Chapter XXIX: Section IV: Crown rufous; body above, olive-green (20)

As already remarked, we do not find reason to admit more than one species of _Crotophaga_ in the United States and the West Indies, as in the great variation in size, and to some extent in shape of bill, there is nothing constant. The species can hardly be considered more than a straggler in the United States, although a considerable number of specimens have been seen or taken within its limits. That in the Smithsonian collection was killed on the Tortugas; but there is one in the collection of the Philadelphia Academy, killed near Philadelphia by Mr. John Krider, and presented by him. Mr. Audubon also possessed a pair said to have been killed near New Orleans.

HABITS. This species, the common Savanna Blackbird of the West India Islands, is probably only an accidental visitant of the United States, and may not strictly belong to the avi-fauna of North America.

It is common throughout the West Indies, and in South America as far south as Brazil. Gosse states it to be one of the most abundant birds of Jamaica. In speaking of its breeding habits he mentions that it was universally maintained by the inhabitants that these birds unite and build in company an immense nest of basket-work, made by the united labors of the flock. This is said to be placed on a high tree, where many parents bring forth and educate a common family. This statement is reiterated by Mr. Hill, who says that a small flock of about six individuals build but one large and capacious nest, to which they resort in common, and rear their young together.

In July Mr. Gosse found the nest of one of these birds in a _guazuma_ tree. It was a large mass of interwoven twigs, and was lined with leaves. There were eight eggs in the nest, and the shells of many others were scattered beneath the tree.

Mr. Newton found these birds very common in St. Croix. He mentions meeting with a nest of this species June 17. It was about five feet from the ground, on a large tamarind-tree. He speaks of it as a rude collection of sticks and twigs, large and deep, partly filled with dry leaves, among which were fourteen eggs, and around the margin were stuck upright a few dead twigs of tamarind. Five days afterwards he went to the nest, where he found but nine eggs, two of which he took. Three days later he found but four eggs in the nest, it having been robbed in the interim; but six days afterwards the number had again been increased to eight. He never found the eggs covered up as if intentionally done. The nest was evidently common property. There were generally two or three birds sitting close to or on it, and up in the tree perhaps four or five more, who would continue screeching all the time he was there. Mr. Newton adds that when the egg is fresh the cretaceous deposit on the shell is very soft and easily scored, but it soon hardens. It is mentioned in De Sagra’s list as one of the common birds of Cuba.

Mr. J. F. Hamilton, in his interesting paper (Ibis, July, 1871) on the birds of Brazil, mentions finding this species very common at Santo Paulo. There was scarcely an open piece of ground where there were but few bushes that had not its flock of these birds. They were especially fond of marshy ground. They were also often to be seen running about among a herd of cattle, picking up the insects disturbed by the animals. They seemed utterly regardless of danger, and would scarcely do more than flit from one bush to another, even when the numbers of their flock were being greatly thinned. When concealed in the long grass, they would allow themselves to be almost trodden on before rising. The Brazilians seldom molest them, as their flesh is not good to eat.

This bird is known as the Black Witch in St. Croix,—a name Mr. Newton supposes to be due to its peculiar call-note, which sounds like _que-yuch_. Its familiar habits and its grotesque appearance make it universally known. It is a favorite object of attack to the Chickaree Flycatcher, in which encounters it is apt to lose its presence of mind, and to be forced to make an ignominious retreat.

These birds are said to be attracted by collections of cattle and horses, upon the bodies of which they are often seen to alight, feeding upon the ticks with which they are infested. They are at once familiar and wary, permitting a limited acquaintance, but a too near approach sets the whole flock in motion. It moves in a very peculiar gliding flight. In feeding it is omnivorous; besides insects of all kinds, such as ticks, grasshoppers, beetles, etc., it eats berries of various kinds, lizards, and other kinds of food. It catches insects on the ground by very active jumps, pursues them on the wing, and with its sharp thin bill digs them out in the earth. They hop about and over the bodies of cattle, especially when they are lying down, and when grazing they have been observed clinging to a cow’s tail, picking insects from it as far down even as its extremity.

Mr. Hill states that these birds are downward, not upward, climbers. They enter a tree by alighting on the extremity of some main branch, and reach its centre by creeping along the stem, and seldom penetrate far among the leaves.

The eggs of this species are of a regularly oval shape, equally obtuse at either end. In color they are of a uniform light-blue, with a very slight tinge of green. This is usually covered, but not entirely concealed, by a white cretaceous coating. When fresh, this may readily be rubbed off, but becomes hard and not easily removed. The eggs vary in size from 1.40 to 1.50 inches in length, and in breadth from 1.10 to 1.15 inches.

FAMILY PICIDÆ.—THE WOODPECKERS.

CHAR. Outer toe turned backwards permanently, not versatile laterally, the basal portion of the tongue capable of great protrusion.

The preceding characters combined appear to express the essential characters of the _Picidæ_. In addition, it may be stated that the tongue itself is quite small, flat, and short, acute and horny, usually armed along the edges with recurved hooks. The horns of the hyoid apparatus are generally very long, and curve round the back of the skull, frequently to the base of the bill, playing in a sheath, when the tongue is thrown forward out of the mouth to transfix an insect.

There are twelve tail-feathers, of which the outer is, however, very small and rudimentary (lying concealed between the outer and adjacent feathers), so that only ten are usually counted. The tail is nearly even, or cuneate, never forked, the shafts very rigid in the true Woodpeckers; soft in _Picumninæ_ and _Yunginæ_. The outer primary is generally very short, or spurious, but not wanting. The bill is chisel or wedge shaped, with sharp angles and ridges and straight culmen; sometimes the culmen is a little curved, in which case it is smoother, and without the ridges. The tarsi in the North American forms are covered with large plates anteriorly, posteriorly with small ones, usually more or less polygonal. The claws are compressed, much curved, very strong and acute.

The _Picidæ_ are found all over the world with the exception of Madagascar, Australia, the Moluccas, and Polynesia. America is well provided with them, more than half of the described species belonging to the New World.

The subfamilies of the _Picidæ_ may be most easily distinguished as follows, although other characters could readily be given:—

Picinæ. Tail-feathers pointed, and lanceolate at end; the
shafts very rigid, thickened and elastic.

Picumninæ. Tail soft and short, about half the length of
wing; the feathers without stiffened shafts, rather
narrow, linear, and rounded at end.

Yunginæ. Tail soft and rather long, about three fourths
the length of wing; the feathers broad, and obtusely
rounded at end.

Of these subfamilies the _Picinæ_ alone occur north of Mexico. The _Yunginæ_, to which the well-known Wryneck of England (_Jynx torquilla_) belongs, are exclusively Old World; the _Picumninæ_ belong principally to the tropical regions of America, although a few species occur in Africa and India. One species, _Picumnus micromegas_, Sundevall, belongs to St. Domingo, although erroneously assigned to Brazil. This is the giant of the group, being about the size of the White-bellied Nuthatch (_Sitta carolinensis_) the other species being mostly very diminutive, varying from three to four inches in length.

SUBFAMILY PICINÆ.

The diagnosis on the preceding page will serve to distinguish this group from its allies, without the necessity of going into greater detail. It includes by far the largest percentage of the _Picidæ_, and in the great variations of form has been variously subdivided by authors into sections. Professor Sundevall, in his able monograph,[124] establishes the following four series, referring all to the single genus _Picus_:—

I. Angusticolles. Neck slender, elongated. Nostrils
concealed by bristles. Tail-feathers black or brownish,
immaculate.

II. Securirostres. Neck not slender, and shorter. Nostrils
concealed by bristles. Bill stout, cuneate, with the nasal
ridges widely distant from each other.

III. Ligonirostres. Neck not slender. Nostrils covered,
nasal ridges of bill placed near the culmen (or at least
nearer it than the lower edge of the upper mandible), for
the most part obsolete anteriorly.

IV. Nudinares. Nostrils open, uncovered by bristly hairs.
Neck and bill various.

Of these series, the first and second correspond with _Piceæ_, as given below, while _Centureæ_ and _Colapteæ_ both belong to _Ligonirostres_. The _Nudinares_ are not represented in North America, and by only one group, _Celeus_, in any portion of the continent.

In the following account of the _Picinæ_, we shall not pretend to discuss the relationship of the North American species to the _Picinæ_ in general, referring to Sundevall’s work, and the monographs of Malherbe and Cassin, for information on the subject. For our present purposes they may be conveniently, even if artificially, arranged in the following sections:—

Piceæ. Bill variable in length; the outlines above and
below nearly straight; the ends truncated; a prominent
ridge on the side of the mandible springing from the
middle of the base, or a little below, and running out
either on the commissure, or extending parallel to and a
little above it, to the end, sometimes obliterated or
confluent with the lateral bevel of the bill. Nostrils
considerably overhung by the lateral ridge, more or less
linear, and concealed by thick bushy tufts of feathers at
the base of the bill. Outer posterior toe generally longer
than the anterior.

Centureæ. Bill rather long; the outlines, that of the
culmen especially, decidedly curved. The lateral ridge
much nearest the culmen, and, though quite distinct at the
base, disappearing before coming to the lower edge of the
mandible; not overhanging the nostrils, which are broadly
oval, rounded anteriorly, and not concealed by the bristly
feathers at the base. Outer pair of toes nearly equal; the
anterior rather longer.

Colapteæ. Bill rather long, much depressed, and the upper
outline much curved to the acutely pointed (not truncate)
tip. The commissure considerably curved. Bill without any
ridges. The nostrils broadly oval, and much exposed.
Anterior outer toe longest.

The preceding diagnoses will serve to distinguish the three groups sufficiently for our present purposes; the bill being strongest in the _Picinæ_ and best fitted for cutting into trees by its more perfect wedge-shape, with strengthening ridges, as well as by the lateral bevelling of both mandibles, which are nearly equal in thickness at the base, and with their outlines nearly straight. The lateral ridge is prominent, extending to the edge or end of the bill, and overhangs the nostrils, which are narrow and hidden. The _Centureæ_ and the _Colapteæ_ have the upper mandible more curved (the commissure likewise), the lower mandible smaller and weaker, the bill with little or no lateral bevelling. The nostrils are broadly oval and exposed. In the former, however, there is a distinct lateral ridge visible for a short distance from the base of the bill; while in the other there is no ridge at all, and the mandible is greatly curved.

In all the species of North American Woodpeckers, there is more or less red on the head in the male, and frequently in the female. The eggs of all are lustrous polished white, without any markings, and laid in hollow trees, upon a bed of chips, no material being carried in for the construction of the nest.

[124] _Conspectus avium picinarum._ Stockholm, 1866.

SECTION PICEÆ.

With the common characters, as already given, there are several well-marked generic groups in this section of Woodpeckers which may be arranged for the United States species as follows:—

A. Posterior outer toe longer than the anterior outer one.
(Fourth toe longer than third.)

_a._ Lateral ridge starting above the middle of the base
of the bill, and extending to the tip.

1. Campephilus. Lateral ridge above the middle of the
lateral profile of the bill when opposite the end of
the nostrils, which are ovate, and rounded anteriorly.
Bill much depressed, very long; gonys very long.
Posterior outer toe considerably longer than the
anterior. Primaries long, attenuated towards the tip.
Spurious quill nearly half the second. Shafts of four
middle tail-feathers remarkably stout, of equal size,
and abruptly very much larger than the others; two
middle tail-feathers narrower towards bases than
towards end.[125] A pointed occipital crest.

2. Picus. Lateral ridge in the middle of the lateral
profile opposite the end of the nostrils, which are
ovate and sharp-pointed anteriorly. Bill moderate,
nearly as broad as high.

Outer hind toe moderately longer than the outer fore
toe. Primaries broad to the tip, and rounded. Spurious
primary not one third the second quill.

3. Picoides. Lateral ridge below the middle of the
profile, opposite the end of the ovate acute nostrils,
which it greatly overhangs. Bill greatly depressed;
lower mandible deeper than the upper. Inner hind toe
wanting, leaving only three toes. Tufts of nasal
bristles very full and long.

_b._ Lateral ridge starting below the middle of the base
of the bill, and running as a distinct ridge into the
edge of the commissure at about its middle; the terminal
half of the mandible rounded on the sides, although the
truncate tip is distinctly bevelled laterally.

4. Sphyropicus. Nostrils considerably overhung by the
lateral ridge, very small, linear. Gonys as long as
the culmen, from the nostrils. Tips of tail-feathers
elongated and linear, not cuneate. Wings very long;
exposed portion of spurious primary about one fourth
that of second quill.

B. Posterior outer toe considerably shorter than the
anterior outer one. (Fourth toe shorter than third).

5. Hylotomus. Bill depressed. Lateral ridge above the
middle of the lateral profile near the base. Nostrils
elliptical, wide, and rounded anteriorly. Tail almost
as in _Sphyropicus_. A pointed occipital crest, as in
_Campephilus_, and not found in the other genera.

The arrangement in the preceding diagnosis is perhaps not perfectly natural, although sufficiently so for our present purpose. Thus, _Hylotomus_, in having the lateral ridge extending to the end of the bill, is like _Picus_, but the nostrils are broader, more open, and not acute anteriorly. The tail-feathers of _Sphyropicus_ differ greatly from those of the others in being abruptly acuminate, the points elongated, narrow, and nearly linear, instead of being gently cuneate at the ends. _Campephilus_ and _Hylotomus_ belong to Sundevall’s _Angusticolles_, with their long slender neck, and elongated occipital crest (_Dryocopinæ_, Cab.); the other genera to _Securirostres_, with shorter, thicker neck, and no crest (_Dendrocopinæ_, Cab.). But no two genera in the subfamily are more distinct than _Campephilus_ and _Hylotomus_.

[125] A character common to all the members of the genus,
and distinguishing them from the species of every other;
this peculiar form of the middle tail-feathers is caused
principally by a folding of the webs downward, almost
against each other. The under surfaces of the shafts have a
very deep groove their whole length, which is seen in no
other genus.

GENUS CAMPEPHILUS, GRAY.

_Campephilus_, GRAY, List of Genera? 1840. (Type, _C. principalis_.)
_Megapicus_, MALHERBE, Mém. Ac. de Metz, 1849, 317.

GEN. CHAR. Bill considerably longer than the head, much depressed, or broader than high at the base, becoming somewhat compressed near the middle and gradually bevelled off at the tip. Culmen very slightly curved, gonys as concave, the curve scarcely appreciable; commissure straight. Culmen with a parallel ridge on each side, starting a little above the centre of the basal outline of the bill, the ridge projecting outwards and downwards, and a slight concavity between it and the acute ridge of the culmen. Gonys considerably more than half the commissure. Nostrils oval below the lateral ridge near the base of the bill; concealed by the bristly feathers directed forward. Similar feathers are seen at the sides of the lower jaw and on the chin.

[Line drawing: _Campephilus principalis._
3869 ♂]

Feet large; outer hind toe much longest; claw of inner fore toe reaching to middle of outer fore claw; inner hind toe scarcely more than half the outer one; its claw reaching as far as the base of the inner anterior claw, considerably more than half the outer anterior toe. Tarsus rather shorter than the inner fore toe. Tail long, cuneate; shafts of the four middle feathers abruptly much larger than the others, and with a deep groove running continuously along their under surface; webs of the two middle feathers deflected, almost against each other, so that the feathers appear narrower at the base than terminally. Wings long and pointed, the third, fourth, and fifth quills longest; sixth secondary longest, leaving six “tertials,” instead of three or four as usual; primaries long, attenuated. Color continuous black, relieved by white patches. Head with a pointed occipital crest.

This genus embraces the largest known kind of Woodpecker, and is confined to America. Of the two species usually assigned to it, only one occurs within the limits of the United States, _C. imperialis_, given by Audubon, and by subsequent authors on his credit, really belonging to Southern Mexico and Central America. The diagnoses of the species are as follows:—

COMMON CHARACTERS. Bill ivory-white. Body entirely glossy blue-black. A scapular stripe, secondaries, ends of inner primaries, and under wing-coverts, white. Crest scarlet in the male, black in the female.

1. C. principalis. A white stripe on each side of the
neck. Bristly feathers at the base of the bill white.

White neck-stripe not extending to the base of the bill.
Black feathers of crest longer than the scarlet. Wing,
10.00; culmen, 2.60. _Hab._ Gulf region of United States
var. _principalis_.

White stripe reaching the base of the bill. Scarlet
feathers of crest longer than the black. Wing, 9.50;
culmen, 2.40. _Hab._ Cuba var. _bairdi_.[126]

2. C. imperialis. No white stripe on the sides of the
neck. More white on the wings. Bristly feathers at the
base of the bill black. _Hab._ South Mexico; Guatemala.

[126] _Campephilus bairdi_, CASSIN, Pr. A. N. Sc. 1863, 322
(Cuba).—GUNDLACH, Repertorium, I, 1866, 293.—IB. Cab.
Jour. 1866, 352. _Hab._ Cuba.

Campephilus principalis, GRAY.

IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER.

_Picus principalis_, LINN. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 173.—WILSON, Am.
Orn. IV, 1811, 20, pl. xxxix, f. 6.—WAGLER, Syst. Avium, 1827,
No. 1.—AUD. Orn. Biog. I, 1832, 341; V, 525, pl. lxvi.—IB.
Birds America, IV, 1842, 214, pl. cclvi.—SUNDEVALL, Consp.
Pic. 4. _Dendrocopus principalis_, BON. List, 1838.
_Campephilus principalis_, GRAY, List Genera, 1840.—BAIRD,
Birds N. Am. 83.—CAB. & HEIN. Mus. Hein. IV, II,
100.—DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 468 (breeds in Brazos and Trinity,
Texas).—GRAY, Cat. 53.—ALLEN, Birds E. Florida, 301.
_Dryotomus (Megapicus) principalis_, BON. Con. Zyg. Aten. Ital.
1854, 7. _Dryocopus principalis_, BON. Consp. 1850, 132.
_White-billed Woodpecker_, CATESBY, Car. I, 16.—PENNANT,
LATHAM.

SP. CHAR. Fourth and fifth quills equal; third a little shorter. Bill horn-white. Body entirely of a glossy blue-black (glossed with green below); a white stripe beginning half an inch posterior to the commissure, and passing down the sides of the neck, and extending down each side of the back. Under wing-coverts, and the entire exposed portion of the secondary quills, with ends of the inner primaries, bristles, and a short stripe at the base of the bill, white. Crest scarlet, upper surface black. Length, 21.00; wing, 10.00. _Female_ similar, without any red on the head, and with two spots of white on the end of the outer tail-feather.

HAB. Southern Atlantic and Gulf States. North to North Carolina and mouth of the Ohio; west to Arkansas and Eastern Texas. Localities: Brazos and Trinity Rivers, Texas (DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 468, breeds).

In the male the entire crown (with its elongated feathers) is black. The scarlet commences just above the middle of the eye, and, passing backwards a short distance, widens behind and bends down as far as the level of the under edge of the lower jaw. The feathers which spring from the back of the head are much elongated above; considerably longer than those of the crown. In the specimen before us the black feathers of the crest do not reach as far back as the scarlet.

Reference has already been made to the Cuban variety of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker named _C. bairdi_ by Mr. Cassin, and differing in smaller size; extension of the white cheek-stripe to the very base of the bill, and the excess in length of the upper black feathers of the crest over the scarlet. These features appear to be constant, and characteristic of a local race.

For the reasons already adduced, we drop _C. imperialis_ from the list of North American birds, although given as such by Audubon.

HABITS. So far as we have information in regard to the geographical distribution of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker, it is chiefly restricted in its range to the extreme Southern States, and especially to those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. Wilson states that very few, if any, are ever found north of Virginia, and not many even in that State. His first specimen was obtained near Wilmington, N. C. It is not migratory, but is a resident where found.

Mr. Audubon, who is more full than any other writer in his account of this bird, assigns to it a more extended distribution. He states that in descending the Ohio River he met with it near the confluence of that river with the Mississippi, and adds that it is frequently met with in following the windings of the latter river either downwards towards the sea, or upwards in the direction of the Missouri. On the Atlantic he was inclined to make North Carolina the limit of its northern distribution, though now and then individuals of the species have been accidentally met with as far north as Maryland. To the westward of the Mississippi he states that it is found in all the dense forests bordering the streams which empty into it, from the very declivities of the Rocky Mountains. The lower parts of the Carolinas, Georgia, North Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, are, however, its favorite resorts, and in those States it constantly resides.

It was observed by Dr. Woodhouse in the timber on the Arkansas River, and in Eastern Texas, but quite rarely in both places. It was not, however, met with in any other of the government expeditions, either to the Pacific, in the survey of the railroad routes, or in that for the survey of the Mexican boundary line. It is given as a bird of Cuba by De la Sagra, in his catalogue of the birds of that island, as observed by him, October, 1850, and by Dr. John Gundlach, in his list of the birds that breed in Cuba. It is not mentioned by Gosse among the birds of Jamaica, nor by the Newtons as found in St. Croix. As it is not a migratory bird, it may be regarded as breeding in all its localities, except where it is obviously an accidental visitant.

Wilson, who never met with the nest of this Woodpecker, states, on the authority of reliable informants, that it breeds in the large-timbered cypress swamps of the Carolinas. In the trunks of these trees at a considerable height from the ground, both parents working alternately, these birds dig out a large and capacious cavity for their eggs and young. Trees thus dug out have frequently been cut down with both the eggs and the young in them. The hole was described to Wilson as generally a little winding, to keep out the rain, and sometimes five feet deep. The eggs were said to be generally four, sometimes five in number, as large as pullets’, pure white, and equally thick at both ends. The young make their appearance about the middle or end of June.

Mr. Audubon, whose account of the breeding-habits of the Ivory-bill is given from his own immediate observations, supplies a more minute and detailed history of its nesting. He states that it breeds earlier in spring than any other species of its tribe, and that he has observed it boring a hole for that purpose as early as the beginning of March. This hole he believed to be always made in the trunk of a live tree, generally an ash or a hackberry, and at a great height. It pays great regard to the particular situation of the tree and the inclination of the trunk, both with a view to retirement and to secure the aperture against rains. To prevent the latter injury, the hole is generally dug immediately under the protection of a large branch. It is first bored horizontally a few inches, then directly downward, and not in a spiral direction, as Wilson was informed. This cavity is sometimes not more than ten inches in depth, while at other times it reaches nearly three feet downward into the heart of the tree. The older the bird, the deeper its hole, in the opinion of Mr. Audubon. The average diameter of the different nests which Mr. Audubon examined was about seven inches in the inner parts, although the entrance is only just large enough to admit the bird. Both birds work most assiduously in making these excavations. Mr. Audubon states that in two instances where the Woodpeckers saw him watching them at their labors, while they were digging their nests, they abandoned them. For the first brood, he states, there are generally six eggs. These are deposited on a few chips at the bottom of the hole, and are of a pure white color. The young may be seen creeping out of their holes about a fortnight before they venture to fly to any other tree. The second brood makes its appearance about the 15th of August. In Kentucky and Indiana the Ivory-bill seldom raises more than one brood in a season. Its flight is described by Audubon as graceful in the extreme, though seldom prolonged to more than a few hundred yards at a time, except when it has occasion to cross a large river. It then flies in deep undulations, opening its wings at first to their full extent, and nearly closing them to renew their impulse. The transit from tree to tree is performed by a single sweep, as if the bird had been swung in a curved line from the one to the other.

Except during the love-season it never utters a sound when on the wing. On alighting, or when, in ascending a tree, it leaps against the upper parts of the trunk, its remarkable voice may be constantly heard in a clear, loud, and rather plaintive tone, sometimes to the distance of half a mile, and resembling the false high note of a clarionet. This may be represented by the monosyllable _pait_ thrice repeated.

The food of this Woodpecker consists principally of beetles, larvæ, and large grubs. They are also especially fond of ripe wild grapes, which they eat with great avidity, hanging by their claws to the vines, often in the position of a Titmouse. They also eat ripe persimmons, hackberries, and other fruit, but are not known to disturb standing corn nor the fruits of the orchard.

These birds attack decaying trees so energetically as often to cause them to fall. So great is their strength, that Audubon has known one of them to detach, at a single blow, a strip of bark eight inches long, and, by beginning at the top branch of a dead tree, tear off the bark to the extent of thirty feet in the course of a few hours, all the while sounding its loud notes.

Mr. Audubon further states that this species generally moves in pairs, that the female is the least shy and the most clamorous, and that, except when digging a hole for the reception of their eggs, they are not known to excavate living trees, but only those attacked by worms. When wounded, they seek the nearest tree, and ascend with great rapidity by successive hops. When taken by the hand, they strike with great violence, and inflict severe wounds with their bills and claws.

Mr. Dresser states that these birds were found on the Brazos River, and also on the Trinity, where they were by no means rare.

Wilson dwells at some length and with great force upon the great value of these birds to our forests. They never injure sound trees, only those diseased and infested with insects. The pine timber of the Southern States is often destroyed, thousands of acres in a season, by the larvæ of certain insects. In Wilson’s day this was noticeable in the vicinity of Georgetown, S. C., and was attributed by him to the blind destruction of this and other insect-eating birds.

An egg of this species (Smith. Coll., No. 16,196) taken near Wilmington, N. C., by Mr. N. Giles, measures 1.35 inches in length by .95 of an inch in breadth. It is of a highly polished porcelain whiteness, and is much more oblong in shape and more pointed than are the eggs of _Hylotomus pileatus_.

GENUS PICUS, LINNÆUS.

_Picus_, LINN. Syst. Nat. 1748. (Type, _Picus martius_, L.)

[Line drawing: _Picus villosus._
884 ♂]

GEN. CHAR. Bill equal to the head, or a little longer; the lateral ridges conspicuous, starting about the middle of the base of the bill; the basal elongated oval nostrils nearest the commissure; the ridges of the culmen and gonys acute, and very nearly straight, or slightly convex towards the tip; the bill but little broader than high at the base, becoming compressed considerably before the middle. Feet much as in _Campephilus_; the outer posterior toe longest; the outer anterior about intermediate between it and the inner anterior; the inner posterior reaching to the base of the claw of the inner anterior. Tarsus about equal to the inner anterior toe; shorter than the two other long toes. Wings rather long, reaching to the middle of the tail, rather rounded; the fourth and fifth quills longest; the quills rather broad and rounded.

In the genus _Picus_, as characterized above, are contained several subdivisions more or less entitled to distinct rank, and corresponding with peculiar patterns of coloration. Thus, taking the _P. villosus_ as the type, _P. borealis_ has proportionally much longer primaries; the spurious primary smaller; the bill is considerably more attenuated, and even concave in its lateral outlines. The wings are still longer in _P. albolarvatus_. The species may be arranged as follows:—

A. Black above, and white beneath. Wings spotted with
white; a black maxillary stripe.

_a._ Two white stripes on the side of the head, one
above, and the other below, the ear-coverts, which are
mostly black. First quill shorter than sixth.
Tail-feathers broad and obtuse at ends, the narrowed
tips of middle feathers very short.

DRYOBATES, BOIE. Middle of back streaked
longitudinally and continuously with white. Maxillary
and auricular black stripes not confluent; the latter
running into the black of the nape. Beneath white
without spots. Red of head confined to a narrow nuchal
band.

1. P. villosus. Outer tail-feathers immaculate
white, great variation in size with latitude.
Length, 7.00 to 10.00.

All the quills, with middle and greater
wing-coverts, with large white spots. _Hab._
Eastern North America var. _villosus_.

Innermost quills and some of the coverts entirely
black, or unspotted with white. Remaining spots
reduced in size. (Var. _jardini_ similar, but much
smaller, 7.00, and lower parts smoky-brown.)
_Hab._ Middle and western North America, and south
to Costa Rica var. _harrisi_.

2. P. pubescens. Outer tail-feather white, with
transverse black bands; length about 6.25.

All the quills, with middle and greater
wing-coverts, with large white spots. _Hab._
Eastern North America var. _pubescens_.

Innermost quills and some of the coverts entirely
black; remaining white spots reduced in size.
_Hab._ Western North America var. _gairdneri_.

DYCTIOPICUS, BON. Whole back banded transversely with
black and white. Beneath white, with black spots on
sides. Maxillary and auricular black stripes confluent
at their posterior ends, the latter not running into
the nape. In the males at least half of top of head
red. Length, about 6.50.

3. P. scalaris. Anterior portion of the back banded
with white; lores and nasal tufts smoky brown. Black
stripes on sides of the head very much narrower than
the white ones, and not connected with the black of
the shoulders. _Male_ with the whole crown red.

Outer web of lateral tail-feathers barred with
black to the base. White bands on back exceeding
the black ones in width; red of the crown very
continuous, on the forehead predominating over the
black and white. (Sometimes the black at base of
inner web of lateral tail-feather divided by white
bars.) _Hab._ Southern and Eastern Mexico, and Rio
Grande region of United States var. _scalaris_.

Outer web of lateral tail-feather barred with
black only toward end. Red of crown much broken
anteriorly, and in less amount than the black and
white mixed with it. White bands of the back not
wider, generally much narrower than the black
ones.

Bill, .90; tarsus, .70. Red of crown extending
almost to the bill. _Hab._ Western Mexico, up to
Western Arizona var. _graysoni_.

Bill, 1.10; tarsus, .75. Red of crown
disappearing about on a line above the eye.
_Hab._ Cape St. Lucas var. _lucasanus_.

4. P. nuttalli. Anterior portion of back not banded
with white; lores and nasal tufts white. Black
stripes on side of the head very much broader than
the white ones, and connected by a narrow strip with
the black of the shoulders. _Male_ with only the
nape and occiput red. _Hab._ California (only).

_b._ One white stripe, only, on side of head, and this
occupying whole auricular region. Tail-feathers narrowed
at ends, the points of the middle ones much elongated.
First quill longer than sixth. Bill very small, much
shorter than head.

PHRENOPICUS, BONAP. Back and wings transversely banded
with black and white, and sides spotted with black, as
in _Dyctiopicus_.

5. P. borealis. Red of male restricted to a
concealed narrow line on each side of the occiput,
at the junction of the white and black. Maxillary
black stripe very broad and conspicuous, running
back to the series of black spots on sides of
breast. Three outer tail-feathers more or less
white, with a few bars of black near their ends,
principally on inner webs. _Hab._ South Atlantic
States.

B. Body entirely continuous black; head all round
immaculate white. First quill shorter than sixth.

XENOPICUS, BAIRD. Tail and primaries as in “A,” but
much more lengthened. Bill as in _Dryobates_, but more
slender.

6. P. albolarvatus. Red of male a narrow transverse
occipital crescent, between the white and the black.
Basal half, or more, of primaries variegated with
white, this continuous nearly to the end of outer
webs; inner webs of secondaries with large white
spots toward their base. _Hab._ Sierra Nevada and
Coast Ranges, Pacific Province, United States.

SUBGENUS DRYOBATES, BOIE.

_Dryobates_, BOIE, 1826. (Type, _Picus pubescens_, _fide_ CABANIS,
Mus. Hein.)
_Trichopicus_, BONAP. 1854.
_Trichopipo_, CAB. & HEIN. Mus. Hein. 1863, 62.

According to Cabanis, as above cited, _Dryobates_, as established by Boie in 1826, had the _Picus pubescens_ as type, although extended in 1828 to cover a much wider ground. As a subgeneric name, therefore, it must take preference of _Trichopicus_ of Bonaparte, which, like all the allied names of this author, Cabanis rejects at any rate as hybrid and inadmissible.

The synopsis under the head of _Picus_ will serve to distinguish the species in brief.

The small black and white Woodpeckers of North America exhibit great variations in size and markings, and it is extremely difficult to say what is a distinct species and what a mere geographical race. In none of our birds is the difference in size between specimens from a high and a low latitude so great, and numerous nominal species have been established on this ground alone. There is also much variation with locality in the amount of white spotting on the wings, as well as the comparative width of the white and black bars in the banded species. The under parts, too, vary from pure white to smoky-brown. To these variations in what may be considered as good species is to be added the further perplexities caused by hybridism, which seems to prevail to an unusual extent among some Woodpeckers, where the area of distribution of one species is overlapped by a close ally. This, which can be most satisfactorily demonstrated in the _Colaptes_, is also probably the case in the black and white species, and renders the final settlement of the questions involved very difficult.

After a careful consideration of the subject, we are not inclined to admit any species or permanent varieties of the group of four-toed small white and black Woodpeckers as North or Middle American, other than those mentioned in the preceding synopsis.

Picus villosus, LINNÆUS.

HAIRY WOODPECKER; LARGER SAPSUCKER.

Var. canadensis.—Northern and Western regions.

? _Picus leucomelas_, BODDÆRT, Tabl. Pl. Enl. 1783 (No. 345, f. 1,
GRAY).—CASS. P. A. N. S. 1863, 199. _Dryobates leucomelas_,
CAB. & HEIN. Mus. Hein. IV, 67. _? Picus canadensis_, GMELIN,
Syst. Nat. I, 1788, 437.—? LATHAM, Ind. Orn. I, 1790,
231.—AUD. Orn. Biog. V, 1839, 188, pl. ccccxvii.—IB. Syn.
1839, 177.—IB. Birds America, IV, 1842, 235, pl.
cclviii.—BONAP. Consp. 1850, 137.—IB. Aten. Ital. 1854, 8.
_Picus villosus_, FORSTER, Philos. Trans. LXII, 1772,
383.—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858, 84.—CASSIN, P. A. N. S. 1863,
199.—GRAY, Catal. 1868, 45.—DALL & BANNISTER, Tr. Chicago Ac.
Sc. I, 1869, 274 (Alaska).—FINSCH, Abh. Nat. III, 1872, 60
(Alaska).—SAMUELS, 87. _Picus (Dendrocopus) villosus_, SW.
F.-Bor. Am. II, 1831, 305. _Picus phillipsi_, AUD. Orn. Biog.
V, 1839, 186, pl. ccccxvii.—IB. Syn. 1839, 177.—IB. Birds
Amer. IV, 1842, 238, pl. cclix (immature, with yellow
crown).—NUTTALL, Man. I, (2d ed.,) 1840, 686.—CASS. P. A. N.
S. 1863, 199. _Picus martinæ_, AUD. Orn. Biog. V, 1839, 181,
pl. ccccxvii.—IB. Syn. 1839, 178.—IB. Birds Amer. IV, 1842,
240, pl. cclx (young male, with red feathers on crown).—CASS.
P. A. N. S. 1863, 199. _Picus rubricapillus_, NUTTALL, Man. I,
(2d ed.,) 1840, 685 (same as preceding). _Picus
septentrionalis_, NUTTALL, Man. I, (2d ed.,) 1840, 684.

Var. villosus.—Middle States.

_Picus villosus_, LINNÆUS, Syst. Nat. I, 1758, 175.—VIEILLOT, Ois.
Am. Sept. II, 1807, 64, pl. cxx.—WILSON, Am. Orn. I, 1808,
150, pl. ix.—WAGLER, Syst. Av. 1827, No. 22.—AUD. Orn. Biog.
V, 1839, 164, pl. ccccxvi.—IB. Birds Amer. IV, 1842, 244, pl.
cclxii.—BONAP. Conspectus, 1850, 137.—SUNDEVALL, Mon. Pic.
17.—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858, 84. _Picus leucomelanus_,
WAGLER, Syst. Av. 1827, No. 18 (young male in summer). _Hairy
Woodpecker_, PENNANT, LATHAM. _Dryobates villosus_, CAB. &
HEIN. Mus. Hein. IV, 2, 66.

Var. auduboni.—Southern States.

_Picus auduboni_, SWAINSON, F. B. A. 1831, 306.—TRUDEAU, J. A. N.
Sc. Ph. VII, 1837, 404 (very young male, with crown spotted
with yellow).—AUD. Orn. Biog. V, 1839, 194, pl. ccccxvii.—IB.
Birds Amer. IV, 1842, 259, pl. cclxv.—NUTT. Man. I, (2d ed.,)
1840, 684.—CASS. P. A. N. S. 1863, 199. _Picus villosus_,
BRYANT, Pr. Bost. Soc. 1859 (Bahamas, winter).—ALLEN, B. E.
Fla. 302.

SP. CHAR. Above black, with a white band down the middle of the back. All the middle and larger wing-coverts and all the quills with conspicuous spots of white. Two white stripes on each side of the head; the upper scarcely confluent behind, the lower not at all so; two black stripes confluent with the black of the nape. Beneath white. Three outer tail-feathers with the exposed portions white. Length, 8.00 to 11.00; wing, 4.00 to 5.00; bill, 1.00 to 1.25. _Male_, with a nuchal scarlet crescent (wanting in the female) covering the white, generally continuous, but often interrupted in the middle. Immature bird of either sex with more or less of the whole crown spotted with red or yellow, or both, sometimes the red almost continuous.

HAB. North America, to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, and (var. _canadensis_) along the 49th parallel to British Columbia; Sitka; accidental in England.

In the infinite variation shown by a large number of specimens in the markings of the wings, so relied on by authors to distinguish the species of the black and white spotted North American Woodpeckers having a longitudinal band of white down the back, it will be perhaps our best plan to cut them rigorously down to two, the old-fashioned and time-honored _P. villosus_ and _pubescens_; since the larger and more perfect the series, the more difficult it is to draw the line between them and their more western representatives. The size varies very greatly, and no two are alike in regard to the extent and number of the white spots. Beginning at one end of the chain, we find the white to predominate in the more eastern specimens. Thus in one (20,601) from Canada, and generally from the north, every wing-covert (except the smallest) and every quill shows externally conspicuous spots or bands of white; the middle coverts a terminal band and central spot; the greater coverts two bands on the outer web, and one more basal on the inner; and every quill is marked with a succession of spots in pairs throughout its length,—the outer web as bands reaching nearly to the shaft; the inner as more circular, larger spots. The alula alone is unspotted. This is the typical marking of the _P. leucomelas_ or _canadensis_ of authors. The white markings are all larger respectively than in other forms.

The next stage is seen in typical or average _P. villosus_ for the Middle States. Here the markings are much the same, but the white is more restricted, and on the outer webs of the feathers forms rounded spots rather than bands. Some Carlisle specimens have two spots on the middle coverts as described, others lack the basal one. Another stage is exhibited by a specimen from Illinois, in which with two spots on the middle coverts there is but one terminal on the outer web of the greater, and a reduction in number of spots on the inner webs of innermost secondaries, terminal outer spots not having the corresponding inner. This form is quite prevalent westward and on the Upper Missouri, but cannot be considered as strictly geographical, since a Massachusetts and a Georgia skin agree in the same characters.

In all this variation there is little diminution in the number of spots visible externally, nor so far have we seen any from the region east of the Missouri plains that lack white spots on every covert (except the smallest ones) and every quill, and with few exceptions on both webs of the latter. It is therefore this style that we propose to consider as pure _P. villosus_, irrespective of variations in the size or shape of the spots, of the amount of white on tail and back, or of the bird itself. Any deviation from this may be called a variety. It has the distribution already mentioned, and extends along the Upper Missouri to British Columbia and Sitka, straggling into Washington Territory, where, however, it is found with the more typical western form, var. _harrisi_. A specimen collected by Mr. Hepburn at Caribou, on the Upper Fraser, is absolutely undistinguishable from typical _P. canadensis_ in size and markings.

We now come to the western race or variety, hardly to be called species, the _P. harrisi_ of Audubon. Here the extreme of condition most opposed to typical _villosus_ is shown by the entire absence of white on the exposed surface of the wing, except on the outer webs of the four or five longest primaries, where the spots are very small. (We have never seen them entirely wanting.) The white of the back, too, may be normal in amount, or else much restricted. Concealed white spots on some of the feathers will be seen on raising them. The white of tail-feathers sometimes shows black spots or blotches, especially on the inner web of the second. These features belong more especially to specimens from the coast region of Oregon and Washington.

Proceeding eastward from the Northern Pacific Coast we next find specimens showing a few white streaks on the greater coverts and next on the middle coverts. The spots on the secondaries, too, begin to show themselves; but as a general rule they do not occur on the innermost of the greater coverts and of the secondaries. This, therefore, may be considered as the limit of a variety, characterized by the absence at least of spots in these members of the wing.

With the variation in spots in the western variety we have, as already remarked, differences in amount of white on the tail and the back, as well as in the color of the belly, which is sometimes pure white, sometimes of a smoky gray; this latter variation not at all parallel with other differences or with geographical distribution, and equally observable in eastern _villosus_. The size, too, varies somewhat, but not to the same extent as on the Atlantic side. Here, however, we have _Picus jardini_ of Mexico and Central America, as the small southern race, absolutely undistinguishable from dark-breasted Oregon specimens, except in size (length, 7.00; wing, 3.90; bill above, .85), and perhaps a more fulvous tinge on the under parts. The specimens before me have one or two black spots on the inner web of the next to the outer tail-feather, as in darker varieties of _harrisi_, but these are not symmetrical or constant in either, and are to be looked on as mere indications of the general tendency to melanism.

HABITS. This common and familiar species of Woodpecker has an extended range throughout eastern North America. Specimens in the Smithsonian Institution have been collected from almost every portion of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. Wilson speaks of it as common throughout the continent from Hudson’s Bay to Carolina and Georgia. Mr. Audubon, who regarded _Picus martinæ_, _P. phillipsi_, and _P. canadensis_ as distinct species, instead of varieties of this Woodpecker, states, in regard to its distribution, that the _P. villosus_ is a constant resident both in the maritime and inland districts from Texas to New Hampshire, as well as in all the wooded tracts intervening between the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi, and the northern borders of the great lake. He adds that not an individual was found by him or by his sons in Maine, where he did, however, obtain in great abundance the variety he called _P. canadensis_. According to Sir John Richardson it is found as far to the north as the 63d parallel. It remains all the year round in the fur countries, and is the most common species up to the fifty-sixth degree of latitude, north of which it yields in frequency to the three-toed species. Dr. Woodhouse speaks of it as common in Texas and in the Indian Territory. Although not crossing the Rocky Mountains in the United States, it reaches the Pacific Coast of British Columbia, and is found north as far as Sitka, and perhaps still farther, thus replacing the var. _harrisi_. It is a resident, and not a migratory, species, and wherever found it also breeds. Several specimens have been killed in England.

According to the observations of Wilson, this Woodpecker frequents the orchards and cultivated grounds, and is less wild and more domestic than most of the species. In May, with its mate, it seeks the retirement of the woods to breed, selecting a branch already hollowed, or excavating one for itself. In the former case the nest has been known to be four or five feet from the opening. When it excavates its own opening, it digs horizontally six or eight inches into the body of the tree, and then downward to about twice that distance, carrying up the chips in the bill or scraping them out with the feet. They not unfrequently breed in orchards, and have been even known to excavate their holes in the rails of old fences. The female lays five white eggs, which are usually hatched out early in June.

Mr. Audubon observed these birds, at all seasons, in almost every possible locality, from the isolated trees of large towns and cities, even to the very midst of the salt marshes about the mouth of the Mississippi. He found the excavation for the nest more frequently running obliquely than perpendicularly. In the Southern States they rear two broods in a season, the first appearing the last of May, the second usually about the first of August. In the middle and northern districts they rarely raise more than one. Those which Mr. Audubon observed to raise more than one brood in a season made use of the same excavation for both, and not unfrequently within a few yards of a house. The eggs of the first brood he found usually six in number, and of the second four. Where they have but one brood, the number varies from four to six, and in two instances he has found seven. The measure given by him is one inch in length by .69 of an inch in breadth. They are elliptical or almost equally rounded at both ends, smooth, pure white, and translucent. The young remain in the nest until well able to fly.

Mr. Audubon states that the Hairy Woodpecker becomes, during the winter months, a very common bird in all parts of the Southern States, coming to the farm-yards with the downy species to glean the grains of corn left by the cattle. At this season their visits to the corn-cribs are extremely frequent. They may also be seen clinging to the stalks of the sugar-cane, boring them, and evidently enjoying the sweet juices of that plant.

Their flight is short and rapid, resembling that of other allied species. They are not social, never more than the members of one family being seen together. They feed chiefly on insects and their larvæ, often seizing the former on the wing. In the autumn they occasionally eat berries, seeds, and small fruit. Their notes are sharp and loud, uttered in monosyllables, at times with great frequency.

An egg of this species, taken in Roxbury, Mass., is of a pure crystal whiteness, oblong in shape, and equally rounded at either end, measuring 1.01 inches in length by .72 of an inch in breadth. Another, from Georgia, is more rounded at one end, and measures 1.02 inches in length and .75 of an inch in breadth.

Picus villosus, var. harrisi, AUD.

HARRIS’S WOODPECKER.

_Picus harrisi_, AUD. Orn. Biog. V, 1839, 191, pl. ccccxvii.—IB.
Syn. 1839, 178.—IB. Birds America, IV, 1842, 242, pl. cclxi
(dark-bellied variety).—NUTTALL, Man. I, (2d ed.,) 1840,
627.—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858, 87.—SUNDEVALL, Mon. 17.—LORD,
Pr. R. Art. Ass. IV, 111 (nesting).—COUES, Pr. A. N. S. 1866,
52 (Oregon).—SUMICHRAST, Mem. Bost. Soc. I, 1869, 562 (Alpine
regions of Vera Cruz).—GRAY, Catal. 1868, 47.—CABAN. J. 1862,
175.—CASSIN, P. A. N. S. 1863, 200.—COOPER & SUCKLEY,
159.—COOPER, Orn. Cal. 1, 1870, 375. _? Picus inornatus_,
LICHT. (Bon. Consp.). _Picus (Trichopicus) harrisi_, BP. Consp.
Zyg. Aten. Ital. 1854, 8. _Dryobates harrisi_, CAB. & HEIN.
Mus. Hein. IV, 2, 68 (_jardini_, 69.) _Picus jardini_, MALH.
Rev. Zoöl. Oct. 1845, 374 (Mexico).—CAB. Jour. 1862, 175.
_Picus hyloscopus_, CAB. & HEIN. Mus. Hein. IV, 2, 1863, 69
(white-bellied form).

SP. CHAR. Similar to typical _villosus_; the innermost of the greater wing-coverts and of the secondary quills without any white spots externally; varying from this to the entire absence of exposed white on wing except on the outer web of longest primaries. Belly varying from pure white to smoky or fulvous gray, white of tail-feathers very rarely blotched with black. Average length, in north, 9.00; wing, 5.00; exposed part of culmen, 1.15.

Var. _jardini_ much smaller. Length, 7.00; wing, 3.90; culmen, .85.

HAB. Whole of Western United States, west of the Missouri plains, extending into Mexico and Central America, where it passes into the smallest and darkest southern extreme, known as _P. jardini_. Localities: West Arizona (COUES, P. A. N. S. 1866, 52); Vera Cruz, Alpine regions (SUMICHRAST, M. Bost. Soc. I, 1869, 562).

In the preceding article we have given some general remarks on Harris’s Woodpecker, and shown why we cannot consider it a well-defined species. If the specimens from the extreme west were constant in themselves, and the variations, as with _Colaptes hybridus_, occurred along the line of contact with _villosus_, we might refer to hybrids many of the intermediate forms; but as scarcely any two are alike, even on the Pacific coast, such a view is inadmissible. As, however, in the extreme limits of variation, there is yet a difference from eastern specimens, and this is characteristic of a large area of country, it may be proper to recognize the form by the name _harrisi_.