Chapter V: Appendix: I. Additions and Corrections 499 (5)

var. _californicum_.

=B.= Markings on the crown longitudinal and linear.

2. =G. infuscatum.= Tail dark brown, crossed by six to seven
non-continuous bands of white, narrower than the dark ones. Above
varying from grayish-brown to reddish-umber and sepia. Beneath
white, the stripes on the sides grayish-brown or dark brown, like
the back.

Above dark sepia, or blackish-brown. Tail brownish-black or deep
black. Wing, 3.70–3.90; tail, 2.50–2.90; culmen, .45; tarsus,
.65–.80; middle toe, .65–.70. _Hab._ Eastern South America …

var. _infuscatum_.[33]

Above grayish, or reddish-umber. Tail clear dark brown, or
grayish-umber.

Wing, 3.60–3.90; tail, 2.35–2.75; culmen, .45–.50; tarsus,
.65–.80; middle toe, .60–.70. _Hab._ Middle America, from the
Rio Grande (probably in Texas) to Panama …

var. _gnoma_.[34]

3. =G. ferrugineum.= Tail crossed by seven to nine continuous
bands of dark brown and bright rufous, of nearly equal width.
Above varying from grayish-brown to bright ferruginous; beneath
varying from pure white to pale rufous, the stripes on the sides
like the back. Wing, 3.70–4.15; tail, 2.20–2.90; culmen, .45–.50;
tarsus, .70–.80; middle toe, .70–.75. _Hab._ Tropical America,
from southern border of United States to Southern Brazil.

Glaucidium passerinum, var. californicum (SCLATER).

THE CALIFORNIA PIGMY OWL.

_Glaucidium californicum_, SCLATER, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. Lond. 1857, p.
4. _Glaucidium passerinum_, var. _californicum_ (RIDGWAY) COUES,
Key, 1872, 206. _Strix passerinoides_ (not of TEMMINCK!), AUD. Orn.
Biog. V, 271, 1831. _Glaucidium infuscatum_ (not of TEMM.!), CASS.
Birds of Cal. & Tex. p. 189, 1854.—NEWB. P. R. R. Rept. VI, IV, 77,
1857. _Glaucidium gnoma_ (not of WAGLER!), CASS. Birds N. Am. 1858,
62.—HEERM. P. R. R. Rept. VII, 31, 1857.—COOP. & SUCK. P. R. R. Rept.
XII, II, 158, 1860.—COUES, Prod. Orn. Ariz. p. 14, 1866.—CAB. Jour.
1862, 336.—LORD. Int. Obs. 1865, 409 (habits).—GRAY, Hand List, I, 42,
1869.—CAB. Ueb. Berl. Mus. 1869, 207.

SP. CHAR. _Adult_ (♂, 12,054, Puget Sound, Washington Territory; Dr. C. B. Kennerly). Above, including the auriculars, umber-brown, with a faint reddish cast; this tinge most apparent in a sharply defined band across the throat. The continuity of the brown above is interrupted by a scarcely observable collar round the nape of concealed whitish; this is discernible only laterally, where there is also an inconspicuous black space. Whole head above, and neck behind, with numerous small circular spots of reddish-white; back, scapulars, and wings more sparsely and more minutely marked with the same; the two or three lower feathers of the secondary coverts have each a terminal, somewhat oval, larger spot of pure white. Secondaries crossed by three (exposed) bands of pure white, and narrowly tipped with the same; the bands formed by semicircular spots on the outer webs. Primaries almost plain, but showing faintly defined obsolete bands,—the third, fourth, and fifth with two or three conspicuous white spots on outer webs, beyond their emargination; primary coverts perfectly plain. Tail considerably darker than the wings, and purer umber; crossed with seven narrow bands of pure white, the last of which is terminal and not well defined,—these bands are formed by transverse spots, not touching the shaft on either web. Lores, sides of the forehead, sides of the throat (beneath the cheeks and ear-coverts), and lower parts in general, pure white; the ante-orbital white continuing back over the eye to its middle, but not beyond it. Lateral portion of the neck and breast (confluent with the gular belt), and sides, umber, like the back, but more numerously, though more obsoletely, speckled, the spots rather larger and more longitudinal on the sides. Breast, abdomen, anal region, and lower tail-coverts with narrow longitudinal stripes of nearly pure black. Jugulum immaculate. Tarsi mottled on the outside with brown. Lining of the wing white; a transverse patch of blackish across the ends of the under primary coverts, formed by the terminal deltoid spot of each feather; a blackish stripe, formed of blended streaks (parallel with the edge of the wing), running from the bend to the primary coverts. Under surface of primaries dusky, with transverse spots of white anterior to the emargination; these white spots on the longest quill are eight in number. Axillars plain white.

Wing, 3.60; tail, 2.60; culmen, .45; tarsus, .60; middle toe, .55. Wing-formula, 4, 3, 5–2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1.

♀ (36,874, Fort Whipple, near Prescott, Arizona, October 11, 1864; Dr. Coues). In general appearance scarcely different from the male. Upper surface more ashy, the specks of whitish less numerous, being confined chiefly to the head; those on the scapulars, however, are large, though very sparse. The middle wing-coverts have each a conspicuous roundish white spot near the end of the outer web; the secondary coverts are similarly marked, forming a band across the wing. The primaries and tail are as in the male, except that the latter has eight, instead of seven, white bands. The brown of the gular band extends upward over the throat to the recurved feathers of the chin; the white dots in the brown of the sides are considerably larger and (though very irregular) more circular than in the male; the stripes on the abdomen, etc., are rather broader and less deeply black than in the male. Wing, 4.00; tail, 2.80; culmen, .48. (Wing-formula as in male.)

HAB. Pacific Province of North America, from Vancouver Island southward; Arizona (Fort Whipple); Colorado (El Paso Co., AIKEN); Table-lands of Mexico (Coll., G. N. LAWRENCE). Perhaps whole of the Western Province, from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific.

One specimen in the collection (59,069) differs from those described in much darker colors. The original label is lost, but it was probably received from the northwest coast, as the darker, more reddish colors bear about the same relation to the paler gray tints of the southern birds that the dark northwest coast style of _Scops asio_ (var. _kennicotti_) does to the true _asio_. The stripes beneath are nearly pure black, the general tint above being a reddish sepia-brown. Wing, 3.65; tail, 2.70.

The _Glaucidium californicum_ requires comparison only with the _G. passerinum_ of Europe, to which it is quite closely related, though easily distinguishable by the characters pointed out in the diagnoses; it is not at all like _gnoma_, nor indeed any other American species, with which it has been confounded by nearly all ornithologists, even by Cabanis, in his excellent paper above cited.

I have seen only one Mexican specimen of this species, which is one in Mr. Lawrence’s collection; the locality is not given, but it is probably from the higher regions of the interior. It differs in no respect, except in size, from North American examples; it measures, wing, 3.40; tail, 2.60.

HABITS. This species, one of the smallest of our North American Owls, was first obtained on the Columbia River by Dr. Townsend, near Fort Vancouver; and subsequently, Dr. Merideth Gairdner procured several others from the same locality, which were sent to the Edinburgh Museum. Dr. Townsend’s specimen was said to have been taken on the wing at midday.

Dr. Cooper met with a single specimen in Washington Territory early in November, 1854. He observed it among a flock of Sparrows, that did not seem at all disturbed by its presence. At first he mistook it for one of these birds. Its stomach was found to contain only insects.

Dr. Suckley obtained two specimens at Puget Sound, where he found it moderately abundant. It seemed to be diurnal in its habits, gliding about in shady situations in pursuit of its prey. He saw one about midday in a shady alder-swamp near Nisqually. It flitted noiselessly past him several times, alighting near by, on a low branch, as if to examine the intruder.

Near a small lake in the neighborhood of Fort Steilacoom, Dr. Suckley frequently heard the voice of a diminutive Owl, which he supposed to come from one of these birds, as this is the only small species of the family he ever saw in that neighborhood. The notes were subdued and clear, like the soft, low notes of a flute.

Dr. Newberry procured specimens of the Pigmy Owl on the Cascade Mountains, in Oregon, where, however, it was not common. It occurs also in California, as he saw several individuals in San Francisco that had been obtained in that State, but he did not meet with any in the Sacramento Valley. It was apparently confined to wooded districts, which is probably the reason why it is not more frequent in the open country of California. He adds that it flies about with great freedom and activity by day, pursuing the small birds upon which it subsists, apparently as little incommoded by the light as they are. It is, however, doubtful whether it subsists, to any large extent, on small birds. So far as observed it appears to feed almost exclusively on insects, although the Owl taken by Townsend is said to have had the entire body of a _Regulus_ in its stomach.

Dr. Cooper speaks of this Owl as not uncommon in the middle part of California, though he did not meet with it in the southern part of the State. It is probable that it is occasional in Southern California, as it has been found in Mexico, where however, it is undoubtedly rare, as Mr. Ridgway informs me that only a single specimen of this Owl, among a hundred others from Mexico, has ever been seen by him.

Dr. Heermann met with this beautiful little species among the mountainous districts of the mining regions of California, where it was by no means rare. It was, however, seldom captured by him, and he regarded its flying by night as the reason; but this view is not corroborated by the observations of others. In 1852 he procured three specimens on the borders of the Calaveras River, others were taken on the Cosumnes River, and Mr. J. G. Bell, of New York, met with it on the American River, thus demonstrating its wide and general distribution throughout the State.

Mr. John K. Lord met with a pair on Vancouver Island. He characterizes the bird as of shy and solitary habits, always hiding among the thick foliage of the oak or pine, except when feeding. Early one spring, while collecting specimens of the smaller migrant birds, he was favored with unusual opportunities for watching their habits. The pair had made their home in the hollow of an oak-tree that stood in an open patch of gravelly ground near a small lake. The remains of an Indian lodge which was close to the place enabled Mr. Lord to watch closely the habits of this interesting pair. In the first morning twilight the Owls were up and in motion, hungry after a whole night’s fasting. Their flight was short, quick, and jerking, similar to that of the Sparrow Hawk, but wholly unlike the muffled, noiseless flap of the Night Owls. Their food was found to be entirely insectivorous, chiefly grasshoppers and field-crickets, with an occasional beetle or butterfly. When in pursuit of food, they perch on a small branch near the ground, and sit bolt upright in an indolent drowsy manner until their quick eye detects an insect, when they suddenly pounce upon it, hold it down with their small but powerful claws, and with their sharp beaks tear it to pieces. Only the soft abdominal parts are thus eaten. As soon as their hunger is satiated they return to the tree, cuddling close together, and doze away the greater part of the day. In the evening twilight the Owls again come out of their hole and take erratic flights around their abode, chasing each other up and down the plain, and performing all kinds of inexplicable manœuvres. Occasionally they settle on the ground, but never long at a time.

Mr. Lord never observed them to capture an insect while on the wing, and a very small quantity of food seemed to supply their wants. As soon as it became dark they retired to their nest, and there apparently passed the night.

To this account Mr. Lord adds, that early in May two small eggs were laid, white in color, round and very rough on their surface, a large knot-hole in the branch of the tree having been selected as the nesting-place. Nothing of any kind was used as a lining, the eggs being deposited on the bare wood. The length of time occupied in incubation Mr. Lord was not able to ascertain in consequence of the shortness of his stay.

Glaucidium ferrugineum, KAUP.

THE RED-TAILED OWL.

_Strix ferruginea_, MAX. Reis. Bras. I, 105, 1820; Trav. Bras. p. 88;
Beitr. III, 234.—TEMM. Pl. Col. 199.—LATH. Gen. Hist. I, 373. _Noctua
f._, STEPH. Zoöl. XIII, pt. ii, p. 69.—LESS. Man. Orn. I, 111; Tr.
Orn. 104.—CUV. Règ. An. (ed. 2), I, 346.—TSCHUDI, Av. Consp. Wiegm.
Archiv. 1844, 267; Faun. Per. pp. 19, 117. _Surnia f._, BONAP. Oss.
Cuv. Règ. An. p. 56; Isis, 1833, 1053. _Athene f._, GRAY, Gen. B. fol.
sp. 17; List B. Brit. Mus. p. 92.—BONAP. Consp. Av. p. 38.—STRICKL.
Orn. Syn. I, 162, 1855. _Glaucidium f._, KAUP, Mon. Strig. Cont. Orn.
1852, 104.—BURM. Thier. Bras. II, 141, 146.—CABAN. Ueb. Berl. Mus.
1869, 206.—COUES, Am. Nat. VI, 370 (Arizona).—IB. Key, 1872, 206. _?
Athene nana_ (KING), GRAY, Gen. 1844, pl. xii (normal plumage).

_a._ _Normal plumage._

SP. CHAR. _Adult_ (♂, 23,792, Mazatlan, Mexico; J. Xantus). Upper surface umber-brown, more ashy anteriorly, posteriorly more brownish. Head above with a few narrow longitudinal lines of yellowish-white, anteriorly and laterally; a quite distinct collar of whitish spots across the nape, the black lateral spaces rather obsolete; scapulars with a few conspicuous oval spots of pure white; two lower feathers of secondary coverts each with a similar spot on outer web. Secondaries darker brown, crossed with five bands of dull rufous, the last not terminal; outer webs of primaries with semicircular pale spots along the margin, these nearly white beyond the sinuation of the feathers, anteriorly brownish. Tail bright rufous, crossed with about seven distinct bands of dark brown, these hardly equalling the rufous in width, which is also terminal. Longitudinal stripes of the sides of the same soft grayish-brown tint as the head; tarsi sparsely speckled with the same on outer side. Wing-formula, 4, 5, 3–6–7, 2, 8; first shortest. Wing, 3.70; tail, 2.20; culmen, .45; tarsus, .70; middle toe, .70.

_b._ _Rufescent plumage._

_Adult._ Upper surface continuously deep lateritious-rufous, all the lighter markings almost obliterated. Bars on the tail scarcely traceable. Black cervical transverse space conspicuous. Sides of the breast and stripes of the sides duller rufous than the tint above; white of ground-color with yellowish tinge; legs pale rufous, deepest on outer side, immaculate. Gular collar blackish.

♂ (43,055, La Palma, Costa Rica, January 27, 1866; José Zeledon). Wing-formula, 4=5, 3–6–2; first shortest. Wing, 3.80; tail, 2.40.

♀ (33,216, San José, Costa Rica; J. Carmiol). Wing-formula, 4, 3=5–6, 2; first shortest. Wing, 4.15; tail, 2.90; tarsus, .80; middle toe, .75.

HAB. Whole of eastern South America, and Middle America (both coasts) north into southern border of United States (Arizona, BENDIRE; probably entire southern border).

The numerous specimens examined come from the Rio Grande of Texas (across the whole breadth of Middle America) to Paraguay, everywhere the same species, those from the extremes of its range showing scarcely any difference.

A specimen of the ferruginous plumage, in the collection of the Philadelphia Academy, is remarkable for the great intensity and uniformity of the rufous; the entire plumage, in fact, being of this color, a fine light tint of which replaces the white below. There is no trace of bars on either wings or tail.

In the very large series before me I find in individuals every possible shade between the two extremes described. Over fifty specimens have come under my notice.

HABITS. This little Owl claims a place in our fauna on the strength of several specimens taken in Southern Arizona by Captain Bendire. It is a southern bird, found throughout the whole of Mexico, and ranges thence though the whole of South America, except the Pacific coast, as far south as Southern Brazil. In Mexico it is as abundant on the Pacific as on the eastern coast, and is by far the most common Owl of its genus found in that country.

Mr. E. C. Taylor states that he found this bird pretty common in Trinidad, where it is said to fly about in the daytime, apparently indifferent to the blazing tropical sun, and is much smaller than any other species of Owl he met with.

GENUS MICRATHENE, COUES.

_Micrathene_, COUES, P. A. N. S. Philad. 1866, 57. (Type, _Athene
whitneyi_, COOPER.)

GEN. CHAR. Size very small (the smallest Owl known); head small, and without ear-tufts. Bill and feet weak. Tail short, less than half the wing, even. Nostril small, circular, opening in the middle of the much inflated ceral membrane. Tarsus a little longer than the middle toe, naked, scantily haired, as are also the toes. Four outer quills with their inner webs sinuated; fourth longest. Ear-conch very small, simple, roundish. Bill pale greenish; iris yellow.

_Micrathene whitneyi._]

This well-marked genus is represented by a single species, found in the Colorado region of the United States, and in Western Mexico. It is the smallest of all known Owls, and has the general aspect of a _Glaucidium_. From the fact that feathers of birds were found in its stomach, we may reasonably infer that it is of exceedingly rapacious habits, like the species of that genus.

Species.

=M. whitneyi.= Above grayish olive-brown, sprinkled with small, rather
obscure, spots of pale rusty, and interrupted by a whitish nuchal
collar; outer webs of the lower series of scapulars pure white. Wings
spotted with white and pale fawn-color; tail grayish-brown, crossed
by five to six narrow interrupted bands of pale fawn-color. Eyebrows
and lores pure white; a cravat of the same on the chin. Beneath white,
marked with large, rather longitudinal, ragged blotches of pale
rusty, mottled with dusky. Bill pale greenish; iris yellow. Length,
5.50–6.25; extent of wings, 14.25–15.25 (measurements of freshly
killed specimens). Wing, 4.00–4.40; tail, 1.90–2.30. _Hab._ Fort
Mohave, California (April), and Socorro Island, west coast of Mexico.

Micrathene whitneyi, COUES.

WHITNEY’S OWL.

_Athene whitneyi_, COOPER, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sc. 1861, p. 118.
_Micrathene whitneyi_, COUES, Pr. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1866,
15.—ELLIOT, Illust. Am. B. I, xxix.—GRAYSON (LAWRENCE), Ann. N. Y.
Lyc.—COUES, Key, 1872, 207.

SP. CHAR. _Adult_ (♂, 208, J. G. Cooper, Fort Mohave, California, April 26, 1861). Above umber-brown (less pure and uniform than in _Glaucidium_), each feather with an irregular, transversely elliptical spot of pale rufous, these largest on the forehead, bordering the white eyebrows; the feathers everywhere minutely mottled transversely with darker, this being most noticeable where bordering the yellowish spots. Scapulars with their outer webs almost wholly white. Wings with the ground-color a little darker than the back; lesser coverts with numerous spots of light rufous, there being two on each feather, one concealed; middle and secondary coverts with a very large oval spot of pure white terminating the outer webs, the white spot on the latter preceded by a pale rufous one. Secondaries with five (exposed) bands of pale ochraceous (the last terminal), these passing into white on the edge; primary coverts with three large ochraceous spots; primaries with about six (including the terminal) conspicuous spots of the same, those anterior to the emargination, on the third, fourth, and fifth quills, almost white. Tail like the wings, but more uniform; crossed by six irregular narrow bands of pale ochraceous, the last, or terminal, of which is not well defined; these do not touch the shaft, and on the inner webs they are pure white. Lores and eyebrows, cheeks, lining of the wings, and ground-color of the lower parts, white; ear-coverts and sub-orbital space like the crown, but more rusty; lateral lower parts much washed with plumbeous, this especially prevalent on the flanks. Behind the sharply defined white of the cheeks is a black transverse wash. Throat, jugulum, breast, and abdomen, with each feather having a medial longitudinal ragged-edged blotch of pale rufous, these blotches most clearly defined on the abdomen, more confused anteriorly; anal region and tibiæ almost immaculate; tibiæ with numerous transverse narrow blackish bars, on a pale ochraceous ground. Lining of the wing faintly spotted at the bend, and on the primary coverts, the terminal half of which is plain dusky; under surface of primaries blackish, with obscure transverse paler spots,—those anterior to the emargination almost white; those beyond darker, the last being scarcely distinguishable; on the longest quill eight can be detected. Wing-formula, 4, 3=5–2, 6, 7, 8, 9–1. Length, “6.25”; extent, “15.25”; wing, 4.40; tail, 2.30; culmen, .35; tarsus, .80; middle toe, .60.

A male from Socorro Island (49,678, Colonel A. J. Grayson) is less adult than the preceding. The upper plumage is more brownish and more mottled; the rufous spots, though deeper and larger, are less sharply defined; the spots on the primaries are all ochraceous; the bands on the tail are broader, though of the same number. Beneath the longitudinal blotches do not appear, but the rusty rufous covers nearly the whole surface, leaving the medial portion only white, and this not well defined; the rusty shows ragged minute transverse bars of blackish. The whitish collar round the nape is also better defined than in the type. Wing, 4.20; tail, 2.10. Wing-formula, 4, 3=5–6, 2–7, 8, 9, 10, 1. Length, 5.20; extent, 14.25.

Another specimen, 50,765, from the same locality, also apparently immature, is just like the preceding in plumage. It measures, wing, 4.00; tail, 1.90.

HABITS. The type specimen of this diminutive species was shot at Fort Mohave, in the Colorado Valley, latitude 35°, April 26, 1861, and two others have since been taken on the Socorro Islands, off the western coast of Mexico, by Colonel Grayson. It is smaller even than the little California Pygmy Owl, and is therefore the smallest known to inhabit North America. It resembles that species in its colors, but is thought by Dr. Cooper to be more similar to the burrowing Owls in its generic characters. It was found in a dense thicket, on a very windy morning, and where it may have taken only a temporary refuge, after having been blown down from some of the caverns in the barren mountains surrounding the valley. In its stomach were found the remains of insects and the feathers of small birds. Several specimens of this Owl were taken in Arizona by Captain Bendire, one of which is now in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History. Captain Bendire also found one of their nests, with two fully fledged young ones, in a hole of a mesquite stump.

GENUS SPEOTYTO, GLOGER.

_Speotyto_, “GLOGER, 1842.” (Type, _Strix cunicularia_, MOL.)
“_Pholeoptynx_, KAUP, 1848.” (Same type.)

GEN. CHAR. Size small; head small, and without ear-tufts. Bill moderately strong, pale yellowish. Tarsi more than twice as long as the middle toe, feathered in front, naked behind; toes scantily haired. Tail short, less than half the wing, nearly even, or very slightly rounded. Three outer quills with their inner webs emarginated; second to fourth longest. Ear-conch very small, simple, roundish. Diurnal and terrestrial.

_Speotyto hypogæa._]

This genus is peculiar to America, where it is distributed over the whole of the southern and the western half of the northern continent, as well as in some of the West India Islands. There appears to be but one well-characterized species,[35] this one modified into representative races in the several geographical provinces over which it ranges. The species is terrestrial, inhabiting the abandoned burrows of Armadillos and Rodents. It is diurnal, possessing as much freedom of sight, hearing, and motion in the brightest sunlight, as any species of the _Falconidæ_.

Species and Races.

=S. cunicularia.= Colors umber-brown and ochraceous-white, the former
predominating above, the latter prevailing below. Upper parts spotted
with whitish; lower parts transversely barred with brown on the breast
and sides, and sometimes on the abdomen. A white gular patch, and
jugular collar, with a brown band between them. Legs, crissum, anal
and femoral regions, always immaculate.

=A.= Primaries with broad regular bars of ochraceous-white on both
webs; primary coverts with large spots of the same.

Brown markings of the lower parts irregularly transverse, and
ragged. White spots on the upper parts nearly equal in extent to
the brown.

Wing, 6.15–6.40; tail, 2.90–3.60; culmen, .58–.62; tarsus,
1.50–1.80; middle toe, .65. _Hab._ Peru …

var. _grallaria_.[36]

Brown markings on the lower parts regularly transverse, and not
ragged. White spots on the upper parts much less than the brown in
extent.

Wing, 7.00–7.50; tail, 3.30–4.00; culmen, .70; tarsus,
1.70–1.85; middle toe, .85. Outer tail-feathers and inner webs
of primaries with the white much greater in amount than the
brown (sometimes continuous along outer webs of the latter).
_Hab._ Southern South America (Chile, Buenos Ayres, Paraguay,
etc.) …

var. _cunicularia_.[37]

Wing, 6.40–7.00; tail, 3.00–3.30; culmen, .50–.60; tarsus,
1.50–1.70; middle toe, .80. Outer tail-feathers and inner webs
of the primaries with the white less in extent than the brown
(never continuous along outer webs of the primaries). _Hab._
Middle America, and Western Province of North America …

var. _hypogæa_.

=B.= Primaries without broad or regular bars of whitish on either
web; primary coverts plain brown.

Brown markings on the lower parts regularly transverse, and equal
in extent to the white. White spots on the upper parts very small,
reduced to mere specks on the dorsal region.

Wing, 6.40; tail, 3.40; culmen, .60; tarsus, 1.82; middle toe,
.85. Outer tail-feathers and inner webs of the primaries with
the light (ochraceous) bars only about one fourth as wide as the
brown (disappearing on the inner quills). _Hab._ Guadeloupe …

var. _guadeloupensis_.[38]

Spheotyto cunicularia, var. hypogæa, BONAP.

BURROWING OWL.

_Strix hypogæa_, BONAP. Am. Orn. I, 72, 1825. _Athene hypogæa_, BONAP.
Consp. Av. p. 39, 1850.—WOODH. (SITGR.) Expl. Zuñi and Colorado, p.
62, 1853.—CASS. Birds N. Am. 1858, 59.—NEWB. P. R. R. Rept. VI, 77,
1857.—COOP. & SUCK. P. R. R. Rept. XII, ii, 157, 1860.—GRAY, Hand
List, I, 52, 1869. _Speotyto cunicularia_, var. _hypogæa_, (RIDGWAY)
COUES, Key, 1872, 207. _Strix cunicularia_ (not of MOLINA!), AUD.
B. Am. pl. ccccxxxii, 1831; Orn. Biog. V, 264; Synop. p. 22.—NUTT.
Man. Orn. p. 118, 1844.—BONAP. Am. Orn. p. 68, pl. vii, f. 2, 1825;
Ann. Lyc. N. Y. II, 36.—JAMES. (WILS.), Am. Orn. IV, 30.—SAY, Long’s
Exp. Rocky Mts., II, 36, 200. _Ulula cunicularia_, JARD. (WILS.) Am.
Orn. III, 325, 1832. _Athene cunicularia_, BONAP. List, p. 6; Consp.
Av. p. 38. STRICKL. Orn. Syn. I, 160, 1855.—CASSIN, Birds N. Am.
1858, 60.—COOP. & SUCK. P. R. R. Rept. XII, II, 157, 1860.—CANFIELD,
Am. Nat. 1869, 583 (habits). _Strix californica_, AUD. B. Am. pl.
ccccxxxii, 1831. _Athene socialis_, GAMB. Pr. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil.
III, 47, 1846.

SP. CHAR. _Adult._ Above earth-brown, the whole surface covered with numerous spots of dull white,—those on the scapulars roundish, and in pairs (on both webs); of similar form, but larger and more sparse, on the wings. Anteriorly they become more longitudinal (nearly linear), and medial; on the rump and upper tail-coverts, they are nearly obsolete. Secondaries crossed by four distinct bands of dull white, the last terminal; primaries with five to six transverse series of semi-rounded spots of ochraceous-white on their outer webs; primary coverts with about three transverse series of whitish spots. Tail with five to six bands of dull white, or pale ochraceous (the last terminal), composed of transverse oval spots, those on the middle pair of feathers not touching either the shaft or the edge. Ear-coverts uniform brown, becoming gradually paler beneath the eye and on the cheeks; eyebrows, a transverse chin-patch,—covering the whole chin and jaw and reaching back beneath the auriculars, and another across the jugulum, immaculate cottony-white; shafts of the loral bristles blackish; a broad, well-defined collar across the throat, between the white malar and jugular bands, deep brown, mixed with paler spots.

Beneath white with a faint ochraceous tinge, especially on the legs; the breast, abdomen, and sides with transverse spots of brown, this often predominating on the breast; legs, anal region, and crissum, immaculate. Whole lining of the wing immaculate creamy-white, the primary coverts, however, with large terminal spots of dusky; under surface of the primaries grayish-brown, deeper terminally, and with large, transversely ovate spots of ochraceous-white (about five in number on the longest quill), and growing larger basally.

♂. Wing, 6.40–7.00; tail, 3.00–3.30; culmen, .55–.60; tarsus, 1.50–1.70; middle toe, .80. (Smallest, No. 5,183, Fort Pierre, Nebraska; largest, No. 6,881, Sacramento, California.)

♀. Wing, 6.50–6.80; tail, 3.15–3.30; culmen, .51–.55; tarsus, 1.50–1.60; middle toe, .80. (Smallest, No. 45,020, Laredo, Texas; largest, No. 3,971, San José, Lower California.)

_Juv._ Upper surface earth-brown, as in the adult, but entirely uniform, except the wings and tail; upper tail-coverts, and a large oval patch on the wing (covering the middle coverts and the posterior half of the lesser-covert region), plain isabella-white; the anterior portion of the lesser-covert region darker brown than the back. Gular region well-defined pure white; jugular collar conspicuous and unspotted. Whole lower parts immaculate isabella-white.

HAB. Western Province of United States, from the Plains to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to Cape St. Lucas; Mexico.

Localities: Xalapa (SCL. 1857, 290); Texas (DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 330; resident).

Specimens never vary in the pattern of coloration, and but little in the relative amount of the brown and white spotting; the shade of the brown and the depth of the ochraceous tinge vary considerably, however, in different individuals,—but irrespective of locality,—the brown being paler and the white purer in summer than in fall and winter, after the new dress is freshly assumed. The brown on the breast varies considerably in quantity, being sometimes nearly uniform, thereby abruptly contrasting with the white jugular band, and again frequently with the brown hardly greater in amount than the white, the two colors being in regular bars, as on the sides and flanks.

There is certainly but one species, or even race, of Burrowing Owl in North America. This is represented in the Smithsonian collection by over fifty specimens, including examples from all parts of its range. Upon a close inspection of all the specimens in this extensive series, I was very much surprised to find so little variation; indeed, all the specimens are so much alike that a detailed description of the colors of one would answer for almost any individual. The shade of color varies mainly according to the age of the feathers, those newly acquired having a darkness of tint and a softness of texture not seen in those more worn (as in midsummer dress), which have a bleached or faded appearance. I fail entirely to detect the different styles of plumage which Mr. Cassin has described, and his diagnoses of two supposed species will not at all hold good when applied to specimens from either of the two regions which they were considered to characterize.

Examining critically the large series at my command, I find that the principal discrepancy among individuals is the amount of feathering on the tarsus; this extending to the toes was supposed to characterize the _A. cunicularia_ of North America the habitat of which was considered as restricted in North America to the west of the Rocky Mountains (see Cassin, Birds of North America, as cited above); the nearly naked tarsus was believed to be characteristic of the _A. hypogæa_, as restricted, and the habitat assigned to this was “from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains.” Now, dividing the series under examination into two sets, according to this feature, we have, first, _cunicularia_ from the following localities: from the Rio Grande, all specimens but one; Tongue River, Montana; and Petaluma, Santa Clara, and San Francisco, California. Next, _hypogæa_ represents the following localities, besides places within the range ascribed to it: Utah; Lower California, including Cape St. Lucas, all specimens; San Diego, California, several specimens; Santa Barbara, San Francisco, Sacramento, and Fort Tejon, California; and Tamaulipas, Mexico.

Though we have but one species or form in North America, the South American bird is different: this is the true _cunicularia_ of Molina, and though not specifically distinct from our bird, is nevertheless an easily recognized geographical race. It is larger, the wing measuring from 7.00 to 7.50, instead of 6.40 to 7.00; the brown of the plumage is appreciably darker than that of most specimens of _hypogæa_, but less extended; on the outer web of the primaries the white spots are larger,—sometimes confluent along the edge,—and on their inner webs the white largely prevails, the dusky bars appearing only towards the ends; the outer tail-feather is almost wholly white, instead of having brown bars, broader than the white ones. Of the var. _cunicularia_ there are eight specimens in the collection (chiefly from Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, and Chile), while numerous others, in various collections, have been examined besides. All the American forms of this subgenus seem clearly referrible to one species, as being at the most but geographical races.

HABITS. The Burrowing Owl of North America inhabits the country between the Pacific coast and the Mississippi River, especially in the lower plains in Nebraska and in Kansas, as well as in particular districts in Utah, Arkansas, New Mexico, the Indian Territory, Texas, Arizona, California, and Mexico. They are usually very abundant, congregating together in large communities, and differing from most members of their family by living and breeding in burrows in the ground. Their habits are peculiar and interesting.

Thomas Say, during Colonel Long’s expedition to the Rocky Mountains, was the first of American naturalists to meet with this bird. He encountered it in our trans-Mississippian Territories, where he described it as residing exclusively in the villages of the prairie-dog, whose excavations are so commodious as to make it unnecessary for the bird to dig for itself, which it is able to do when occasion requires. These villages are very numerous, and variable in their extent, sometimes covering only a few acres, and at others spreading over the surface of the country for miles together. They are composed of slightly elevated mounds, having the form of a truncated cone, about two feet in width at base, and seldom rising as high as eighteen inches above the surface. The entrance is at the top or on the side. From the entrance the passage descends vertically one or two feet, and thence it continues obliquely downward until it terminates in the snug apartment where these animals enjoy their winter’s sleep, and where they and the Owls are common, but unfriendly, occupants.

Mr. Dresser noticed this bird at all seasons, in the prairie country of Texas. They were rather common near the Rio Leon and Medina, and in one place he found they had taken possession of some deserted rat-holes. He obtained several specimens near San Antonio and at Eagle Pass. In the latter place he found them quite common on the sand plains near the town. The stomachs of those he shot were found to contain coleopterous insects and field-mice.

Dr. Newberry states that he found this species in Northern California, in several places between San Francisco and Fort Reading, and again at the Klamath Basin, though less frequently at the northward than in the Sacramento Valley. There they occupied the burrows made by the Beechey’s and the Douglass’s Spermophile. He usually saw them standing at the entrance to these burrows, often permitting him to approach within gun-shot, and before taking to flight twisting their heads about and bowing with many ludicrous gestures, apparently in order to aid their imperfect sight, and to get a better view of the intruder. When shot at or otherwise alarmed, they fly with an irregular jerking motion, dropping down much like a Woodcock.

Dr. Suckley obtained a specimen near Fort Benton, on the Upper Missouri, in Dakotah, and Dr. Cooper procured others thirty-five miles west of Fort Kearney, in Nebraska, in August. He saw them in great numbers on the plains of Nebraska, and did not observe any difference in habits between them and the birds of California.

This species was found in Texas, near Fort Davis, and also at El Paso, by Mr. J. H. Clark. It was taken in Tamaulipas, Mexico, by Lieutenant Couch. Mr. Clark remarks that they were seen by him only in the prairie-dog towns, and were found in conjunction with the rattlesnake, and accuses them of feeding upon the young of the prairie-dog; but this ungrateful requital of the hospitality given them in the burrows of this marmot is discredited by Dr. Kennerly and others, who regard the apparent harmony in which the two dwell together as altogether incompatible with this habit.

This species is also found on our Pacific coast, west of the Rocky Mountains, as far north as British Columbia. Mr. Lord met with it along the entire course of the boundary-line. It was not by any means plentiful, but pairs of them were occasionally seen. While in camp at the Dalles he dug out several squirrel-holes. In one he found two eggs of this species, the female bird, a racer-snake, and a female ground-squirrel (_Spermophilus douglassi_). The Owl he found to be strictly of diurnal habits, feeding principally on crickets, grasshoppers, large beetles, and larvæ. He thinks it never captures small animals or birds, and regards it as a peaceful and harmless bird.

Dr. Kennerly met with this species near Los Angeles, California. At any hour of the day they might be seen seated upon the mounds erected around the holes of the marmot, or else with head protruding from its orifice, disappearing immediately when approached. When molested, they commence bowing and chattering in a somewhat ludicrous manner at the intruder, or fly swiftly away, keeping near the earth and alighting suddenly in the vicinity of a burrow to renew these amusing motions. He found it very abundant in the valley of the San Gabriel River, where it associated with the large ground-squirrel of that region.

Dr. Heermann, who found them common on the extensive open prairies, speaks of its sight as very clear by day, and adds that it will not allow the hunter on foot to approach within shooting distance; but that, if approached on a horse or a mule, it may be easily shot. The nests he found were formed of a few straws carelessly thrown together at the bottom of its tortuous burrow, which is from six to eight feet in length. The eggs were usually four in number, and are described as nearly spherical, and as pure white.

Dr. Townsend states that this Owl resorts to the forsaken burrows of marmots and badgers, but never lives on terms of intimacy with either. The nest he describes as of fine grass, and placed at the extremity of the hole. The eggs are uniformly four in number, pale white, and about the size of those of the common House Pigeon.

Dr. Gambel, who observed this bird in California, states that he has occasionally found it in solitary burrows, and also that it often makes use of the holes dug by the _Spermophilus beecheyi_. They occasionally dig their own burrows, and live in scattered companies of four or five. Dr. Gambel also states that the bird is a resident of California throughout the year.

Mr. Darwin, in the Zoölogy of the Beagle, met with the var. _cunicularia_ in crossing the pampas of South America. In Banda Oriental, he says, it is its own workman, and excavates its burrows on any level spot of sandy soil; but in the pampas, or wherever the Bizcacha is found, it uses those made by that animal. It usually preys on mice and reptiles. Lieutenant Gilliss gives a similar account of it, from observations made in Chile.

Mr. Nathaniel H. Bishop met with _cunicularia_ on the banks of the river San Juan, in Banda Oriental, where a few pairs were seen, devouring mice and insects. After crossing the river Las Vacas, and coming upon a sandy waste covered with scattered trees and low bushes, he again encountered it. Upon the pampas of the Argentine Republic they were found in great numbers, from a few miles west of Rosario to the vicinity of San Luis, where the pampas end. On these immense plains of grass it lives in company with the Bizcacha (_Lagostomus trichodactylus_), dwelling with it in perfect harmony, and during the day, while the animal is sleeping, a pair of Owls stand a few inches within the main entrance of the burrow, and at the first sound, be it near or distant, leave their station and remain outside the hole, or upon the mound that forms the roof of their domicile. At the approach of man, both birds, with their irides dilated, mount above him in the air, and keep up an alarm-note until he passes. Then they quietly settle down in the grass, or return to their former place. On the pampas Mr. Bishop did not observe them taking their prey during the daytime, but as soon as the sun had set, the Bizcacha and Owls both leave their holes in search of food, the young of the former playing about the birds as they alight near them. They do not associate in companies, there being but one pair to a hole. Each couple keep separate from their neighbors, and at night do not stray from their homes.

It is both diurnal and nocturnal, and feeds at all hours. Outside the town of San Juan, which lies upon the eastern base of the Andes, Mr. Bishop had a fine opportunity to watch their habits in a locality differing entirely from the pampas. The country around San Juan is a dreary desert, covered with low thorn-trees, and over this waste a few Owls are found, principally near the town itself, in the vicinity of the pastures that are cultivated by irrigation. They mate in September and October. “One evening,” Mr. Bishop writes, “I was attracted by a strange sound that I supposed proceeded from a frog, but it proved to be the love-note of a little _Athene cunicularia_, and which was answered by its mate. It alighted upon a post, and commenced turning around upon it, with throat dilated, and emitting a guttural sound. These antics were continued for more than a minute, it occasionally bowing its head in a mysterious manner. The female soon after joined it, and they flew away. Each night it perched upon a tall flagstaff and uttered its love-note. Close by the house was a lagoon, the borders of which were swampy, and over this a pair often hovered in search of food. I watched one that kept on the wing for nearly two hours, some fifty feet from the ground, and during that time did not change its position in any other way than by rising or falling a few feet. A boy brought me a female with five eggs, that had been taken from a burrow five feet from the mouth. The bird was very fierce, and fought me with her wings and beak, uttering all the while a long shrill note, resembling a file drawn across the teeth of a saw. I supplied her with eleven full-grown mice, which she devoured during the first thirty-six hours of her confinement. It is said to place a small nest of feathers at the end of the hole, in which are deposited five white eggs.”

The eggs of the var. _cunicularia_ are of a rounded-oval shape, more obtuse at one end than at the other, measure 1.30 inches in length by 1.05 in breadth, and are of a uniform white color, with a slightly bluish tinge.

_Strix pratincola._ (See page 10.)]

The egg of the _A. hypogæa_ is of a rounded-oval shape, equally obtuse at either end, and averages 1.35 inches in length by 1.13 in breadth, and is of a uniform clear white color. This description is taken from an egg obtained by Mr. E. S. Holden near Stockton in California. Captain Bendire writes that he has found as many as nine, and once even ten, eggs in the nest of the North American species.

NOTE.

The crania of the Owls present many features of interest, which may serve a good purpose in the definition of the sections and the genera, and to which attention has been occasionally called in the preceding pages. The tendency to asymmetry is especially marked in some species, and the better to illustrate this and other features we append several plates, in which the corresponding views are placed side by side.[39] The figures and accompanying lettering tell their own story, without any necessity of a labored description.

R. R.

7449. Strix pratincola. Natural size.
4886. Otus wilsonianus. Natural size.
7272. Scotiaptex cinereum. Two thirds.
7899. Nyctale richardsoni. Natural size.
414. Scops asio. Natural size.
773. Bubo virginianus. Two thirds.
628. Nyctea nivea. Two thirds.
7897. Surnia ulula. Natural size.
428. Glaucidium ferrugineum. Natural size.
437. Spheotyto hypogæa. Natural size.]

7449. Strix pratincola. Natural size.
4886. Otus wilsonianus. Natural size.
7272. Scotiaptex cinereum. Two thirds.
7899. Nyctale richardsoni. Natural size.
414. Scops asio. Natural size.
773. Bubo virginianus. Two thirds.
628. Nyctea nivea. Two thirds.
7897. Surnia ulula. Natural size.
428. Glaucidium ferrugineum. Natural size.
437. Spheotyto hypogæa. Natural size.]

7449. Strix pratincola. Natural size.
4886. Otus wilsonianus. Natural size.
7272. Scotiaptex cinereum. Two thirds.
7899. Nyctale richardsoni. Natural size.
414. Scops asio. Natural size.
773. Bubo virginianus. Two thirds.
628. Nyctea nivea. Two thirds.
7897. Surnia ulula. Natural size.
428. Glaucidium ferrugineum. Natural size.
437. Spheotyto hypogæa. Natural size.]

7449. Strix pratincola.
4886. Otus wilsonianus.
7272. Scotiaptex cinereum.
7899. Nyctale richardsoni.
414. Scops asio.
773. Bubo virginianus.
628. Nyctea nivea.
7897. Surnia ulula.
428. Glaucidium ferrugineum.
437. Spheotyto hypogæa.

(All natural size.)]

12088. Nyctea nivea. (Ear copied from Swainson, F. B. A)
504. Scotiaptex cinereum.
49808. Surnia ulula. (Ear copied from Swainson.)
A. Brachyotus “cassinii.” (Left ear and nostril, from fresh
specimen.)]

FAMILY FALCONIDÆ.—THE FALCONS.

CHAR. Eyes directed laterally, and eyelids provided with lashes. Toes invariably naked, and tarsus usually naked and scutellate (feathered only in _Aquila_ and _Archibuteo_). Outer toe not reversible (except in _Pandion_). Head never with ear-tufts, and never wholly naked (except in the _Vulturinæ_, of the Old World).

The above characters are about the only readily observable points in the external anatomy in which the _Falconidæ_ differ strikingly from the _Strigidæ_ and _Cathartidæ_, and may serve to distinguish the birds of this family from those of the two others. The osteological characters, however, as expressed on page 1328, are more decided and important in a taxonomic point of view, and serve to separate the Hawk family as a well-defined group.

In the following treatment of the North American _Falconidæ_, I confine that part relating to the systematic arrangement strictly to the species embraced within the province of our work, for the reason that in a forthcoming monograph of all the American species I hope to present a systematic classification based upon the species of the whole world. All preliminary details regarding the general characteristics and distinctive peculiarities of the family, as well as all discussions and generalizations upon the subject, will therefore be omitted here.

The following synopsis of the North American genera is intended as an artificial arrangement which may enable the student to identify, by simple and readily understood characters, the forms belonging to this country.[40]

Genera.

=A.= Nasal bones almost completely ossified, the nostril being a small
orifice, with a conspicuous central bony tubercle; its form nearly or
quite circular, or linear and oblique (in Polyborus), with its upper
end the posterior one …

_Falconinæ._

1. =Falco.= Nostril circular. Commissure with a prominent tooth
and notch; lower mandible abruptly truncated and notched.
Primaries stiff and hard, and more or less pointed, the first to
the second longest, and the outer one or two with their inner
webs cut, the angular emargination being near the end of the
quill. Middle toe much more than half as long as the tarsus;
claws strongly curved, very acute.

2. =Polyborus.= Nostril linear, oblique, the upper end the
posterior one; commissure without prominent tooth nor notch;
lower mandible not distinctly truncated or notched. Primaries
soft, obtuse, the third longest, and the outer four or five with
their inner webs cut, the shallow sinuation being toward the
middle of the quill. Middle toe less than half the tarsus; claws
weakly curved, very obtuse. Face and cheeks naked, and scantily
haired.

=B.= Nasal bones very incompletely ossified, the nostril being a
large, more or less oval, opening, of oblique direction, its lower end
being invariably the posterior one; without a bony tubercle, and never
perfectly circular. (_Accipitrinæ._)

_a._ Sides of the head densely feathered close up to the eyelids.

3. =Pandion.= Outer toe reversible; claws contracted and
rounded on their under surface, and not graduated in size.[41]
Wing long, third quill longest; outer four with inner webs
emarginated. Tail rather short, rounded.

4. =Nauclerus.= Outer toe not reversible; claws not contracted
or rounded on under side, and graduated in size. Wing long,
third quill longest; outer two with inner webs sinuated. Tail
excessively lengthened and forked, the lateral pair of feathers
more than twice as long as the middle pair.

_b._ Sides of the head with a more scantily feathered orbital space,
with a projecting superciliary “shield” covered with a naked skin.

* A well-developed membrane, or “web,” between the outer and
middle toes at the base.

† Tarsus about equal to the middle toe.

§ Claws short and robust; two outer quills with their inner webs
cut.

5. =Ictinia.= Commissure irregularly toothed and notched; front
of tarsus with transverse scutellæ. Tail emarginated; third
quill longest.

6. =Elanus.= Commissure without irregularities; front of tarsus
with minute roundish scales. Tail double-rounded; second quill
longest.

§§ Claws long and slender; five outer quills with inner webs cut.

7. =Rostrhamus.= End of bill bent downward, with a long pendent
hook; inner edge of middle claw slightly pectinated, or
serrated. Tail emarginated; third or fourth quill longest.

†† Tarsus very much longer than the middle toe.

¶ Front of tarsus unfeathered, and, with the posterior face,
covered with a continuous series of broad transverse scutellæ.

α. Form very long and slender, the head small, the tail and legs
long and claws excessively acute; bill weak, compressed, very
high through the base, the culmen greatly ascending basally, and
the cere much arched; commissure usually with a very prominent
“festoon.”

8. =Circus.= Face surrounded by a “ruff” of stiffened,
differently formed feathers, as in the Owls. Tarsus more than
twice as long as the middle toe. Wing very long, hardly concave
beneath; third to fourth quill longest; outer four with inner
webs sinuated.

9. =Nisus.= Face not surrounded by a ruff. Tarsus less than
twice as long as the middle toe. Wing short, very concave
beneath, the outer quill much bowed; third to fifth quills
longest; outer five with inner webs sinuated.

β. Form short and heavy, the head larger, the tail shorter, the
legs more robust. Bill stronger, less compressed, lower through
the base, the upper outline less ascending basally, and the cere
less arched. Commissure variable.

10. =Antenor.= Form heavy, the wings and tail moderately long,
and feet very robust; bill rather elongated, the commissural
lobe prominent, and the base of the culmen somewhat depressed.
Fourth quill longest; outer five with inner webs cut. Lores
naked, and almost destitute of bristles.

11. =Onychotes.= Outstretched feet reaching beyond end of tail;
tibial plumes short, close, not reaching below the joint. Wing
short, rounded, very concave beneath, the fourth quill longest;
outer five with inner webs sinuated. Tail short, but little
more than half the wing, slightly rounded. Claws very long, and
extremely acute.

12. =Asturina.= Bill and feet as in _Antenor_; lores densely
bristled; wing short, rounded, concave beneath, the third to
fourth quills longest; outer four with their inner webs cut.

13. =Buteo.= Form of _Antenor_, but primaries longer and more
pointed, the fourth usually longest, and the outer three or
four with inner webs cut. Bill and feet as in _Asturina_. Tail
moderate, or rather short, nearly even, or slightly rounded.

¶¶ Front of the tarsus densely feathered down to the base of the
toes.

14. =Archibuteo.= Feathering of the tarsus interrupted behind by
a bare strip along the full length; middle toe less than half as
long as the tarsus. Nostril broadly oval, obliquely horizontal;
bill weak, the upper outline of the cere much ascending basally.
Feathers of the nape normal, blended. Third to fourth quills
longest; outer four or five with inner webs cut.

15. =Aquila.= Feathering of the tarsus uninterrupted behind;
middle toe more than half as long as the tarsus. Nostril
narrowly oval, obliquely vertical; bill strong, the upper
outline of the cere nearly parallel with the lower. Feathers of
the nape lanceolate, distinct. Fourth quill longest; five to six
with inner webs cut.

** No trace of membrane between outer and middle toes.

16. =Haliætus.= Tarsus feathered in front one third, or more, of
the way down; the naked portion with an imperfectly continuous
frontal, and less well defined posterior, series of transverse
plates, and covered elsewhere with roundish granular scales.
Feathers of the neck, all round, lanceolate, distinct. Bill very
large, the chord of the culmen more than twice as long as the
cere on top; nostril oval, obliquely vertical. Third to fifth
quills longest; outer six with inner webs cut. Tail rounded or
cuneate, sometimes consisting of fourteen feathers.

The foregoing diagnoses embrace merely the more conspicuous external characters whereby the genera may be most readily distinguished by the student. The following table presents additional accompanying characters afforded by the osteological and anatomical structure, of more importance in defining with precision the several groups embraced in our fauna.