Chapter XVII: Appendix: I. Additions and Corrections 499 (17)

Localities quoted: Upper Texas; breeds (DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 65). Western Arizona (COUES, P. A. N. S., 1866, 49).

LIST OF SPECIMENS EXAMINED.

National Museum, 17; Philadelphia Academy, 14; Boston Society, 3; Museum Comparative Zoölogy, 3; Coll. R. Ridgway, 2; Coll. J. C. Sharp, Jr., 1; W. S. Brewer, 1. Total, 41.

_Measurements._

+------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+---------+----------+ | Sex. | Wing. | Tail. | Culmen. | Tarsus. | Middle |Specimens.| | | | | | | Toe. | | +------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+---------+----------+ |♂ Ad. |20.00–23.00|11.00–13.00|1.85–2.00|2.65–3.40|2.35–2.65| 10 | +------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+---------+----------+ |♂ Juv.|23.50–25.00|12.00–15.25|1.95–2.20|3.20–3.30|2.70–2.90| 5 | +------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+---------+----------+ |♀ Ad. |23.50–25.00|12.50–13.50|1.90–2.20|3.40–3.60|2.55–2.80| 7 | +------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+---------+----------+ |♀ Juv.|25.50–26.00|15.00–15.50|2.10–2.20|3.25–3.70|2.55–3.10| 2 | +------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+---------+----------+

The “Bird of Washington” of Audubon was, without the least doubt, a very large immature female, in about the second year: the discrepancies between Audubon’s figure and description, and the real characters of the young Bald Eagle, are very probably the result of carelessness and faulty memory; the stretch of wing of “10 feet 2 inches” is, no doubt, an exaggeration; and the peculiar scutellation of the tarsus, as exhibited in his plate, was as certainly caused by this portion of the figure being worked up from memory. The probability is also that the description was made up, or at least very much added to, from this plate, as there is no record of Mr. Audubon’s specimens having been preserved. It is by no means strange that persons should consider these large grayish Eagles a different species from the smaller white-headed ones, since their proportions are as different as their colors; and throughout the country, unscientific people, and among them experienced hunters, distinguish the three stages described above as the “bald,” “big gray,” and “black” Eagles. Nothing is more certain, however, than that all are only different stages of one and the same bird.

In the preceding table of measurements the old and immature specimens are given separately, in order to prove the remarkable fact that the latter have longer wings and tails than the former. This feature is not confined to the present bird, however, but applies as a general rule to all _Falconidæ_.

HABITS. The White-headed Eagle is widely diffused throughout the North American continent, from about latitude 58° north to the Gulf of Mexico and Central America.

Sir John Richardson, in _Fauna Boreali-Americana_ (Vol. II, p. 15), states that he did not meet with this species north of 62°, although he found it common between that point and Lake Superior. He also states that they leave the fur-countries in October, when the rivers are frozen. Subsequently, in his expedition overland to the Arctic Seas, in 1848, he found occasion to change his first impressions quite materially. He gives it as abundant at Half-Moon Lake, in latitude 56° north. He also speaks of finding both the Osprey and White-headed Eagle building their nests on the banks of Bear Lake River, in about 60° north. We find in his notes, that White-headed Eagles made their appearance at Fort Confidence, latitude 66° 54′, as early as May 17, before the ice had given way in the rivers; and in his tables of phenomena observed at the Cumberland House, in latitude 54°, we also observe that a White-headed Eagle was seen as early as the 24th of March, “being almost always the first of the summer birds which arrives.”

Mr. MacFarlane found these Eagles breeding on Lockhart River, latitude 67° 30′, but does not regard it as abundant in that locality, and from the information he has received from the Indians, he presumes latitude 68° to be its extreme northern range. In the following year, 1862, this supposition was in part confirmed by his finding a pair breeding on the same river, near its junction with the Anderson, in latitude 68° north. Mr. B. E. Ross states that it ranges to the Arctic Circle, and is numerous around Great Slave and Bear Lakes. It proved to very common at Sitka, where Bischoff obtained a number of specimens.

Dr. Cooper, during his journey northward to the 49th degree, found this one of the most abundant birds of the Falcon tribe in Washington Territory, particularly along the Columbia River. It is a constant resident in the Territory, and is said to lay its eggs as early as February. He saw large numbers along the Columbia, sitting on some log or cliff over the water. He never met with it about high mountain tops nor on the plains east of the Rocky Mountains.

Dr. Newberry met with this Eagle in the interior of Northern California, along the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. He found it very common at the Cascades of the Columbia, at the Falls of the Willamette, and still more abundant about the chain of lakes in the Klamath basin, and also in the Cascade Range, among the mountain lakes, and wherever fish was attainable. They exhibited little shyness, and were easily brought within rifle range.

In Florida, Mr. Allen found this bird very common, breeding as early as January. It was very abundant on the upper St. John’s, and especially so at Lake Monroe. It is also equally common in Texas, according to Dresser, especially near the headwaters of some of the rivers. He was told by his guide, Westfall, that in passing a distance of forty miles he had noticed eight nests. It also breeds on the Altacosa. Dr. Woodhouse found these birds, but nowhere very abundant, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific, along his entire route, and Dr. Coues observed them near Fort Whipple.

The statements of Temminck that this Eagle has been taken accidentally in Central Europe, Switzerland, and Germany, and also that it breeds in Northwestern Europe, are not now credited; and more recent scrutiny of these supposed facts cast discredit upon them, and show that there is no well-authenticated instance of its having been detected in Europe.

The White-headed Eagle appears to be equally well adapted by nature for the endurance of heat or cold, and is apparently indifferent to either. Its residence is influenced only by its abundance of food, especially that of fish; and it seems to matter very little whether that plenty is procurable within the Arctic Circle or on the coast and rivers of Florida and Texas. In places like the Falls of Niagara, where the stream is ever liable to contribute the remains of animals destroyed by the descent of the torrent, this Eagle is especially abundant. Unscrupulous, greedy, voracious, not select in its choice of food, and capable of providing for itself when necessity compels, we find this not altogether unsuitable emblem of our country now enacting the tyrant and robber and plundering the Fishhawk of the fruits of its industry, now sharing with the Raven and the Vulture the dead salmon of the Columbia, and in other places diving for and catching its own fish. The impetuosity and skill with which it pursues, overtakes, and robs the Fishhawk, bearing off a fish it has just taken, must be witnessed to be appreciated; and the swiftness with which the Eagle can dart down upon and seize the booty, which the Hawk has been compelled to let fall, before it reaches the water, is not the least wonderful feature of this striking performance. On the banks of the Columbia, where there are no Fishhawks to depend upon, this bird finds an easy subsistence on the vast numbers of dead and dying salmon which abound; and in Florida Mr. Allen has observed it dive and catch its own fish. This is also confirmed by the statements of other naturalists. Wilson also accuses this Eagle of destroying great numbers of young pigs in the Southern States, young lambs, and even sickly sheep; and in one instance it attempted to carry off a child, which was only saved by its dress giving way.

The White-headed Eagle breeds along the Atlantic coast from the St. Lawrence to Florida, and thence westward to Mexico along the coast and among the tributaries of the Gulf. In the interior it breeds as far north as the Arctic Circle.

Richardson states that it abounds in the watery districts of Rupert’s Land, and a nest may be looked for within every twenty or thirty miles. Each pair appropriates a certain range of country, on which they are said to suffer no intruders of their own species to encroach; but the nest of the Osprey is often placed at no great distance from that of the Eagle. Some of the voyagers had the curiosity to visit an Eagle’s nest, which was built on the cleft summit of a balsam poplar, of sticks, many of them as thick as a man’s wrist. It contained two young birds, well fledged, with a good store of fish in a very odoriferous condition. While the men were climbing the tree, the female parent hovered close around, and threatened an attack on the invaders; but the male kept aloof, making circles high in the air.

In California, where the rocky coast is destitute of convenient trees, the White-headed Eagle resorts to rocky cliffs as the safest and most convenient places for nesting. We have the authority of Richardson for the same deviation from its usual resort to trees in parts of the fur-countries where the latter are wanting. The climate apparently exerts a certain influence, though not so much as might be supposed. In the Southern States it nests seven weeks earlier than in Maine, in both of which regions it is resident throughout the year. Farther north, where the severity of the cold, by closing the ponds and rivers with solid ice, places their food beyond their reach, and where they are only visitants in the warmer season, they, of course, nest still later, for the reason that they do not reach these regions until after the breeding season of more southern birds of the species.

In the extreme Southern States, as in California, the White-headed Eagle breeds as early as February. In Maine, the general impression has been that the eggs are not deposited before May, and at a still later period in the more northern portions of the United States. More recent observations show this to be incorrect, and that these birds breed at a much earlier season of the year. Mr. Audubon speaks of having once shot a female on her eggs, near the Mississippi, as early as the 17th of January. Dr. Gambel found White-headed Eagles nesting on the cliffs along the shores of the Pacific in February and March.

Having occasion to visit the State of Maine in April, 1856, near the Damariscotta River, the banks of which stream are frequented by these birds on account of the abundance of fish, I was informed that a pair had constructed a nest in a neighboring wood, which they had occupied for several successive years. The previous season (1855), late in May, my informant had climbed a tree in the immediate neighborhood, commanding a full view of the nest. It then contained young nearly grown. From this statement I was led to conclude that there was no time to be lost if we would secure the eggs before hatching. We accordingly visited the nest on the 27th of April, and found it situated on a tall pine, at least sixty feet from the ground. The tree stood in a swampy wood, within a few rods of the stage road, and not more than half a mile from the village of Damariscotta. It contained no limbs or branches to facilitate ascent for at least the distance of thirty feet, and the trunk at the base was from six to nine feet in circumference, rendering it impossible to mount the tree by the aid only of the hands and feet. My assistant was, however, drawn up, by means of a rope fastened round his body, to a height where the branches of the tree rendered the remainder of the ascent comparatively easy. While he was ascending, we observed several Eagles flying over our heads, but at a great height. One only approached us; but, as soon as we were noticed, the bird made a precipitate retreat. It was apparently conveying food to the nest, and was not at first aware of our presence; after which it hovered at a distance, uttering hoarse, disagreeable cries of displeasure, not unlike the imperfect barking of a dog. No attempt was made to molest or interrupt the man as he ascended to, or after he had reached, the nest. We found, when he had climbed to the nest, that the female had been sitting upon it all the while, and only left when the unwelcome caller was near enough to have reached her with his hands. She too flew over the man’s head in somewhat close proximity, uttering frequent cries of distress, but made no effort whatever to attack him.

The nest was found to contain no egg, and but a single bird, apparently about a fortnight old. It was some six or seven inches in length, its weight between one and two pounds, and its head and claws disproportionately large. It was covered uniformly with a thick, close, and soft downy plumage, which was of a clean deep straw-color. There was not the least admixture of gray or brown. The young bird was completely helpless, and uttered almost constant cries for food. It ate readily whenever fish or meat was offered it, but was unable to support itself upon its legs. It was taken to my host’s house, where it was well cared for, and for a while, with careful attention, it did well and grew apace, manifesting a most inordinate and insatiable appetite.

The nest was described to me by my assistant as a platform between five and six feet in diameter, and at least four in thickness. It was constructed of regular layers of large sticks, each several feet in length, and from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness. Its surface was perfectly flat, and was “finished off,” to use his expression, with tufts of grass, dry leaves, mosses, lichens, small twigs, etc., etc. He found in it, by the side of the young Eagle, four or five large eels, each of which was about two feet in length, showing that the parent birds provide liberally for their own wants and those of their young.

Estimating the age of the young Eagle at ten days, and allowing four weeks for incubation, and at least one week’s interval between the deposition and the commencement of the parent bird’s sitting upon it, we have very nearly the exact period at which the egg was laid, March 13.

This occurred at the coldest period of the season, when the ground was covered with snow to an unusual depth, and when the thermometer indicated a temperature at that time frequently as low as 15° below zero.

The nest is usually of great size, composed of sticks from three to five feet in length, pieces of turf, weeds, and moss. Its diameter is about five feet, and its depth is not unfrequently as great. In the warmer localities, where it breeds, the pair usually frequent the same nest throughout the year, and make it their permanent place of resort. This is also true, probably, wherever this Eagle remains throughout the year. Mr. T. H. Jackson, of West Chester, Pa., informs me that he met with three fresh eggs of this species in Maryland, on the 11th of February, 1871.

The eggs are usually two, sometimes three or four, in number; they are nearly spherical, equally rounded at either end, and more or less granulated on their surface. Their color is a dull white, unspotted, but often stained by incubation to a dirty white or a light soiled drab. Two eggs in my collection present the following measurements: Length 3 inches, breadth 2.75; length 2.88 inches, breadth 2.80. The first was obtained in New Jersey by Alexander Wilson, the ornithologist; the latter by Dr. Trudeau, in Louisiana.

Another, taken from a nest in Texas by Dr. Heermann, measured 2.80 by 2.20 inches. A fourth, from Sitka, measures 2.75 by 2.25 inches. These measurements, so far as they may be taken as typical, exhibit but little variation in size between the most northern and the most southern specimens.

Several nests were met with and the eggs taken by Mr. MacFarlane near Anderson River. They were generally built in high trees not far from river-banks. In a few instances the parents made hostile demonstrations when their nests were robbed, but generally kept at a safe distance, uttering loud and discordant sounds. The nests were built of dry sticks and decayed branches, and lined with deer’s hair, mosses, hay, and other similar soft materials.

Mr. Dall was informed by the Indians that this species breeds among the Alaskan mountains on inaccessible cliffs. This statement, however, may have had reference to the Golden Eagle.

FAMILY CATHARTIDÆ.—THE AMERICAN VULTURES.

_Cathartidæ_, GRAY, 1842.—HUXLEY, P. Z. S. 1867, p. 463. _Cathartinæ_,
LAFR. 1839. _Sarcorhamphidæ_, GRAY, 1848. _Gryphinæ_, REICH. 1850.

The characters of this family have been given in sufficient detail (III, 1), so that a short diagnosis, showing its most readily observable peculiarities, will here be sufficient.

CHAR. Whole head, and sometimes the neck, naked; eyes prominent, and not shaded by a superciliary shield. Cere much elongated, much depressed anteriorly below the very arched culmen; nostrils longitudinal, horizontal, the two confluent or perforate. Middle toe very long, and the hind one much abbreviated. A web between the base of the inner and middle toes.

The family _Vulturidæ_,[94] as long recognized, included all the naked-headed, carrion-feeding _Raptores_ of both the Old and the New World. The later researches of science, however, have shown the necessity of separating the Vultures of the latter continent from those of the former, and ranking them as a distinct family, while at the same time the Old World Vultures are found to be merely modified _Falconidæ_. The resemblance between the _Cathartidæ_ and the vulturine _Falconidæ_ is merely a superficial one of analogy, and not one of affinity. Being the scavengers of the countries they inhabit, the latter thus perform the same office in nature as the former, and for adaptation to a similar mode of life their external characters are modified to correspond. Close, however, as is the external resemblance between the two groups, their osteological structure and internal anatomy is entirely different.

The _Cathartidæ_ differ from the _Vulturinæ_[95] as to their external structure in the following particulars, the osteological structure being entirely different in the two groups, the latter being like the _Falconidæ_ in all the characters which separate the latter family from the _Cathartidæ_.

=Cathartidæ.= Nostrils horizontal, perforate; a well-developed web
between the inner and middle toes, at the base.

=Vulturinæ.= Nostrils vertical, not perforate; no trace of web between
inner and middle toes.

In habits, the _Cathartidæ_ resemble the vulturine _Falconidæ_ of the Old World. “They lack the strength and spirit of typical _Raptores_, and rarely attack animals capable of offering resistance; they are voracious and indiscriminate gormandizers of carrion and animal refuse of all sorts,—efficient and almost indispensable scavengers in the warm countries where they abound. They are uncleanly in their mode of feeding; the nature of their food renders them ill-scented, and when disturbed they eject the fetid contents of the crop. Although not truly gregarious, they assemble in multitudes where food is plenty, and some species breed in communities. When gorged, they appear heavy and indisposed to exertion, usually passing the period of digestion motionless, in a listless attitude, with their wings half spread. But they spend most of the time on wing, circling high in the air; their flight is easy and graceful in the extreme, and capable of being indefinitely protracted. On the ground, they habitually walk instead of progressing by leaps. Possessing no vocal apparatus, the Vultures are almost mute, emitting only a weak hissing sound.” (COUES.)

The _Cathartidæ_ all belong to the tropical and warm temperate portions of the continent, only one species (_Rhinogryphus aura_) extending its range as far as the border of the colder regions. The famous Condor (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_) of the Andes and the equally large California species (_Pseudogryphus californianus_) are among the largest birds of flight in the world, being exceeded in size by none, and rivalled but by one or two of the Vultures of the Eastern Hemisphere.

The following diagnoses based upon the external structure are sufficient to characterize the very well-marked genera and subgenera of this family. The distinctive osteological characters which accompany these external features afford still more decided differences, and are illustrated by the figures.

Genera and Subgenera.

=A.= Crop naked. _Male_ with a fleshy crest, or lobe, attached to
the top of the cere. Bill very robust and strong, its outlines very
convex; cere much shorter than the head.

1. =Sarcorhamphus.= Entire neck bare; nasal cavity entirely open;
posterior claw very thick and strongly curved. Tail even.

Sexes different, the female lacking any fleshy caruncles, or
appendages, on the head and neck. Frontal lobe, or fleshy crest
of male, extending from the anterior border of the cere to the
middle of the crown; throat with a median wattle, or “dewlap”;
side of the neck with a somewhat convoluted or twisted caruncle,
extending from the side of the occiput obliquely downward,
across the neck to near the lower extremity of the gular wattle;
lower part of the foreneck with a pendent fleshy appendage.
Plumage beginning below the neck by a crescentic ruff of soft
white down, or cottony feathers, around the posterior portion.
Primaries longer than the secondaries; front of the tibio-tarsal
joint feathered …

_Sarcorhamphus._[96]

Sexes alike, the female possessing the caruncular appendages of
the head as well as the male. Frontal lobe attached to only the
middle portion of the cere, above the nostril; throat without
a median wattle; side of the neck without any caruncles; no
appendage on the foreneck; auricular region with longitudinal
corrugations, and occiput densely haired. Plumage beginning
below the neck by a ruff of broad, well-developed, normal
feathers. Primaries not longer than the secondaries. Front of
the tibio-tarsal joint naked …

_Cathartes._[97]

=B.= Crop feathered. Male without a fleshy crest, or other appendages,
on the head. Bill less robust, variable as to strength, its outlines
only moderately convex; cere nearly equal to the head in length. Sexes
alike.

_a._ Entire neck bare; plumage commencing abruptly in a ruff of
lanceolate, or penicillate feathers, these continued on the breast
and abdomen. Head much elongated, the upper outline a slightly
convex plane, the forehead depressed below the level of the very
elevated dorsal outline of the cere. Posterior claw very thick and
strongly curved.

2. =Pseudogryphus.= Nostril occupying only the posterior third of
the nasal orifice, its anterior end acute. Bill weak, the terminal
hook only slightly developed, the mandibles broader than deep, the
lower as deep as the upper. Head and neck without corrugations
or caruncles. Tarsus slightly longer than the middle toe; fourth
or fifth quill longest; extremities of the quills reaching to or
beyond the end of the tail. Tail even. (_P. californianus._)

_b._ Only the upper half, or less, of the neck bare; plumage
commencing gradually with normal, broad feathers; feathers of breast
and abdomen broad and normal. Head only moderately elongated, the
upper outline irregular, the forehead elevated above the dorsal
outline of the cere. Bill strong, the terminal hook well developed.
Posterior claw weaker, less curved.

3. =Rhinogryphus.= Nostril occupying the whole of the nasal
cavity, its anterior end broadly rounded; cere as deep as broad,
the upper and lower outlines divergent posteriorly, the former
considerably arched; lower mandible much less deep than the upper.
Skin of the neck without corrugations; a semicircular tuft of
antrorse radiating bristles in front of the eye. Wing very long,
the primaries reaching to or beyond the end of the tail. Tail much
rounded. (_R. aura_ and _R. burrovianus_.)

4. =Catharista.= Nostril occupying only the posterior half of
the nasal cavity, its anterior end contracted and acute; cere
depressed, much wider than deep, its upper and lower outlines
parallel, the former not perceptibly arched; lower mandible as
deep as the upper; skin of the neck transversely corrugated; no
tuft of bristles in front of the eye. Wing short, the primaries
reaching scarcely to the middle of the tail. Tail even, or
slightly emarginate. (_C. atratus._)

GENUS PSEUDOGRYPHUS, RIDGWAY.

_Cathartes_, AUCT. (in part.)

GEN. CHAR. Size very large, and aspect vulturine. Head much elongated, with regular outlines; the entire head and neck bare of feathers, the skin faintly wrinkled, but free from corrugations or caruncles. Nostril small, occupying only the posterior third, or less, of the nasal orifice, its anterior end acute. Plumage beginning at the bottom of the neck in a ruff of lanceolate, acuminate feathers, these continued over the breast and abdomen. Wings very large, the primaries and secondaries well developed, the former longest, and reaching to, or beyond, the end of the tail; fourth or fifth quill longest; outer five with inner webs appreciably sinuated. Tail even. Sexes alike.

The single species composing this very distinct genus belongs to Western North America, and, so far as known, has the most restricted distribution of any large raptorial bird in the world. It is remarkable for its very large size, all its dimensions nearly, if not quite, equalling those of the famed Condor of the Andes (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_).

Pseudogryphus californianus (SHAW).

CALIFORNIA CONDOR, OR VULTURE.

_Vultur californianus_, SHAW, Nat. Misc. IV, pl. ccci, 1797; Zoöl.
VII, 10, 1809.—LATH. Syn. Supp. II, 3, 1802; Ind. Orn. Supp. 2; Gen.
Hist. I, 7.—JAMES. (WILS.) Am. Orn. IV, 259, 1831.—DOUGL. Zoöl. Journ.
IV, 328; Isis, 1831, 110.—REICH. Prakt. Nat. Vög. p. 18. _Cathartes
californianus_, CUV. Règ. An. (ed. 2), I, 316, 1829.—BONAPARTE, Ann.
Lyc. N. Y. II, 221; Isis, 1832, 1135; List, 1; Consp. Av. 9.—SWAINS.
Classif. B. II, 206, 1837.—RANZ. Elem. di Zool. III, 23.—GRAY, Gen.
B. sp. 3, pl. ii.—DE KAY, Zoöl. N. Y. II, 3, 1844.—NUTT. Man. I, 39,
1833.—AUD. Birds Am. pl. ccccxxvi, 1831; Orn. Biog. V, 240; Synop. p.
2, 1839.—BREW. (WILS.) Synop. p. 832, 1852.—PEALE, U. S. Expl. Exp.
VIII, 58.—STRICKL. Orn. Syn. I, 3, 1855.—KAUP, Thierr. p. 229.—CASSIN,
Birds N. Am. 1858, 5.—HEERM. P. R. R. Rept. II, 29, 1855.—NEWB.
P. R. R. Rept. VI, 73, 1857.—COOP. & SUCK. XII, ii, 141, 1860.—COUES,
Prod. Orn. Ariz. p. 6, 1866.—GRAY, Hand List, I, 3, 1869.—TAYLOR,
Hutchins’s Cala. Mag. III, 1859, 537 (fig. of egg and young).—GURNEY,
Cat. Rapt. B. 1864, 39.—SCLAT. P. Z. S. 1866, 366 (with fig. from
life); 1868, 183 (fig. of young from life, same specimen).—COUES, Key,
1872, 222. _Catharista californianus_, GRAY, List B. Brit. Mus. p. 4,
1844. _Sarcorhamphus californicus_, STEPH. Zoöl. XIII, 6, 1815.—VIG.
Zoöl. Journ. II, 375.—RICH. & SWAINS. F. B. A. II, 1, 1831.—LICHT.
Orn. Calif. p. 8, pl. i. _Cathartes vulturinus_, TEMM. Pl. Col. 31,
1820.—LESS. Man. Orn. VII, 10, 1828.

SP. CHAR. Wing, 30.00–35.00; tail, 15.00–18.00; culmen, about 1.50; length of head, 6.50–7.00; tarsus, about 4.50–5.00; middle toe, 4.00–4.50; outer, 3.10; inner, 3.60; posterior, 1.10; middle claw (longest), 1.50; posterior (shortest), 1.90. Total length, .45–.50; extent of wings, about 9 or 10 feet.

_Adult._ Bill yellowish white; naked skin of the head and neck orange and red; iris carmine (authors). General plumage dull black, the upper surface with a faint bluish lustre, the feathers (excepting the primary coverts, secondary coverts, and remiges) passing into dull brownish on their margins, producing a squamate appearance. Scapulars and (more appreciably) the secondaries and their coverts with a hoary grayish cast, the latter white for most of their exposed portions (producing a band across the wing), the white following the edges of the secondaries nearly to their ends; primaries and tail-feathers, with their shafts, uniform deep black. Whole lining of the wing (except the outer border) and axillars pure white. Lower parts continuous dull carbonaceous-black, the tips of the penicillate feathers with a hoary or chalky tinge. (No. 41,649, Monterey, California; Dr. C. A. Canfield. Wing, 32.00; tail, 15.00; culmen, 1.50; depth of bill, 1.20; length of head, 7.00; cere, on top, 2.90; point of bill to anterior end of nostril, 2.50; tarsus, 5.00; middle toe, 4.20.)

_Young._ Bill dusky; naked skin of the head and neck dusky, and more or less covered with soft, grayish down. Plumage duller black, with the white wholly absent. (No. 41,707, Monterey; C. A. Canfield. Measurements as in the last.)

Localities: Fort Yuma (COUES, Pr. Ac. Nat. Sc. 1866, 42).

HAB. Pacific Coast region from mouth of the Colorado to the Columbia? Southern Utah (HENSHAW).

HABITS. This large Vulture, so far as is known, is restricted to the area on the Pacific Coast from the Columbia River to the Colorado, and extending as far to the east as the Sierra Nevada. None are known to have been taken in Mexico, and it very rarely goes north of the Columbia. It is said to be most common in the hot interior valleys of California, where are large herds of cattle, upon which it, to a large extent, depends for its food. Dr. Cooper saw none on the Colorado, and met with none east of the San Bernardino Mountains. Even at Fort Mohave the cattle killed during the five months he resided there did not attract one of these Vultures.

Dr. Cooper did not see these birds in any number along the sea-coast, and has noticed none on the islands or in the highest Sierra Nevada. Yet they are said, when other food is scarce, to feed on dead seals and whales; but this fact he has never witnessed.

Dr. Newberry states that it was to him a pleasant portion of every day’s experience, in his march through the Sacramento Valley, to watch the graceful evolutions of this Vulture. In its colors the combination was a pleasing one, while its flight was easy and effortless beyond that of any other bird. Though a common bird in California, he found it much more shy and difficult to shoot than its associate, the Turkey-Buzzard; and it was never seen in such numbers or exhibiting such familiarity as the smaller species which swarm, and are such efficient scavengers, in our southern cities. After his party left the Sacramento Valley, he saw very few in the Klamath Basin, and met with none within the limits of Oregon. It is occasionally found there, but much more rarely than in California.

Dr. Newberry states that a fine specimen presented to Dr. Sterling on his return to San Francisco ate freely of the meat given him, and was for some time kept alive. It was, however, impatient of confinement, and succeeded in tearing the cord that confined him from his legs, and in making his escape. Dr. Cooper also saw one of these Vultures in confinement, at Monterey, in the possession of Dr. Canfield. This was a full-grown individual which he had raised from the nest. It had been fed exclusively on fresh meat, had no offensive smell, and was clean and shining. It was gentle and familiar, but seemed stupid, and dozed most of the time on a fence. This was subsequently presented to the Zoölogical Society of London, and formed the subject of our figure. The figure of the young bird on the next page is taken from a photograph of the same specimen at an early age.

Dr. Heermann, in his Report on Lieutenant Williamson’s Survey, mentions having observed this Vulture sailing majestically in wide circles at a great height, and ranging by its powers of flight over an immense space of country in search of food. Often when hunting in the Tejon Valley, if unsuccessful, they would be several hours without seeing one of this species; but as soon as they succeeded in bringing down any large game, these birds would be seen rising above the horizon before the body had grown cold, and slowly sweeping towards them, intent upon their share of the game. In the absence of the hunter, unless well protected, these marauders will be sure to drag out from its concealment the slain animal, even though carefully covered with branches. Dr. Heermann states that he has known them to drag out and devour a deer within an hour. This Vulture possesses immense muscular power. Dr. Heermann has known four of them to drag the body of a young grizzly bear, that weighed over a hundred pounds, the distance of two hundred yards. Dr. Cooper states that it visits the Columbia River in autumn, when its shores are lined with great numbers of dead salmon, on which, in company with other birds and various animals, it feasts for a couple of months. He considered it, however, only a visitor at certain seasons, and not a resident even through the summer. He did not see it, nor did he hear of its presence at Puget Sound.

It is stated by Douglas that these Vultures will in no instance attack any living animal unless it be so severely wounded as to be unable to walk. Their senses of sight and smell are very acute, especially the former; and when searching for prey they soar to a very great height, and if they chance to discover a wounded animal they immediately follow and attack it whenever it sinks down. The first comers are soon followed by others, and it is not long before the carcass is reduced to a skeleton. After thus feeding, they remain for a while sluggish and reluctant to move. At these times they perch on dead trees, with their heads drawn down, and their wings drooping over their feet. Except after feeding, or when protecting their nests, they are said to be very wary, and are with great difficulty shot by the hunter. Their flight is described as slow, steady, and graceful, and they glide along with little or no perceptible motion of the wings, the tips of which are curved upward in flying, in the manner of the Turkey-Buzzard. They are said to appear most numerous and to soar the highest preceding thunder-storms and tempests.

Dr. Townsend states that in their walk they resemble a Turkey strutting over the ground with great dignity, but are clumsy and awkward when they endeavor to hasten their movements. When they attempt to rise from the ground they always hop several yards, in order to give an impetus to their heavy body. Dr. Cooper discredits the statement of Mr. Taylor, that this Vulture has been known to kill and carry off a hare in its claws. These are straight and weak, and not adapted for such uses.

Dr. Heermann states that a nest of this bird with young was discovered in a thicket on the Tuolumne River. It was about eight feet back from the entrance of a crevice in the rocks, completely surrounded and masked by thick underbrush and trees, and composed of a few loose sticks thrown negligently together. He found two other nests, of a like construction and similarly situated, at the head of Merced River and in the mountains. From the latter the Indians were in the habit of yearly robbing the young, to kill at one of their festivals.

Mr. Alexander S. Taylor, of Monterey, published a series of papers in a California journal relative to this Vulture. In one of these he mentions that a Mexican _ranchero_, in hunting among the highest peaks of the Santa Lucia range, disturbed two pairs of them from their nesting-places, and brought away from one a young bird a few days old, and from the other an egg. There was no nest, the eggs having been laid in the hollow of a tall old robles-oak, in a steep _barranca_, near the summit of one of the highest peaks. These birds are said by some hunters to make no nest, but simply lay their eggs on the ground at the foot of old trees or on the bare rocks of solitary peaks. Others affirm that they sometimes lay their eggs in old nests of Eagles and Buzzards. Mr. Taylor states that the egg weighed 10.50 ounces, the contents weighing 8.75. The egg was of a dead dull white color, the surface of the shell slightly roughened. It was nearly a perfect ellipse in shape, and measured 4.50 inches in length by 2.38 in diameter. The egg-shell held nine fluid ounces of water. The young Vulture weighed ten ounces. His skin was of an ocreous-yellow, covered with a fine down of a dull white.

Dr. Canfield informed Dr. Cooper that he has seen as many as one hundred and fifty of these birds at one time and place in the vicinity of antelopes he had killed, and noticed that they invariably sighted their prey. They are often killed by feeding on animals that have been poisoned with strychnine. They are not feared by the _rancheros_, yet Dr. Canfield has known a number to attack a young calf, separate it from its mother, and kill it. A _vaquero_ having killed a large grizzly bear, left it on the plains near the sea-shore, to return to the house, about three miles distant, for assistance. On his return, after an absence of about two hours, a flock of these Vultures had cleaned the entire carcass, leaving only the skin and the skeleton. This Vulture and the Turkey-Buzzard often feed together over the same carcass, and generally do some fighting together. Many of them nest in the high mountains east and south of the Carmelo Valley, and also near Santa Cruz, as well as in the Santa Lucia range, and are found there throughout the year, but in greater numbers from July to November.

An egg of this species, in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution (9,983), from San Rafael, California, obtained by Dr. C. A. Canfield, measures 4.40 inches in length by 2.50 in breadth. It is of an elongate-oval shape, but is decidedly more pointed at the smaller than at the larger end. In color it is of a uniform pale greenish-blue, almost an ashy greenish-white, and without spots.

GENUS RHINOGRYPHUS, RIDGWAY.

_Cathartes_, AUCT. (in part). (Type, _Vultur aura_, L.)

GEN. CHAR. Size medium (about equal to _Neophron_), the wings and tail well developed, the remiges very long and large. Head and upper portion of the neck naked; the skin smooth, or merely wrinkled; a semicircular patch of antrorse bristles before the eye. Nostril very large, with both ends broadly rounded, occupying the whole of the nasal orifice. Cere contracted anteriorly, and as deep as broad; lower mandible not so deep as the upper. Plumage beginning gradually on the neck, with broad, rounded, normal feathers. Ends of primaries reaching beyond the end of the tail; third or fourth quill longest; outer five with inner webs appreciably sinuated. Tail much rounded; middle toe slightly longer than the tarsus. Sexes alike.

The species of this genus are only two in number, one of them (_aura_) extending over the whole of America, with the exception of the colder portions; the other (_burrovianus_) confined to the eastern tropical region. They may be distinguished as follows:—

Species.

COMMON CHARACTERS. General plumage nearly uniform blackish; no white.
_Adult._ Bill white; head reddish. _Young._ Bill and head dusky, or
blackish.

1. =R. aura.= Upper half of the neck bare all round. Feathers of the
upper surface with brown borders. Wing, 20.00–23.00; tail, about
12.00. _Hab._ Entire continent and islands of America, except the
colder portions.

2. =R. burrovianus.=[98] Only the head and throat naked, the
feathers of the neck extending up to the occiput. Feathers of the
upper surface without brown borders. Wing, 18.00–18.50; tail, 9.00.
_Hab._ Eastern Tropical America (Brazil; Eastern Mexico??).

Rhinogryphus aura (LINN.).

TURKEY-BUZZARD; RED-HEADED VULTURE.

_Vultur aura_, LINN. Syst. Nat. 122, 1766.—GMEL. Syst. Nat. 246,
1789.—LATH. Syn. I, 9; Syn. Supp. I, 2; Ind. Orn. 4.—Gen. Hist. I, 12,
pl. iii.—PENN. Arct. Zoöl. I, 221.—BART. Trav. Carol. p. 285.—VIEILL.
Ois. Am. Sept. pl. ii.—ORD (WILS.) Am. Orn. pl. lxxv, f. 1.—AUD.
Edin. New. Phil. Journ. II, 172.—DARW. Journ. Res. p. 68.—WAGL. Isis,
1831, 517.—SHAW, Zoöl. VII, 36.—SELLS, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. pt. v, p. 33;
Mag. Nat. Ser. 2, I, 638.—LEDRU, Voy. Ténérif. Trinit. etc. II, 264.
_Cathartes aura_, ILLIG. Prod. Syst. 236, 1811.—CUV. Règ. An. (ed. 1),
308; (ed. 2) I, 317.—SPIX, Av. Bras. I, 2.—VIG. Zoöl. Journ.—LESS.
Man. Orn. I, 73; Tr. Orn. p. 28.—BONAP. Ann. Lyc. N. Y. II, 23; Isis,
1832, p. 1135; List Eur. & N. Am. B. p. 1.—RICH. & SWAINS. F. B. A.
II, 4.—JARD. (WILS.) Am. Orn. I, 3; IV, 245.—BREWER (WILS.) Synop.
p. 682.—IB. N. A. Oölogy.—AUD. Birds Am. pl. cli; Orn. Biog. II,
339; Synop. Birds Am. p. 2.—NUTT. Man. I, 43.—SWAINS. Classif. B.
II, 205.—DARW. Zool. Beag. pt. iii, p. 8.—GRAY, Gen. B. fol. sp. 2;
List B. Brit. Mus. p. 3; List Gen. & Subgen. Brit. Mus. p. 2.—DE
KAY, Zoöl. N. Y. II, 2, pl. v, f. 12.—GOSSE, Birds Jam. 1.—PEALE,
U. S. Expl. Exp. VIII, 58.—REICHENB. Prakt. Nat. Vög. p. 26.—KERR,
Transl. Gmel. II, 472.—MAX. Beit. III, 64.—RICH. (SCHOMB.) Faun. Brit.
Guiana, p. 742.—CAB. (TSCHUDI) Av. Consp. Wieg. Archiv, 1844, 262;
Faun. Per. Orn. p. 71.—D’ORB. Synop. Av. Mag. Zoöl. p. 2; Voy. Am.
Merid. Ois. p. 38 (R. Sagra); Hist. Nat. Cuba Ois. p. 4.—LICHT. Verz.
Doubl. p. 63.—HARTL. Syst. Ind. Azar. Pax. p. 1.—MAX. Cab. Journ. VI,
1858, 2.—GURNEY, Cat. Rapt. B. 1864, 42.—DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 322
(Texas).—COUES, Key, 1872, 222. _Percnopterus aura_, STEPH. Zoöl.
XIII, pt. ii, p. 7, 1826. _Vultur iota_, MOLIN. St. Chil. p. 265,
1782.—GMEL. Syst. Nat. p. 247.—DAUD. Tr. Orn. II, 20.—LATH. Gen. Hist.
I, 15. _Cathartes iota_, BRIDG. Proc. Zoöl. Soc. pl. ii, p. 108; Ann.
Nat. Hist. XIII, 498. _Cathartes ruficollis_, SPIX, Av. Bras. I, 2,
1824 (quote Catesby, pl. vi). _Cathartes falklandicus_, SHARPE, Ann. &
Mag. N. H.

SP. CHAR. Length, about 27.00–30.00; extent of wings, about 6 feet; weight, 4–5 pounds. Wing, 20.00–23.00; tail, 11.00–12.00. Culmen, about 1.00; tarsus, 2.25–2.30; middle toe, 2.50; outer, 1.55; inner, 1.25; posterior, .80. Iris umber; tarsi and toes dirty whitish, tinged with yellow or flesh-color.

_Adult._ Bill chalk-white; naked skin of the head and neck livid crimson, approaching dilute carmine on the cere, and sometimes with whitish papillæ on the crown and before the eye. General plumage black, this deepest and uniform on the lower parts; upper parts with a violet lustre, changing to greenish posteriorly, all the feathers of the dorsal region and the wing-coverts passing into brown on its borders. Primaries and tail-feathers dull black, their shafts clear pale brown. ♂ (No. 12,015, Maryland; M. F. Force). Wing, 22.00; tail, 12.00; culmen, .95; tarsus, 2.30; middle toe, 2.50; outer, 1.55; inner, 1.25; posterior, .30. ♀ (No. 49,681, Camp Grant, Arizona; Dr. E. Palmer). Wing, 20.00; tail, 11.50.

_Young._ Bill, and naked skin of the head and neck, livid blackish, the occiput and nape with more or less of whitish down. Plumage more uniformly blackish, the brownish borders above less distinct; the reflections of the plumage rather green than violaceous.

HAB. Whole of Temperate America; resident to lat. 38° north.

Localities: Guatemala (SCL. Ibis, I, 213); Cuba? (CAB. Journ. II, lxxix; GUNDLACH, resident); Bahamas (BRYANT, Pr. Bost. Soc. 1859); Jamaica (GOSSE); Ecuador (SCL. Pr. Z. S. 1860, 287); Honduras (SCL. Ibis, II, 222); Trinidad (TAYLOR, Ibis, 1864, 78); S. Texas (DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 322, breeding); Arizona (COUES, Prod. 1866, 42); Para (SCL. & SALV. 1867, 589).

After having compared numerous specimens of this species from all parts of its range, including Chile, Patagonia, Terra del Fuego, the West India Islands, and all portions of Middle America and the United States, I am unable to appreciate differences according to locality, and cannot recognize any geographical races. As a rule, the specimens from intertropical regions, as might be expected, are the smallest and most brightly colored. The smallest in the series are those from Lower California.

HABITS. Probably none of the birds of America have so extended a distribution as this Vulture, occurring, as it does, in greater or less abundance from high northern latitudes at the Saskatchewan, throughout North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in all portions of South America, even to the Straits of Magellan. On the Atlantic coast it is not common north of Central New Jersey, though occasionally individuals have been seen as far north as New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Several specimens have been taken in various parts of New England, from Calais, Me., to Connecticut. Mr. Lawrence cites it as of rare and irregular occurrence near New York. In one instance he noticed a company of nine individuals at Rockaway, Long Island. West of the Alleghanies it has a much less restricted distribution, from Central America almost to the Arctic regions. It is found more or less frequently in all the Middle, the Southern, Western, and Northwestern States, without an exception. It is met with in large numbers throughout the entire Pacific coast of North America, from Lower California to Washington Territory. Mr. Douglas saw vast numbers of this species in Canada, near Sandwich and Lake St. Clair, during their breeding-season. Dr. Richardson speaks of their having higher summer migrations in the interior of the continent than on the Pacific coast, finding it along the banks of the Saskatchewan, in latitude 55°, late in the month of June. Mr. Say met with them in latitude 59°, and Lewis and Clarke noticed them near the Falls of the Columbia River, in latitude 48°. Mr. Blakiston states that an individual was shot at the Red River Settlement as early as April 27, while the winter’s snow was still covering the ground to the depth of a foot and the rivers were ice-bound. He also observed it at Fort Carlton, in latitude 53°, on the 7th of May, and again, on the 2d of September, in latitude 49°.

Mr. T. H. Jackson, of West Chester, Pa., informs me that this Vulture has been known to breed at Parkersburg, fifteen miles west of the former place, in the summer of 1870, and that they also breed rather plentifully on the banks of the Susquehanna, laying their eggs, two in number, in caves among the rocks, as early as the 10th of April, and that some remain in that vicinity all winter.

Dr. Cooper mentions their great abundance during the summer in all parts of Washington Territory, frequenting the vicinity of prairies and river-banks, but never appearing along the coast. They arrive at Puget Sound about the middle of May, and undoubtedly breed in the Territory. Dr. Suckley met with them at Fort Dalles, in Oregon, and also on Puget Sound. He also met with them not far from Pembina. Dr. Newberry also observed them in California and Oregon, quite common in the vicinity of the towns and about the great rivers. In the Klamath Basin it was more rare, and on the Des Chutes he scarcely saw any; but on the Columbia, especially below the Cascades, they were very plentiful.

Dr. Heermann found this bird ranging over the whole extent of California, meeting them in great numbers in the vicinity of Fort Yuma, at the junction of the Colorado and Gila Rivers.

In the West India Islands these birds occur in Cuba, Jamaica, and Trinidad; but according to Mr. E. C. Taylor, neither this nor any other species of Vulture occurs in any of the islands between Trinidad and St. Thomas, not even in Tobago or Porto Rico. At Trinidad they are very abundant.

Mr. G. C. Taylor found this Vulture common in Honduras, where, however, it does not go much into the towns and villages, but is usually seen on the outskirts and in the forests. In Guatemala, Mr. Salvin found it not nearly so abundant as _C. atratus_, and there also, as in Honduras, it frequented the more uncultivated and forest districts, leaving to the latter all the duties of the scavenger. Captain C. C. Abbott found this Vulture very common in the Falkland Islands, remaining the whole year round, and breeding.

The flight of the Turkey-Buzzard is graceful, dignified, and easy. It sails with a steady, even motion, with wings just above the horizontal position, with their tips slightly raised. They rise from the ground with a single bound, give a few flaps to their wings, and then proceed with their peculiar, soaring flight. They rise very high in the air, moving round in large circles. They are of gregarious habits, and usually associate in companies of from ten to a much larger number. They feed upon all kinds of animal food, and are accused by Audubon of sucking eggs and devouring the young of Herons and other birds. Yet in Trinidad they were observed by Mr. E. C. Taylor associating with the poultry apparently upon the most amicable terms, and, although surrounded with chickens of all sizes, they were never known to molest them. Mr. Audubon also states that they devour birds of their own species when dead. They are said to walk well on the ground and on the roofs of houses, and associate and even roost in company with the Black Vulture. Dr. Heermann, who observed them on the desert between the Colorado and Carissa Creek, where they find an ample supply of food from numerous animals that there perish from want of grass and water, states that they seemed to be on terms of amity both with the Ravens and the California Vultures, but retire on the approach of the prairie wolf. He adds that when a company of these Vultures have once commenced upon a carcass, a scene of plunder, noise, confusion, and dispute ensues, baffling all description. Each one strives, as best he may, to bolt the morsel he has seized, or to rob his neighbor whose booty is too voluminous to be despatched at once. As illustrating the peculiar flight of this species, Dr. Newberry mentions that, having occasion to shoot one for the purpose of determining its identity, the wounded bird made no motion indicating it had been struck by the shot, but sailed on with widely expanded and motionless wings as before; gradually it “began to descend in wide and regular circles, till finally, without a wing-flap, it settled as lightly as a feather on the prairie, and remained motionless.” Upon going to the bird, Dr. Newberry found it resting in the grass, the wings still widely and evenly expanded, but the head drooping and life extinct.

In the Southern States this Vulture is found equally in cities and large villages, and near the coast, as well as in the interior, in company with the Black Vulture (_C. atratus_), although the latter species is chiefly confined to the coast, and is rare in the interior. It is noticeable that in Guatemala and Honduras its habits are somewhat different in these respects, being only found in wild places, leaving the cities and sea-coast to the exclusive occupancy of the Black Vulture. Mr. G. C. Taylor, who observed these birds in Kingston, Jamaica, states that they were the only species seen, and that they were always to be found either on the roofs of the houses or feeding on the carrion in the streets. They made great noise with their feet as they clattered over the shingles of the roofs.

In Trinidad, where Mr. E. C. Taylor found this bird much less numerous than the _atratus_, it kept to the open country, and was not found in the towns. He could always readily distinguish it by its more graceful flight and its aquiline appearance. They were generally to be seen skimming over the tree-tops, as if trying how near they could go without touching. On the Orinoco, though more numerous than in Trinidad, they did not frequent the towns in the same familiar manner with the Black Vulture.

The Turkey-Buzzards, as well as the Black Vultures, are evidently aided by a very powerful sight in distinguishing their food at a great distance. They are frequently known to collect in large numbers, from great distances, around the dead bodies of animals, where none were in sight before. But it seems equally certain that they are also assisted by an only less powerful sense of smell. Mr. Hill, cited by Mr. Gosse, mentions a remarkable instance where these Vultures were attracted by a strong smell of carrion to the house of a German emigrant, lying sick of a fever, and where his neglected food had become offensive. In this instance the sense of smell, unaided by that of sight, must have guided these birds.

Mr. G. C. Taylor, while residing at Kingston, often used to puzzle the Vultures by throwing dried bird-skins stuffed with cotton out upon an adjacent roof. Few seconds would elapse before a Vulture would pounce upon them, and manifest a great disappointment in finding nothing to eat in skins of so promising an appearance. He once wrapped the carcass of a bird in a piece of paper, and threw it into the top of a thickly leaved tree near his window. There it remained for a long while, the Vultures sweeping within a few feet of it, almost brushing the leaves with their wings, their sense of smell informing them that there was something eatable close by, but their sight failing to solve the problem, owing to the enclosure of the object in an envelope.