Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

Historic
Ornament.

BRITISH MUSEUM.

FRENCH, EARLY 15TH CENTURY.]

A Manual of
HISTORIC
ORNAMENT

TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION,
TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED
ARTS.

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
AND CRAFTSMEN.

BY RICHARD GLAZIER,
Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects;
Head Master of the Municipal School
of Art, Manchester.

With 470 illustrations by the Author.

LONDON:
B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN.
1899.

MANCHESTER:
PRINTED BY CHORLTON & KNOWLES, MAYFIELD PRESS.

Preface.

This manual has been prepared with the three-fold object of giving an elementary knowledge of Architecture and Historic Ornament, of awakening a responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many beautiful and interesting remains of ancient and mediæval civilization, and lastly of directing the attention of students and craftsmen to the beauty, suggestiveness and vitality of the Industrial Arts of the past, and their intimate relation to the social and religious life of the people.

The advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from such a study are manifold, for, by a careful study of these arts, we may see the capabilities and limitations of material, the appropriateness and application of ornament, the continuity of line and form--yet with a marked diversity of enrichment and treatment--the interest and significance of detail, and the customs, myths and traditions of the past with their continuity of thought and expression.

The illustrations, which have been chosen expressly for this work, are typical examples of each period or style and are produced in line as being the method best suited to the requirements of students, giving definition, emphasis and the constructive qualities of design rather than pictorial effect.

In the appendix will be found a list of text books and works of reference, which may be studied with considerable advantage by students desiring further information upon this important subject.

RICHARD GLAZIER.

MANCHESTER,

1899.

Contents.

PAGE.
Ornament of Oceania 3
Egyptian Ornament 5
Assyrian Ornament 7
Greek Architecture 9
Greek Ornament 13
Roman Architecture 21
Roman Ornament 25
Pompeian Ornament 29
Byzantine Ornament 31
Scandinavian Ornament 33
Celtic Ornament 35
Norman and Gothic Architecture 36
Norman Details 43
Early Gothic Details 45
Renascence Ornament 49
French Renascence 58
English Renascence 60
Mahometan and Moresque 63
Persian Ornament 65
Indian Ornament 69
Chinese and Japanese Ornament 71
Ivories 73
Mosaics 75
Greek Ceramics 77
Ceramic Art 79
Maiolica 87
Terra Cotta 88
Enamels 91
Glass 95
Stained Glass 97
Gold and Silver 101
Bronzes 103
Wrought Iron 105
Furniture 106
Textile Fabrics 109
Frets 123
Continuity of Style 125
Terms used in Ornamental Art 131

List of Plates

PLATE. PAGE.
1 Ornament of Oceania 2
2 Egyptian Ornament 4
3 Assyrian Ornament 6
4 Greek Architecture 8
5 Greek Ornament 12
6 Greek Ornament 18
7 Roman Architecture 20
8 Roman Ornament 24
9 Roman Ornament 26
10 Pompeian Ornament 28
11 Byzantine Ornament 30
12 Scandinavian Ornament 32
13 Celtic Ornament 34
14 The Triforium and Clearstory 41
15 Norman Details 42
16 Early Gothic Details 44
17 Decorated & Perpendicular Gothic Details 46
18 Renascence Ornament 48
19 Renascence Ornament 55
20 Arabian Ornament 62
21 Persian Ornament 64
22 Persian Ornament 67
23 Indian Ornament 68
24 Chinese and Japanese Ornament 70
25 Ivories 72
26 Mosaics 74
27 Greek Ceramics 76
28 Ceramics 78
29 Maiolica 86
30 Glass 94
31 Stained Glass 96
32 Gold and Silver 100
33 Bronzes 102
34 Wrought Iron 104
35 Textile Fabrics 108
36 Sicilian Fabric 111
37 Indian Palampore 112
38 Persian Carpet 114
39 Textile Fabrics 117
40 Peruvian Textiles 119
41 Peruvian Textiles 120
42 Frets 122
43 Polynesian Paddle 124

Illustrations in the Text.

PAGE.

Ornament of Oceania 3

Plan of the Parthenon 9

Plan of the Erectheum 10

The two Fates, from the Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon 14

Doric Frieze of the Parthenon 14

North Frieze of the Parthenon 15

Frieze from Phigaleia 15

Relief from Nike Apteros 16

Frieze from Pergamos 16

Frieze from Susa 17

Greek Scroll 17

Greek Coins 19

Arch of Septimius Severus 21

Theatre of Marcellus 22

Plan of the Pantheon 22

Plan of the House of Pansa 23

Roman Scroll 25

Coffered Ceiling 25

Frieze from Tivoli 27

Plan of St. Mark’s 31

Plan of St. Sophia 31

Lismore Crosier 35

Gothic Piers 37

Plan of Lincoln Cathedral 37

Early Gothic Window 38

Grisaille Glass, Salisbury 39

Gothic Crockets 45

Gothic Borders 45

Tomb of Ilaria del Carretto 50

Bas-relief, by Donatello 51

Monument to Conte Ugino 51

Italian Velvet 52

Fresco, by Michel-Angelo 52

A Sibyl, by Michel-Angelo 53

Arabesque Decorations 53

Renascence Scroll 54

Renascence Marble Inlay 54

Frieze, by Mantegna 56

An Italian Etching 56

Venetian Well-head 57

Wood Carving, period of Francis I. 58

Decoration, period of Francis II. 58

Relief, by Jean Goujon 59

Wood Carving, by Jean Goujon 59

Frieze, by Le Pautre 59

Wood Carving, period of Louis XV. 59

Elizabethan Frieze 60

Elizabethan Strap-work 60

Ceiling, Audley End 60

Persian Plate 65

Peruvian Pottery 85

Greek Terra Cotta 89

The Annunciation, by Andrea della Robbia 89

Relief, by Andrea della Robbia 90

Painted Enamel by Pierre Raymond 93

Battersea Enamel 93

Early Gothic Glass 97

Early French Glass 98

Late Gothic Glass 98

Chairs 106

Italian Carved Chest 107

Carved Wood Screen 107

Italian Fabrics 115

Flower Vase Pattern 116

Spitalsfield Silk 116

Flemish Fabrics 116

Frets 123

Egyptian Capital 126

Corinthian Capital 127

Early French Capital 127

Composite Capital 127

Byzantine Capital 128

French Romanesque Capital 128

Siculo-Norman Capital 129

Early English Capital 129

Arabian Capital 129

Decorated Gothic Capital 130

Renascence Capital 130

Roman Scroll 130

ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. Plate 1. ]

ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA.

The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is full of interest and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions purely local and in no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands but upon abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people.

The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and traditions, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia.

Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and zig-zag lines; that of Australia consists almost entirely of these lines incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. In New Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and curved lines, being carved in flat relief. In the province of Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the linear ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The Hervey and Austral Islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the original type and its ornamental development. These examples, together with the circular eye pattern form the elements of the Hervey province, of which the Heape collection contains many fine examples. In the Solomon Island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is distinguished by its skilful pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the human figure, fig. 1. 12., and the constant use of the border here given.

EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2. ]

EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT.

The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 B.C. to 340 B.C., during which 30 dynasties existed, is usually divided into three groups: (1) The Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 B.C. (2) The Middle Empire, XII.-XIX., 2466-1200; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties, 1200-340 B.C.

The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor and Tanis: and of the New Empire, Sais and Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these early dynasties are attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture and decorative arts that enrich our national museums. The Great Pyramids were built during the fourth dynasty, the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700 B.C., is 756 ft. × 756 ft., and 480 ft. high; the second, by Kephren, 3666-3633 B.C., is 707 ft. × 707 ft. and 454 ft. high: and the third, 333 ft. × 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600 B.C.

The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known, and is probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is singular that all the earliest sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties with which we are acquainted, were realistic portraiture, remarkable for its fidelity to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note, were finely sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities, Amen Sckhet, Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris, were represented in the later dynasties by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather than for their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of the earlier period. Much of the architectural enrichment was in Cavo Relievo, a peculiarly Egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the figures, birds, or flowers, being sunk into the surface of the granite or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground or bed raised, these reliefs being invariably painted red, blue, green, and yellow. The frieze, which, in the hands of the Greeks at a later period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the Egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial arts and pursuits, weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery; ploughing, sowing, and reaping, also hunting and fishing. The composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined and purely decorative, with a _naïveté_ and unaffection so appropriate to the architectonic conditions. Mingled with these incidents were the beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the latter being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative work. Great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their architectural capitals with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A singular feature introduced during the 18th dynasty was the Hathor Capital surmounted by a small Naos. During the Ptolemaic period, B.C. 300, the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical bell-shaped capital (fig. 3).

ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3. ]

ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.

The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars and conquests. Originally one nation, they became divided, and the younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that period under Tiglath Pileser I., B.C. 1100, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. 885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C. 860-25, Tiglath-Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, the Great Sargon, B.C., 722-705, Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon, B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C. 668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital, Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to power under Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562; this city was destroyed by Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539.

Assyrian art with its racial influences, religious beliefs and climatic conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in Chaldea, and Nineveh in Assyria, the traditional type of building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks; the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, carved in low relief with scenes representing the King and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). The upper part of the wall was in enamelled brick or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and Bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. The representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea, were modelled in low relief with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, white and black, of fine quality and colour, one splendid example is the Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones, but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects (fig. 9). The portals of the doors were enriched with colossal winged and human headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and Bud (figs. 2 and 3), the Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn or Tree of Life (fig 8). The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only came into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between the two nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).

The Anthemion or _Hom_, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with strong lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass (fig. 3). The _Hom_ is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian and Sicilian textile fabrics.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Plate 4. ]

GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture; the Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and many examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her colonies:--Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of these buildings certain constructive and decorative features are observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base, (except in the Grecian Doric, which has no base) column and capital, and the Entablature, which consists of the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower diameter of the column which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts; the height of the column always including the base and capital. The DORIC order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600 and culminated in the Parthenon B.C. 438. The COLUMNS in this order are 4-1/2 to 6 diameters in height with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises; the CAPITAL is half a diameter in height and is composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and a large square abacus above. The ARCHITRAVE is plain; the FRIEZE is enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3 vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyphs, alternately with square metopes which were frequently sculptured. The CORNICE, composed of simple mouldings, and enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs and metopes, projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze.

The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9-1/2 diameters in height, with 24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the _base_ is half a diameter in height and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus, and fillet. The CAPITAL is 7/10 of a diameter high and consists of a pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below.

The ENTABLATURE is 1/4 the height of the columns, the ARCHITRAVE of one or more fascias, the FRIEZE continuous and frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief; the CORNICE has simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band. Caryatides were occasionally introduced into this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column. These caryatides supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example of this feature is the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens.

The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The COLUMNS are 10 diameters in height with 24 flutings; the BASE is 1/2 diameter high; the CAPITAL is a little greater than a diameter in height and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The ENTABLATURE is richer; and the CORNICE deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders.

A table is here given showing the relative height in parts (a part is 1/60 of the diameter) of the entablature in some typical Grecian examples.

+------------+------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | | | | | | Total | | | | Architrave | Frieze | Cornice | Entablature | | +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | Doric | Parthenon | 43 | 43 | 32 | 118 | | +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | | Theseus | 50 | 48 | 19 | 107 | | +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | Ionic | Erechtheum | 43 | 48 | 47 | 140 | | +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | | Priene | 37 | 49 | 47 | 133 | | +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | Corinthian | Lysicrates | 53 | 41 | 49 | 143 | | +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+ | | Jupiter | | | | | | | Olympius | 40 | 26 | 46 | 112 | +------------+------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+

The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:--The Temples at Corinth B.C. 650, Ægina B.C. 550, the Parthenon and the Theseum B.C. 438, the Temples of Jupiter at Olympia, Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ B.C. 436, Minerva at Sunium, and the Propylæa at Athens B.C. 431. The Parthenon is the only octastyle temple in Greece.

Ionic buildings in Greece are:--Temples at Ilyssus, Nike Apteros, and the Erectheum. In Asia Minor, the Temples at Samos, Priene, Teos, and of Diana at Ephesus, and of Apollo at Miletos.

Corinthian buildings in Greece are:--Monument of Lysicrates, the Tower of Winds, and Jupiter Olympius, all in Athens.

During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used in the Greek colonies of Sicily. At Acragas or Agrigentum the remains of 6 fine hexastyle and peripteral Doric Temples are found, of which the Temple of Zeus B.C. 450 is the largest, being 354 by 173 feet. In this temple were found the Telemones or Atlantes, male figures 25 feet in height, with their arms raised, probably supporting the roof of the temple.

At Selinus there are six large Doric temples, five being hexastyle and peripteral, the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral, 372 by 175 feet. This temple has columns 57 feet in height with an entablature of 19 feet. At Egesta, there is a hexastyle, peripteral, Doric temple with the columns not fluted, and at Pæstum in Southern Italy there are two Doric temples, the temple of Neptune, and the temple of Vesta, of the usual hexastyle and peripteral form, but the Basilica is pseudo-dipteral and is remarkable for its two porticos of nine columns each. All these buildings in Sicily and Pæstum date between B.C. 500 and 430.

Classification of Classic Temples:--

1st. The arrangements of the columns and walls

(_a_) When the side walls have no colonnade _Apteral_

(_b_) When there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls _Peripteral_

(_c_) When the colonnade is attached to the side of the side walls _Pseudo-peripteral_

(_d_) When there is a double colonnade standing from the wall _Dipteral_

2nd. The relation of the ends of the temple

(_a_) When the columns do not project beyond the walls _In Antis_

(_b_) When a portico stood in front of the temple _Prostyle_

(_c_) When there was a portico at each end _Amphi-prostyle_

(_d_) If the portico was one column in depth_Mono-prostyle_

(_e_) If the portico was two columns in depth _Di-prostyle_

3rd. The number of columns in the portico

(_a_) If of 2 columns _Distyle_

(_b_) If of 4 columns _Tetrastyle_

(_c_) If of 6 columns exastyle_

(_d_) If of 8 columns _Octastyle_

4th. The Intercolumniation

(_a_) If 1-1/2 diameters apart _Pycnostyle_

(_b_) If 2 diameters apart _Systyle_

(_c_) If 2-1/4 diameters apart _Eustyle_

(_d_) If 3 diameters apart _Diastyle_

(_e_) If 4 diameters apart _Ærostyle_

GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 5. ]

GREEK ORNAMENT.

Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the same language, and worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the Ægean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies, which supplanted those of the Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon. The southern portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern by Ionians. In the course of time other Greek settlements were made on the Black Sea and Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor; as well as at Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum, in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna Grecia in Italy. These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than Greece itself. The ascendency in art in Greece was enjoyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles (470-29 B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination.

The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architecture, sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the people. Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. The almost inexhaustible store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of conception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship, are here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident.

The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence, upon contemporary and later plastic art.

The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, was enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the originals are now in the British Museum, forming part of the Elgin Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. The two pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon for the soil of Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture during the Phidian age. An illustration of the “Fates” from the Western pediment is given here, showing a perfect mastery of the human figure, with rare selective power of composition. The appropriateness of line and mass for its position renders it singularly beautiful and architectonic in character. Of the 92 square metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or Greeks, and are fine examples of composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression.

The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject being the Panathenæic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, its heroes and deities, heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial oxen, and its horses and riders are doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor’s art. Each figure is full of life and motion, admirable in detail, having an individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition, appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band.

The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or statue of the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed of plates of gold and ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture. Probably owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of Phidias disappeared at an early date.

Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, erected by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which shows an extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long, and consists of 23 slabs 25-1/2 inches in width, the incidents depicted being the battle of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon frieze is here replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuberance of modelling.

Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument of Xanthos, B.C. 372, so called because the female figures display moist clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds between their feet. These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the work of the Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis.

Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of the Erectheum, B.C. 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background, and white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros, of about the same date is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands. An example of Nike or victory, adjusting her sandal is here given. These reliefs are remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment, and the exquisite rendering of the draped female figure. Other friezes now in the British Museum are from the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her husband Mausolus B.C. 357-348. This tomb consisted of a solid basement of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36 columns. The upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze, illustrating the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the frieze of the cella was illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus. Seventeen slabs of the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British Museum; they represent the battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and richness of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon frieze in its fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, the sculptor of the Nereid monument executed the north frieze, while the south was by Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.

A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important feature, was the great altar at Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II., B.C. 168. This had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and 16 ft. high, enriched with a sculptured frieze 7-1/2 ft. high. The subject is the Gigantomachia, or battle of the gods and giants; the treatment being characterised by passionate energy and expression, and daring skill in grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze are now in the Berlin Museum.

The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians and Greeks. The continuity of incident and rhythm of movement that was possible with the continuous frieze, together with its functional use of banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form, hence we have many remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment. An early and fine example is the frieze of Archers from the palace of Darius at Persepolis, B.C. 532, now in the Louvre. This frieze, of which an illustration is here given, was executed in glazed and enamelled bricks. A dignity of conception and unity of composition were here combined with skilful modelling of relief work, and fine colouring of blue, turquoise and yellow. This treatment of the frieze no doubt influenced the later work of the Greeks, who so nobly carried on this tradition of the frieze.

Greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line, refinement of detail, radiation of parts, unity of composition and perfect symmetry. The anthemion, which is the typical form, is derived from the traditional lotus and bud of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs however in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism, having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts, yet lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many periods of art.

The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele, (figs. 1, 2, and 5, plate 4), upon the architrave of doorways (fig. 6), and above the necking of the Ionic columns (plate 6); or painted upon the panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It was also used in a thousand ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period. The simplicity and

GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6. ]

beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability, has doubtless rendered it one of the best known types of ornament. Like the Egyptian and Assyrian prototype the Greek anthemion is usually arranged with alternate flower and bud, connected by a curved line or more frequently by a double spiral. Illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a few typical examples, where the rhythm and beauty of composition are indicative of the culture and perfection of Greek craftsmanship.

Another feature, which at a later period received considerable development, was the scroll given on the preceding page, which is a fine example from the roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scroll cut with V shaped sections, springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage, the same features being observed in the nest of foliage which supports the tripod upon the apex of the roof (plate 6). This scroll is formed of a series of spirals springing from each other, the junction of the spiral being covered by a sheath or flower; the spiral itself being often broken by a similar sheath.

This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and Italian Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the Gothic ornament, in which the construction line is continuous and unbroken.

The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form was frequently used upon the architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele (fig. 5 plate 5) where its circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with the functional straight lines of architectural design. The extraordinary vitality and versatility of the Greek craftsmen may be traced through a magnificent series of coins dating from B.C. 700 to B.C. 280. The interest of subject, beauty of composition and largeness of style, combined with the utmost delicacy of technique, of these gold, silver and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of the early Greeks.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 7. ]

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.

Roman Architecture is differentiated from that of Greece by the extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. The many fine remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their constructive skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the Greek prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornament, less refined in contour and detail.

A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of Septimus Severus, A.D. 211. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D. 79, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326. Trajan’s Arch, A.D. 114, was destroyed by Constantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building of his own arch.

The superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed illustration from the Theatre of Marcellus, where the lower order is of the Doric and the upper of the Ionic. The Colosseum has a third story, having the Corinthian order, and an attic story, with Corinthian pilasters; the whole reaching to a height of 156 feet.

One of the best preserved buildings of the Roman period is the Pantheon, with its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels, enriched with bronze ornaments. The portico, octastyle and di-prostyle, is of the Corinthian order, beautifully proportioned and enriched. The finest example of the Corinthian order was used in the temple of Castor and Pollux, frequently called Jupiter Stator; some 50 examples of this Corinthian order date from the Roman period. The _Tuscan_ and _Composite_ orders were added by the Romans to the Doric, Ionic and the Corinthian, forming the five orders of architecture.

The following table gives the relative proportions of the typical Roman orders, the columns in modules, and the capital, entablature, &c., in parts:--

+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ | | |Columns|Capital|Architrave|Frieze|Cornice|Entablature| +-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ |Doric. |Theatre of| 15-1/2| 24 | 31 | 46 | 37 | 113 | | | Marcellus| | | | | | | | |Baths of | 1 | 22 | 32 | 45 | 46 | 123 | | | Diocletia| | | | | | | +-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ |Ionic. |Theatre of| 18 | 31 | 43 | 36 | 66 | 145 | | | Marcellus| | | | | | | | |Temple of | 17-1/2| 33-3/4| 38 | 28 | 70 | 137 | | | Virilis | | | | | | | +-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+ |Corinthian.|Jupiter | 20 | 66 | 43 | 43 | 69 | 156 | | | Stator | | | | | | | | |Pantheon | 19-1/2| 67 | 42 | 39 | 54 | 136 | +-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+

The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cella was of the same width as the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces the Romans show the greatest constructive skill and splendour of embellishment. The skilful planning and appropriateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the practical nature of the Romans.

The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature, rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with concrete, and supported with rows of columns or biers. The remains of two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of Trajan, A.D. 114, rectangular, 180 × 160 feet, five aisles, the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, is typical of one class; and the basilica of Maxentinus, A.D. 310, with a width of 195 feet and a length of 260 feet, is typical of a vaulted Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof.

These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their service, and the basilica church was the typical form used up to the 12th century in the Romanesque provinces.

The Roman houses were of two types: the _Domus_, or houses clustered together, and the _Insular_, houses which were surrounded by streets. Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the _Insular_ type.

The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the _Ostium_ or entrance, sometimes called the _Vestibule_, which opened into the _Atrium_, which was a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the centre called the _Conpluvium_, under which was the _Impluvium_, or cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers surrounded the _Atrium_, and at the further end was the _Tablinum_ or private room, frequently leading to the _Peristylium_ or private part of the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble fountain, with flowers, shrubs and trees, forming a _Viridarium_. Surrounding the _Peristylium_ were private rooms, one of which was the _Triclinium_ or dining room. From the _Peristylium_, _fauces_ or passages led to the _Porticus_, a colonnade which overlooked the garden.

ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8 ]

ROMAN ORNAMENT.

Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by successive wars and conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the architecture of the Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. From these varied sources arose the style termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings and the decorative use of bronze and the terra-cotta of the Etruscans, with the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D.

Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, consisting of the anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement and graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms.

Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines clothed with cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals terminating in a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foliation, such as the vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or griffin (fig. 1) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so characteristic of Roman art.

The Thermæ, or baths and public buildings, displayed fine decorative ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria; or coffers, square, hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high relief and the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart or the water leaf. These exhibit an effective treatment of moulded surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases ornamented

ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 9. ]

with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the mouldings or divisions in higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and dart enrichment (plate 9.)

The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this period were often decorated with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9), and were supported by cupids or by candelabra (plate 9), or by the skulls of oxen, as on the frieze from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, here given, which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of worship.

The architectural basilica and forum of Trajan, erected A.D. 114, by Apollodorus, a Greek of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans. Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a rectangular pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the dresses, armour and standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports a column of the Tuscan order of architecture 97-1/4 feet high and 12 feet in diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having bas-reliefs representing the successive events of the Dacian War by the Emperor Trajan.

This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that period. Another well-preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in Rome by Marcus Aurelius A.D. 174, the subjects of its reliefs being the war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns, or Tazzas, enriched with Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage and birds and animals; magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and candelabra, of bronze, enriched with silver damascening, together with the choice remains of sculpture and mosaics, all indicate the luxuriousness and love of magnificence of the wealthy Roman citizens.

In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of foliage, repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This elaboration of the typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded serrations of the Acanthus, forms the chief characteristic of Roman ornament, which is wonderfully bold, and vigorous in conception and execution, but deficient in the refinement and delicacy of Greek art.

POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 10. ]

POMPEIAN ORNAMENT.

Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79. These cities had already suffered from an earthquake in A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The younger Pliny, the historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century A.D. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748 A.D., and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large mosaics, together with a splendid collection of marble statuary.

A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesserie. The triclinium, or dining room floor was often a magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject. The walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado 1/6th the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls. A small panel painted with a classical subject usually occupies the centre of each wall panel.

The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are placed.

Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings, were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.

BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11. ]

BYZANTINE.

When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of Government from Rome to Byzantium, in the year A.D. 330, he inaugurated a new era in art, viz.: the Byzantine. The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now assimilated with the arts of Persia and Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal vitality, deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the Byzantine period.

The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of S. Sophia by Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, during the reign of Justinian, A.D. 538. This building is remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square plan, its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great inventiveness and symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of Christianity such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the peacock also is frequently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna in Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale, the basilica churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe, A.D. 538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of Torcello, A.D. 670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans here given are typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This symbolism is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this period.

SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 12. ]

SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT.

The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery, and implements of war of the early Viking period, found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, display no trace of plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter consisting wholly of interlacing animal forms, chiefly the dragon. The viking ship found at Sandifiord in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows traces of the “Bronze Dragon Prow,” referred to in the early Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement of the 12th century, plant forms are found mingled with the dragons, and figure sculpture became important in treating of the myths of the gods; Frey, Woden, Thor and Fyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the newer cult in religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap.

Hreiômar had three sons, Otter, Fafni and Regan. Otter was killed one day by Loki, one of the three Scandinavian gods--Loki, Hœni and Woden--these being seized by Hreiômar, who would only release them when the skin of Otter should be covered with gold. Thereupon Loki seized the dwarf Andwan, who was made to give up his treasure of gold, and a ring of magical properties, carrying with it a curse, that the treasure should be the death of those who held it. Loki then returned and covered the skin of Otter with the gold (fig. 3), after which the gods were set at liberty. Then Hreiômar was slain by his sons for the treasure. Fafni, after seizing the latter, took the form of a dragon, and lay guarding the plunder at Gnita Heath. Regan, his brother, in order to obtain the treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd, in testing his sword, broke it in twain, thereupon Regan made him a magic sword, with which he lay in the trail of the dragon, and pierced it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regan took out the heart of the dragon, which Sigurd cut into slices and toasted while Regan slept. Sigurd, burning his fingers, places them in his mouth, and tasted the blood of Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo! he heard the voice of birds saying that Regan was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed Regan, eat the heart of Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse Grani, and departed, only to be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for this crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. 1).[A]

This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in figs. 1 and 2 the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same subjects, dating from the 11th century. In later times the dragon becomes more pronounced in character, until in the 14th century it fills the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament (fig. 6).

CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13. ]

CELTIC ORNAMENT.

No period in the history of Art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels and silversmith’s work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the clear and accurate writing of the text, are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people. The incised ornament upon the stone tumuli of the 3rd and 4th centuries B.C. show simple forms such as chequers, chevrons, circles and spirals which are used by almost all primitive people, yet even at this early stage the Celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched with the northern “Fylfot” is a typical example of the 2nd or 3rd century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries (figs. 2 to 7), being typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 11th century when all trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from Byzantine and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a marked feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been borrowed from the north, as Ireland had no traditions of dragons, and it is to Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zormorpic character that distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except Scandinavian.

The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with Champlevé enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (plate 34) and the Tara Brooch (7th century) are splendid examples of the Christian period dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-460. The beautiful Book of Kells, A.D. 650-690, the Book of Armagh, A.D. 807, the Book of Durrow, A.D. 750 (Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham, A.D. 689-721, written by Eadfrith and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftsmanship of the early Irish people.

NORMAN AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

English Gothic Architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most generally accepted.

By SHARPE.[B]

A.D.
Romanesque {Saxon 1066.
{Norman 1066-1145.

{Transitional 1145-1190.
Gothic {Lancet 1190-1245.
{Curvilinear 1245-1360.
{Rectilinear 1360-1550.

By RICKMAN.[C]

A.D. Norman 1066-1189. Early English 1189-1307. Decorated 1307-1379. Perpendicular 1379-1483. Tudor 1483-1546.

French Classification by DE CAUMONT.

{Primordiale 5th to 10th century.
Romanesque {Secondaire 10th to 12th “
{Tertiaire 12th “

{Primitive 13th century.
Pointed {Secondaire or Rayonnant 14th “
{Tertiaire or Flamboyant 15th “

Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded A.D. 1066-1170 by Norman bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and York, or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new sites such as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples.

The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and is therefore considered a typical English cathedral. Each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On plate 14 is an illustration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. The general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the Triforium and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch.

The PIERS (sometimes termed columns) of these bays have distinctive features which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic development. Sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took place in the shape of the pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.

NAVE ARCADING. The universal use of the round arch, cylindrical or rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face. Capitals cubical and cushion shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament.