 52, 126, 127, 130, 137, 139, 141.

Stoics, 16, 19, 125, 126, 127, 130, 134, 135, 136, 139-42, 143, 144.

St. Paul, 49, 120, 132.

Strabo, 132, 143.

Susemihl, 81, 89, 96, 127, 128.

Sussitia, 60, 117, 122 f.

Tariff, 41, 73, 110, 129.

Teles, 132, 133, 137-39.

Theocritus, 143.

Theognis, 14.

Theophrastus, 91, 125, 126, 127.

Theopompus, 144.

Thill, 154.

Thomissen, 154.

Thoreau, 12, 25, 26.

Thrasymachus, 16.

Thucydides, 10, 12, 18, 45, 66, 68, 69.

Timaeus, 52.

Trinchera, 154.

Usener, 130.

Utility, 22 f., 64, 65, 83, 88, 134, 135, 138, 146, 149.

Value, 22 f., 64 f., 82-84, 85, 96, 115, 134 f., 149. _See also_ the
Greek index.

Vanderkindere, 154.

Varro, 91.

Villeneuve-Bargemont, De, 152.

Vogel, 154.

von Arnim, 133, 139, 140, 141, 142.

Wages, 17, 46, 47, 74, 116.

Wagner (Pastor), 136.

Wagner, 150.

Walcker, 154.

Walker, 86.

Wallon, 97, 98, 154.

War, 25, 27, 36, 37, 66, 67, 70, 73, 79, 128, 147.

Wealth:
attitude toward, 15, 17, 18, 24-27, 48, 50, 55, 56, 60, 65 f., 77,
78, 79, 81, 86-88, 109, 125 f., 127, 129, 130, 131 f., 133-37, 138
f., 139 f., 141, 144, 146, 147;
defined, 24, 27, 65, 85 f., 91, 112, 133, 146, 149.
_See also_ the Greek index.

Wilhelm, 7, 127, 154.

Wolf, 57, 141, 154.

Xenocrates, 125, 126.

Xenophon, 9, 10, 15, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 30, 38, 42, 46, 63-76, 81, 84,
89, 91, 96, 97, 111, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136,
138, 149.

Zell, 105.

Zeller, 15, 17, 32, 34, 48, 49, 52, 81, 97, 125, 127, 128, 129, 131,
132, 133, 139.

Zeno, 139 f., 141, 142, 144.

Zimmern, 9, 14, 29, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44 f., 45, 66.

Zmavc, 9, 81, 82, 84, 90, 104, 115, 124, 148, 154.

INDEX OF GREEK TERMS

ἀγοραστική, 40.

ἀδιάφορα, 125, 139.

αἰτίας, 28.

ἀλλαγή, 38, 39, 40, 41, 89, 106, 140.

ἀξία, 23, 64, 84, 86.

ἄπειρος, 25, 85, 112.

ἀπολαυστική, 40, 68.

ἀργύριον, 24, 72.

ἀσχολία, 66.

αὐτάρκεια (αὐτάρκης), 34, 112, 138, 144.

αὐτοπωλική, 40.

αὐτουργός, 18, 40, 89, 96.

αὐτόφυτον, 89, 113.

ἀφορμή, 68, 79, 92, 96, 106, 111, 131.

βάναυσος (βαναυσικαί, βαναυσία), 70, 93, 95, 113, 140.

δημιουργός, 23, 36, 48, 93.

διανομή, 115, 116.

διορθωτικόν, 102.

ἐγγυητής, 103.

εἰσαγώγιμα (ἐπεισαγωγίμων), 35, 110, 128.

ἔμπορος (ἐμπορική, ἐμπορία), 35, 41, 42, 73, 111, 113.

ἐνεργά, 69. (ἀργά, 68.)

ἐξαγώγιμα (ἐξαγομένων), 110, 128.

ἔρανος, 68.

ἐργασία, 66, 89, 90, 113.

εὐμεταχείριστον, 102.

θησαυρισμός, 85, 86.

ἰσότης, 56.

κάπηλος (καπηλική, καπηλεία), 35, 40, 41, 42, 78, 89, 111, 112, 113,
141.

κάρπιμα, 68.

κατά τὴν ἀναλογίαν ἴσον, 83.

κεφάλαιος, 30, 69.

κίβδηλος (ἀκίβδηλος), 42, 43.

κτήματα, 24, 64, 82, 85, 88, 138.

κτῆσις, 25, 65, 92, 125, 128.

κτητική, 28, 88, 111, 112, 113.

μεταβλητική, 40, 82, 111.

μισθαρνία, 89, 113.

ναυκληρία, 113.

νόμισμα, 38, 39, 84, 102, 103, 128, 133, 140.

νόμος, 16, 103, 119, 127, 142.

ξύμβολον τῆς ἀλλαγῆς, 102.

ὀβολοστατική, 105.

οἰκειατάτῃ, 91, 113.

οἰκονομική (οἰκονομία, οἰκονόμος), 9, 107, 111, 112, 114, 126, 128,
140.

ὄργανον, 86, 88, 91, 97.

παράστασις, 113.

πίστις, 68, 77, 106.

πλοῦτος, (πλούσιον) 24, 85, 112, 125, 127, 132, 135.

ποίησις, (ποιητική), 28, 69, 88, 92, 97.

πρᾶξις, (πρακτική), 69, 88, 92, 97.

στάσις, (διάστασις), 13, 25, 62, 87.

συμβλητά, 102.

συναιτίους, 28.

σχολή, 87.

τέχνη, 66, 93, 113, 145.

τίμη, 84.

τὸ ἴσον ἀντιπεπονθός (τὸ ἀντιπεπονθὸς κατ᾽ ἀναλογίαν), 96, 107, 121.

τόκος (τοκισμός), 39, 93, 105, 113.

φορτηγία, 113.

φύσις, 16, 36, 89, 96, 98, 106, 113, 127, 128, 131, 132, 142.

χρεία, 34, 82, 84, 102, 108.

χρήματα, 15, 24, 25, 28, 38, 64, 65, 84, 112, 134, 135, 137, 138.

χρηματιστική (χρηματιστής), 9, 26, 42, 73, 85, 88, 106, 107, 110, 111,
112, 113, 140, 141.

χρυσός (χρυσίον), 24, 72, 83.

Transcriber’s Notes:

Missing or obscured punctuation was corrected.

Typographical errors were silently corrected.