Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

TRIFORIUM. In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch.

CLEARSTORY. One window with an open arcading in front, of three arches, the centre one larger and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow gallery in the thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof of the nave, of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra partite vaulting.

An arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall, under the aisle windows.

Early windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply splayed on the inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine example is to be found in Barfrestone Church, Kent.

EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.

The Lancet or pointed arch universal.

CAPITALS, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a “Dripstone,” and when used horizonally over a square headed window a “Label.”

The TRIFORIUM has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and enriched with the _Dog’s tooth_ ornament or trefoil foliage.

The CLEARSTORY lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass similar to the example given on the next page from Salisbury Cathedral. The annexed example from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrangement.

Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was frequently used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate 14). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical adornment. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, Chartres, and Rheims.

DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.

In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or mallow. The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage similar to that upon the capitals.

The TRIFORIUM consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches, adorned with Geometric tracery.

The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 14). Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital under the Clearstory string.

The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of this period.

PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.

The PIERS of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the vine. In some instances, the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings.

The TRIFORIUM is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only. The CLEARSTORY, owing to the suppression of the Triforium becomes of more importance. The windows are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which the battlement ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic features of the Perpendicular or Tudor period. English cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contemporary French buildings. The English nave and choir is less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 feet in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide, and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft. wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, 39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York with 45 ft. being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave.

The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand, being as follows:--Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. wide, and 485 ft. in length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in length.

The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is, S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous _Scaligers_ at Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in France and England where Gothic architecture reached its culmination; the abbeys and cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and canopies with crockets, finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and details, and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass, are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages.

On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that took place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the 15th century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in the Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style may also be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman one (fig. 1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and 8.

THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14. ]

NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 15. ]

NORMAN DETAILS.

Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge and the beading or pearling. Characteristic features of this period also are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant; at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6).

Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not the rule.

Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire.

The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus, enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or segments of circles.

The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary work in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its name--Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style, beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of Angouleme Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading, displays more affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two French capitals (figs. 9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals and birds may be seen, showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art of that period.

EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 16. ]

EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS.

The NORMAN style was succeeded by the pointed, or GOTHIC style, remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric character of the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic ornament.

A. Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. B. Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing indulating line. C. Perpendicular Gothic, showing the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here given.

The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church, Kent (fig. 1), is remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early English foliage.

The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the

DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17. ]

profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition to the spiral forms of foliage.

Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from the early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a rounder type of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is so characteristic of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in France.

DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS.

Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, being carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early work.

Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The ball flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style.

French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more reserve and affinity for architectural forms.

This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within half a century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style, with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface panelling, and the prevalent use of the four centred arch--of octagonal capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine,--of heraldic shields and arms, and of the four-leaved flower; all typical of the period.

RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 18. ]

RENASCENCE ORNAMENT.

The arts of Rome and Byzantium lingered in Italy until the 12th century, losing their vitality and vigour, except at Venice, where the Byzantine style reached a culminating point in the glorious buildings at Murano and of St. Mark’s.

Lombardy, in the north, had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards and the symbolisms of the old Byzantine, thus producing the architecture known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, quaint imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns. These are features of the early art at Lucca, and at Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy; a beautiful illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin’s “_Stones of Venice_,” Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture with this Gothic personality; hence, during the 12th and 13th centuries in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in conception. Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style where symmetry was to play an important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and which, though beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness, and rugged personality of the early Byzantine, Lombardic and Gothic styles.

ITALIAN Renascence is broadly divided into three periods. Tre-cento, A.D. 1300 to 1400; Quattro-cento, A.D. 1400 to 1500; and Cinque-cento, A.D. 1500 to 1600. In the Tre-cento style this intermingling of the classic details with the Lombardic and Gothic constructions produced such remarkable buildings as S. Maria della Spina, and the Campo Santo at Pisa, by Giovanni Pisano 1240-1320; the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church of Santa Croce, and the Cathedral of Florence, by Arnolfo di Cambio (1232-1310), with its alternate courses of black and white marble, and its Gothic arches and tracery; the beautiful Campanile by Giotto (1276-1336) is a noble accessory to Arnolfo’s Cathedral. A charming illustration of this Tre-cento period, from Giotto’s Campanile, is the frontispiece to Ruskin’s “_Seven Lamps of Architecture_.”

The sculpture and decorative arts of this period are marked by dignity of conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classical traditions. Perhaps the earliest examples known are the hexagonal pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa, a similar one in the Cathedral at Siena, and the fountain at Perugia, all by Nicolo Pisano (1206-76). He was assisted in much of his work by his son Giovanni, who also executed the pulpit in the Cathedral at Pisa. Andrea Pisano (1273-1344), a pupil of Giovanni executed a beautiful bronze gate or door, cast in 1332, for the Baptistery at Florence.

A fine monumental work of this period is the tomb of St. Peter the Martyr, in the Church of St. Eustorgio at Milan, by Balducco di Pisa, 1308-47.

The QUATTRO-CENTO period, of which Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465), was the great master, is remarkable for its vitality and naturalism. Ghiberti’s chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery; the first gate is dated 1403-24, and the second 1425-50. Both have panels modelled in low relief, the first with incidents from the New, and the second from the Old Testament. The frame-work of these gates has a series of single figures in niches, with circular medallions between them. The bronze architrave round each of the Ghiberti gates, in addition to the one he placed round the earlier gate, by Andrea Pisano, are rich examples of Quattro-cento design. The details are natural fruits, flowers, and foliage, banded-together with ribbons, with the introduction of birds, squirrels, &c. The egg-plant and pomegranate portion (fig. 1) is a familiar example.

Other masters of this period were Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438) who executed the beautiful monument here shown, to Ilaria di Carretto, in the cathedral at Lucca. The recumbent figure of Ilaria is sculptured in white marble with perfect simplicity and beauty; another famous work of Jacopo was the fountain at Siena.

Luca della Robbia (1400-82) executed a beautiful organ gallery in marble for the Cathedral at Florence, with admirable singing and dancing figures in relief. But beautiful as this work is, Luca’s reputation rests upon his Enamelled Terra Cotta, which he perfected to a remarkable degree. Modelled first in clay and coated with tin enamel (see Maiolica), he produced a marvellous series of these reliefs, which were invariably surrounded with the typical quattro-cento border of modelled fruit and flowers, enamelled in bright colours. His nephew, Andrea della Robbia (1445-1525) continued the traditions, methods, and skill, with marked success; and also Andrea’s son Giovanni (1524) who executed a beautiful frieze upon the façade of the hospital at Pistoja. Andrea’s other sons, Girolamo and Luca carried the art into France under Francis I. (1531.) Donatello (1386-1466) was remarkable for the singular grace and sincerity of his portraiture, especially of children; the dancing figures in relief on the panels of the singing gallery of the Cathedral of Florence, are perfect examples of his art. Donatello also carried the art of low flat relief called “_Stiacciato_” to the greatest perfection. An illustration of Donatello’s work, from the high altar of St. Antonio at Padua, is here given.

The art of the medallist, which had declined since the Roman period, now took its position among the arts of the quattro-cento period, under Vittore Pisano, called Pisanello (1380-1451). The vigour of his modelling, and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary Princes of Italy, are exceedingly fine. Among other remarkable medallists were Sperandio of Verona (1423-90); Caradosso, of Milan (1480-1545); Vincentine, of Vicenza (1468-1546); Benvenuto Cellini, of Florence (1500-71); Lione Leoni (1498-1560); Pompeoni Leoni (1530-1610); and Pastorino, of Siena (1510-91). The great dome of Arnolfo’s Cathedral at Florence was designed by Brunelleschi (1377-1446), who was a competitor with Ghiberti for the bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence. Other names of this period were Desiderio da Settignano (1428-64,) his masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini, in the Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da Fiesole (1430-84); Andrea Verrocchio (1435-88); the author of the fine equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes); Matteo Civitali (1435-1501); and the Rossellini, a remarkable family of five brothers, of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini (1427-79), who executed a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di Portogallo in the Church of the Nunziata, Florence.

The CINQUE-CENTO period was the culmination of the Renascence, when architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were under the magnificent patronage of the Popes and Princes of Italy. Palaces, churches, and public buildings were completed and embellished with beautiful sculptures and decorations; hung with the most sumptuous fabrics of the Venetian, Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with altar paintings and mural decorations, by the most renowned of painters; and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and silversmiths’ art, and the loveliest of intarsia or inlaid woodwork.

Michel Angelo Buonarroti (1474-1653), by his great intellect and power, stands above his many contemporaries. The colossal figure of _David_, and the _Madonna_ and _Child_ at Bruges, are familiar examples of this great artist’s work. The magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano de Medici at Florence, show his noble power and conceptions of art. The splendid decorative work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican is another example where unity of conception and marvellous execution are shown in a remarkable degree. Two illustrations of this ceiling are given--one of the panels, with the expulsion from Eden, and one of the Sibyls or Prophets, both showing beautiful harmony of incident and composition.

Contemporary with Michel Angelo was Raphael (1483-1520), who displayed the highest capacity for grace and refinement in painting. His principal mural paintings are in the stanze of the Vatican, where four rooms are painted in fresco, almost entirely by Raphael. The Loggia of the Vatican, by Bramante, was also decorated by Raphael and his pupils. The then-recent discoveries of the Baths of Titus and House of Livia, with their Roman mural painting, influenced in a remarkable degree the decorative painting of the Cinque-Cento period. These arabesques (or, as they were termed, Grotteschi, being found in the supposed caves or grottos of Roman gardens), were utilised by Raphael in the decoration of the pilasters, piers, and walls of this Loggia. The designs were painted with a fine range of colour upon white ground, and enclosed within borders of modelled stucco ornaments. In the panels upon the ceiling, Raphael painted a series of 52 incidents of the Bible. These are spoken of as “Raphael’s Bible.”

Raphael was assisted in this work of the Loggia by many contemporary artists: Giovanni da Udine (1494-1564), Giulio Romano (1492-1546), Francesco Penni (1488-1528), Perino del Vaga (1500-47), and Primaticcio (1490-1580), who completed much of the work after Raphael’s death. These artists carried his traditions and methods to other parts of Italy. Giulio Romano executed some fine mural decorations at the Villa Madama in Rome; and for Federigo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, he enriched with beautiful decorative paintings and arabesques, the Palazzo Ducale and the Palazzo del Te. These arabesques were upon richly coloured or parti-coloured grounds (see plates 86-9 “_Grammar of Ornament_,” by Owen Jones).

These arabesques of Raphael’s, which were excelled by later ones of Giulio Romano, show a great inventiveness and skilful combination of parts, but they are not to be compared with the refined and beautiful modelling and harmonious composition of the contemporary carved work of Andrea Sansovino (1460-1528), Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Agostino Busti, Pietro Lombardo (1500), and his sons Tullio and Antonio. These delicate reliefs have the traditional Roman acanthus, but treated with a fine feeling for relief modelling, and beauty of line; vases, masks, shields, and similar accessories are found in profusion in some examples (fig. 3, plate 19). The composition of the Cinque-cento ornament is symmetrical, the details being varied and most interesting in the best work, and whilst lacking the vigour and symbolism of the Lombardic and Byzantine styles, it excelled them in its absolute adaptation to architectural conditions, with perfection of design and craftsmanship.

Andrea Mantegna (1431-1517) executed nine paintings or cartoons in tempera upon linen, representing the triumphs of Julius Cæsar, which are a portion of the cartoons for a frieze 9 feet high and 80 feet long, painted for Lodovico Gonzaga’s Palace of St. Sebastian at Mantua, they were purchased by Charles I., and are now at Hampton Court. An illustration of this frieze, from an engraving upon copper in the British Museum, is given on page 55; they were also engraved on wood by Andrea Andreani in 1599.

Many beautiful examples of the Cinque-Cento ornament may be found in contemporary printed and illuminated books. The advent of printing in Italy (1465) by the Germans, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannitz at the Benedictine Monastery of Subiaco, near Rome, gave a great impetus to Literature, and printing rapidly progressed in Italy, more especially at Venice, where in 1499 Aldus Manutius produced the Hypnerotomachia, or dream of Poliphilus

RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 19. ]

with illustrations ascribed to Mantegna. Good reproductions of many of these early illustrated books are given in the “_Italian Book Illustrations_,” by A. W. Pollard, No. 12 of the Portfolio, December, 1894; and in “_The Decorative Illustration of Books_,” by Walter Crane.

The study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publication at Rome in 1486, of the treatise by Vitruvius, an architect of the time of Augustus; an edition was also published at Florence in 1496, and at Venice in 1511. In 1570, Fra Giocondo, at Venice, published “_The Five Books of Architecture_,” by Andrea Palladio (1518-80). Another treatise upon architecture, by Serlio (1500-52), was also published at Venice in 1537 and 1540.

Beautiful types of the Renascence decorative art were the Venetian well-heads, situated as they were in most of the public squares of Venice, and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces. Designed with details of the most varied and beautiful character by such artists as Andrea Sansovino, Pietro Lombardo, and his sons Tullio and Antonio, the Venetian well-head became a type of beauty, diversified in its treatment, but never losing its characteristics or its usefulness. Venetian well-heads display a great variety of form and decoration. The earlier examples are square or circular, with enrichments of Byzantine character, consisting largely of interlacing, circular, and angular lines, enclosing quaint bird and animal forms. In the later examples the Renascence treatment is used with singular richness and appropriateness, the grace, delicacy and diversity of detail being a tribute to the vivacity and artistic feeling of the Venetian Republic. These well-heads, worked mostly in white marble and evincing good judgment in the quality of relief, now show comparatively little injury after centuries of usefulness. Occasionally they were of bronze, of which two fine examples are still in position in the court-yard of the Doge’s Palace. Many of these well-heads are carefully treasured in our European Museums, teaching us that beauty of form, and perfection and delicacy of ornament are quite compatible with usefulness, when used by an artistic people.

The Renascence in Italy was remarkable for the many magnificent secular buildings erected during the 15th and 16th centuries in the chief cities in Italy.

In FLORENCE the palaces have a severe dignity of treatment, with bold rusticated courses of stone-work, circular-headed windows, and finely-proportioned cornices. The first Renascence palace was the Riccardi (1430) by Michelozzi (1370-1440); and it was followed by the Pitti (1435), by Brunelleschi (1377-1444), the Rucellai (1460), by Leon Battista Alberti (1389-1472), the Strozzi (1489), by Cronaca (1454-1509), the Gondi (1490), by Giuliano Sangallo (1443-1507), the Guadagni and the Nicolini, by Bramante (1444-1514), the Pandolfini (1520), by Raphael (1483-1520), and the Bartolini (1520), by Baccio d’Agnolo (1460-1543).

In ROME the palaces were characterised by largeness of scale and the frequent use of Ionic and Corinthian pilasters or columns, and square-headed windows with triangular or curved pediments. The chief palaces in Rome are the Cancelleria (1495) and the Giraud (1506) by Bramante (1444-1514), the Farnesina (1506), the Massimi (1510), and the Villa Ossoli (1525), by Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), the Palma and the Farnese, by Antonio Sangallo (1476-1546), the Borghese (1590), by Martino Lunghi, the Laterano, by Fontana (1543-1610), and the Barberini, by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629), Borromini (1599-1667), and Bernini (1598-1680).

In VENICE the palaces were rich and varied; with the frequent use of pilasters, semi-columns and circular-headed mullioned windows suggested by the earlier Gothic palaces. The Renascence period commenced here with the re-building of the court-yard of the Doge’s Palace (1486) by Antonio Bregno, and completed in 1550 by Scarpagnino. Then came a beautiful series of buildings, the chief being:--the Vendramini, the Trevisani, and the Gradenigo Palaces, by Sante Lombardo (1504-1560); the Cornaro Palace and the Library of St. Mark’s, by Sansovino (1479-1570), and the Grimani Palace by San Michele (1484-1559).

FRENCH RENASCENCE.

Towards the close of the 15th century, the vigorous and beautiful Gothic architecture of France, with its rich traceried and mullioned windows, its niches and canopies, its crocketed spires and varied treatment of floral enrichment, lost its vitality; and was succeeded by the Renascence style, which at first was purely Italian, but afterwards, with the intermingling of Gothic traditions and craftsmanship, became a distinct phase of the Renascence.

French Renascence may be broadly divided into distinctive periods: 1st. The earlier or transitional, 1453-1515, when the influence of the Renascence began to be felt. 2nd. 1515-47, FRANÇOIS PREMIER. This period is remarkable for the number of Italians engaged by Francis I. for the embellishment of the Château Fontainbleau, the principal being Rosso, painter; Serlio and Vignola, architects; Primaticcio and Penni, ornamentists, Benvenuto Cellini, with his beautiful goldsmiths’ art; and Girolamo della Robbia, who produced enamelled Terra Cotta. The work of these renowned craftsmen necessarily had a marked influence upon the traditional French art. Of the architecture of this period, there is the south-west angle of the Louvre, commenced in 1548 by Pierre Lescot (1510-78), and enriched with sculpture by Jean Goujon (1515-72), who also executed the sculptures that embellished the beautiful Château Ecouen, by Jean Bullant (1515-60), and the beautiful fountain of the Innocents at Paris, of which an illustration of one of the panels is here given. The tomb of Louis XII., at St. Denis, by Jean Juste (1518), is remarkable for the purity of its enrichments.

3rd. HENRI DEUX and HENRI QUATRE period, 1547-1610, when the building of the Tuileries was commenced in 1564 by Philibert de Lorme (1500-78), the building of the Louvre being continued by De Carreau and Duperac; the Luxembourg being subsequently built by De Brosse, 1610. This period was also represented by the exquisite Ceramics of Oiron or Henri Deux Ware, and the fine geometrical interlacings and arabesques of the bookbindings of Grolier.

4th period, 1610-43, under LOUIS TREIZE, when considerable skill was shown in the carved and painted shell and scroll ornament, and in the bookbindings of Le Gascon.

5th. LOUIS QUATORZE period, 1643-1715, of which the palace of Versailles and the Château Maison, by François Mansard (1598-1666), are typical examples of architecture. The decorative compositions of le Pautre (see annexed illustrations), and the richly-decorated furniture, with marquetry in tortoise-shell and brass, by André Boule (1642-1732); the magnificent Gobelins tapestry, so liberally encouraged by the Minister Colbert (1667); and the beautiful Rouen pottery; are characteristic of the industrial and decorative arts.

6th. LOUIS QUINZE period, 1715-74, when the Rococo style was paramount, the vitality of the preceding periods being lost. The pastoral scenes by the painter Watteau (1684-1721), and the inlaid furniture of Jean François Ochen (1754-65), for Madame de Pompadour, are typical of this period.

7th. LOUIS SEIZE, 1774-89. The arts of this period are more refined and reserved in line, as evinced in the fine marquetry furniture of Riesener and David Roentgen with the ormolu mountings by Gouthière (1740-1810), for Marie Antoinette.

The last period, EMPIRE STYLE, 1804-70, when purely classical forms and Greek enrichments prevailed throughout the whole of the decorative arts.

ENGLISH RENASCENCE.

The English Renascence period began during the reign of Henry VIII., and was contemporary with that of France under Francis I. It was Torrigiano, a contemporary of Michel Angelo, who about 1519 brought this new Renascence style into repute by erecting the tomb of Henry VII., and that of the Countess of Richmond, in Westminster Abbey.

English Renascence was further developed by Hans Holbein (1498-1554), who came into this country in 1526, followed by craftsmen from Flanders, Germany and Italy. This intermingling of Flemish, German and Italian styles with the traditional Gothic of our own country, distinguishes English Renascence from that of France and Italy. The marked prevalence of interlacing strap-work, which is so characteristic of Elizabethan and Jacobean ornament, had its origin in Flemish sources.

Of English Renascence architecture, Caius College, Cambridge, (1565-74), by Theodore Hare, of Cleves, and Longleat House (1567-79), by John Thorp, are the earliest examples extant. The Wonderful Palace of Nonsuch (of which no trace remains) was erected by Henry VIII. about 1530-40, doubtless in the Renascence style, as we know that it was embellished with beautifully enriched stucco ornaments and figures by Tolo del Nunziato. Robert Smithson built Wollaton House in 1580. Hardwicke Hall and Haddon Hall are of the later Elizabethan age (1592-97). Typical buildings of the Jacobean period are Holland House (1607), Hatfield (1611), Bolsover (1613), Audley End (1616), Crewe Hall and Aston Hall (1620). These are all enriched with many beautiful examples of modelled plaster work. That at Longleat and Hardwicke being executed by Charles Williams, and at Audley End, by Bernard Jansen (1615).

English stucco-work of this period often consisted of geometrical panelling similar in style to the Tudor fan-tracery and the pendentives of the preceding century. These richly-moulded pendentives were connected together by bands of pierced strap-work decorated with arabesques in low relief. From 1615 to 1650 the panels were composed of purely geometrical forms, such as circles, squares, lozenges and interlacing quatre-foils, enriched with delicate arabesques, the ribs or mouldings frequently having a repeating pattern impressed in the soft plaster.

The many fine friezes of this period were remarkable for their boldness of conception and their skilful craftsmanship; frequently a double frieze was used, the lower part consisting of delicate arabesques and interlacing strap-work, while the upper part was of boldly modelled cartouche and delicate arabesques. During the latter part of the 17th century, owing to French influence, the stucco enrichment usually consisted of acanthus foliage and festoons.

From Charles I., (1625), to Queen Anne, (1702), the purely Italian Renascence prevailed; the Banqueting House at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones, (1572-1652), being a fine example of this period. St. Paul’s Cathedral (1675-1710) by Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) and his many beautiful churches in London, mark a distinct epoch of English Renascence; the tradition being carried-on by Vanbrugh (1666-1736) who built Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard. Other architects of this period were Hawksmoor (1666-1726), Kent (1684-1754), Gibbs (1674-1754), Chambers (1726-96), who built Somerset House, and Robert Adam (1725-92), who carried on the traditional method of stucco enrichment, but in a more rigid and formal classic manner. His geometrical panelling of hexagons, octagons, and ovals, was enriched with conventional renderings of the acanthus and olive leaf arranged in small units and repeated without variation over the whole of the surface. These enrichments were cast in plaster or compo and were mechanical in treatment, lacking the beautiful decorative quality of the modelled stucco of the early 17th century. The Wellington Monument in St. Paul’s Cathedral, by Alfred Stevens, is distinguished from much of the modern work by its strong vitality and architectonic treatment of the composition, and the beauty and singular grace of its detail.

MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. Plate 20. ]

MAHOMETAN & MORESQUE.

Of mediæval history as associated with the decorative arts, the rise and development of the Arabs is the most remarkable. The wide appreciation and liberal patronage of the arts by the Khalifs; the influence of its religion and precepts upon contemporary and later periods of art; the distinct individuality and geometrical arrangement of its ornamentation; all had a most marked effect upon tradition and craftsmanship.

The history commences with Mohammed, A.D. 570-632, who founded and consolidated the empire, of which, under Omar, A.D. 635, Damascus became the capital; in A.D. 638 Kufa and Bassora were founded in Persia. In A.D. 641 Egypt was conquered and the Mahometan capital, Fustât, founded. Persia was conquered in A.D. 642, Spain invaded in A.D. 711, Bagdad in Persia became the capital of the Arabian Khalifs in A.D. 762, and in A.D. 827 Sicily was conquered; but it was not until the dynasty of Ibu-Tūlūn, A.D. 868-914, that the history of Cairene art begins, of which the mosque of Ibu-Tūlūn in Fustât, or old Cairo, is the earliest example. Under the Fatimy dynasty, A.D. 867-1171, Cairo was founded, and the arts, receiving further encouragement, were now introduced into Sicily and Europe. In A.D. 997 the Mahometan invasion of India took place. In A.D. 796-965 the mosque of Cordova was built, and in A.D. 1236 the kingdom of Granada was founded and the Alhambra was built by Mohammed ben Alhamar, A.D. 1248, and Mahometan art, as exemplified in the architectural decorations, arms and armour, woodwork, ivory, textile fabrics, and illuminated books, reached its culmination under the Mamlūk dynasty, A.D. 1250-1516.

Thus the Arabs, from a roving tribe, became, by religious zeal and conquests, the most powerful and wealthiest nation of mediæval times, assimilating and influencing the customs and the arts of the different nations and provinces.

The term MAHOMETAN ART includes ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, and SICILIAN, all having the same characteristics yet distinguished by the racial influence and custom. The Arabian is marked by its flowing, interlacing, and symmetrical lines, geometrical arrangement (doubtless derived from Byzantine sources), and its prevalence of inscriptions or texts from the Koran. In Spain a more complex geometrical arrangement is found, intermingled with a flowing foliage or arabesque of a purely conventional type. This style is noticeable for its entire absence of any natural forms and its abundant use of inscriptions, and glazed and enamelled tiles, distinctly influenced of Persian tradition though purely geometric and formal. These tiles cover the lower part of the wall, the upper portion, as also the ceiling being decorated with arabesques of modelled plaster in flat relief, of two or more planes, enriched with red, blue, white and gold; this is typical of the Moresque style. The Sicilian work is remarkable for its beautiful fabrics of silk and the prevalence in its ornament of birds, animals, and heraldic forms, showing the continuity of the traditions of Persia.

PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 21. ]

PERSIAN ORNAMENT.

The early art of Persia was similar to that of Assyria and Babylon, having the same forms, materials, and traditions. With the accession of the Sassanides (A.D. 223) came the introduction of the elliptical dome, so typical of eastern architecture. This dome rested on pendentives which occupied the angles of the square base. These pendentives and the elliptical dome are distinctive features in Mahometan architecture.

The industrial arts of Persia were largely influenced by the traditional arts of Assyria and Chaldea; this tradition was carried on with rare skill and selective power by the Persians, culminating in the splendid period of Shah Abbas A.D. 1586 to 1625. The vitality, beauty, and interest of detail, combined with perfect decorative adaptation to material, are characteristic of the textiles, pottery, metal work, and illuminated manuscripts of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries.

The Mahometan conquest of Persia, A.D. 632 to 637, by Abu Bekr, the successor of Mohammed, largely influenced the development of the arts of the Persians, who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races, yet preserved all the characteristics of their art; and there is no doubt that the art of the Arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of Persia.

Persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and colour, and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such as the pink, hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. These are used with perfect sincerity and frankness, and are essentially decorative in treatment, combining harmony of composition of mass, beauty of form, and purity of colour. It was doubtless owing to these qualities, together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to material, that the Persian style so largely influenced contemporary work, and especially the European textile fabrics of the 16th and 17th centuries. The illustrations given are of some familiar types of Persian adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their significance, beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of decorative treatment. Purely Arabian forms, as given in plate 21, are frequently associated with the Persian floral treatment, showing the influence of the Artists of Damascus. Many fine examples of lustred wall tiles, dating from the 10th and 11th centuries, are in the South Kensington Museum, of which the blue, brown, and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality. They often have Arabic inscriptions interspersed with the floral enrichments. Examples of wall tiles of the 8th century have been found in the ruins of Rhages.

These lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or hereditary proclivity. This art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of Babylon, and the later frieze of Susa, page 16, with its brilliant enamel and fine colour, was continued by the Persians, and, passing to the Arabs, the tradition was carried to Cairo, Spain and Majorca; thence into Italy, where enamelled lustred ware was made, differing from the original Persian by its frequent absence of utility, which was fundamental to the art of the Persians.

Mahometan ornament has four broad divisions, viz.: Arabian, Moresque, Indian, and Persian; and they are characterised by strongly-marked compartments or fields which are filled with finer and more delicate enrichments. These compartments are most pronounced in the Moresque with its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms (figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8, page 62). The Arabian style is somewhat similar, but less formal. The Indian has a conventional rendering of plants, and the introduction of the lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. 2, plate 23); while in the Persian work there is a still less formal constructive arrangement, with floral forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the introduction of the human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger and birds. Note the illustration in Textiles which is taken from a fine carpet in the South Kensington Museum. In this carpet, animal forms, chosen with rare selective power and judgment, are combined with the typical floral enrichment of Persia, with the wealth of colour, admirable spacing of detail and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and appropriateness of treatment. These are features that distinguish the industrial designs of Persia, and it is doubtless due to the interest and vitality of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of Persian art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of Europe.

PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 22. ]

INDIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 23. ]

INDIAN ORNAMENT.

The civilization of India dates from the remote past, but the oldest remains of its art and architecture are connected with the Buddhist religion, introduced by the prophet Sakya Muni, B.C. 638. This influenced the arts of India till A.D. 250, when the Jaina style was adopted. The examples of Buddhist architecture consist of Topes (which were sacred or monumental temples, either detached or rock-cut), and monasteries. The rock-cut temples usually consist of a nave and aisles, and a semi-circular recess containing a statue of the seated Buddha. The hall has square or octagonal columns, with bracket capitals (fig. 1). The finest examples of these temples are those at Ajanta, which are richly-decorated in colour with incidents of Hindoo mythology. The fine temples at Ellora, which are cut entirely out from the rock, are of the Jaina period, A.D. 250. The pagodas at Chedombaram are of the Brahmin period, as is also the great hall of 1,000 pillars, which is 190×340 feet, containing the sacred image of the god Siva.

Alexander the Great conquered India B.C. 327, and doubtless left the influence of the Persian tradition in India. This influence was still further developed by the commercial intercourse of Persia and India, and by the Arabian invasion of India in A.D. 711, when a Mahometan dynasty was established, 711 to 1152. This largely controlled and influenced the arts under the Mogul dynasty, 1525-1837, when the decorative arts and the manufacture of the beautiful woven brocades and silks were fully developed. The splendid carpets and rugs, printed cottons, metal work, and fine enamels of this dynasty bear a remarkable tribute to the vitality, originality of ideas, and the practical utility of the industrial arts of India.

Indian ornament has the typical Mahometan division of spaces, but is more flowing and graceful than the pure Arabian style. These divisions are filled with fine conventional floral forms, as the lotus, the date or hom, the iris, the rosette and the pine. This pine is treated occasionally as a single flower, but more frequently as a cluster of flowers, which still retains the distinctive form of the pine (figs. 2, 4 and 6).

Typical also of this period is the judicious treatment of the elephant, lion, tiger, peacock, and the human figure, as accessories in the decorative arts of India. They were applied with rare knowledge and skill, combined with an artistic perception of applied art, showing a very strong affinity with contemporary Persian ornament.

Indian ornament has a more conventional rendering of natural forms, than the frank treatment of Persian ornament. Block printing upon silk and cotton fabrics reached a high degree of perfection during the last century. The inventiveness and significance of detail; the charm of composition of line and mass, and the beautiful colour of these printed fabrics are a reflex of the decorative feeling for beauty by the people of India.

CHINESE AND JAPANESE ORNAMENT. Plate 24. ]

CHINESE AND JAPANESE ORNAMENT.

The early bronzes, enamels, porcelain and textile fabrics of China are indicative of the perfection and luxuriance of the decorative arts of that ancient Empire. This perfection is shown by a Splendid technic and a fine appreciation of colour and ornamentation, differentiated from the western nations by myths, traditions, and the remarkable persistency of a few typical forms through many centuries, doubtless owing to the profound ancestral worship and veneration for the past. The Dragon was represented under many aspects, frequently forming vigorous lines of composition (fig. 3, 4). The beautiful flora of the country largely influenced Chinese art. The peony and chrysanthemum (frequently highly conventionalized), are typical examples, forming the elements of decorative design. Geometric forms, such as the hexagon, octagon, and the circle, enriched with flowers or the fret, are largely used. The many splendid examples of bells, gongs, and incense-burners in bronze and iron:--the carvings in wood, ivory, and jade:--the beautiful woven silks and embroidered fabrics, and the richness and purity of their porcelain, all testify to the versatility and vitality of the Chinese decorative arts in the past. Their architecture was usually of wood, distinguished by complexity and quaintness of form rather than beauty of proportion and detail, but their pagodas or temples were of brick encased with glazed tiles, the most remarkable of these erections being the Nankin Pagoda of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1412-31), with its imperial yellow tiles.

The arts of Japan, though doubtless owing their origin to China, are differentiated by a keener observation of nature and a more literal treatment of landscape, bird and animal life, and the beautiful flora of the country--the “kiki” or chrysanthemum, the “botan” or peony, the “kosai” or iris, the “yuri” or lily, the “kiri” or paulawina imperialis (somewhat resembling our horse chestnut), the “ume” or plum, the “matsi” or fir, and the “taki” or bamboo,--likewise the peacock, the crane, the duck, the pheasant and many smaller beautiful birds, together with reptiles, insects, and fishes; all are elements in the decorative arts, being rendered with remarkable fidelity and delicacy of touch, united with a fine feeling for composition of line. It is this literal treatment of natural types, the marvellous technic and especially the significance of the forms chosen that constitutes the charm of the earlier Japanese art. It is singular that the materials used by the Japanese should be of little intrinsic value. Having no jewellery, they use little of the precious metals; iron, bronze, enamels, wood and lac, being the chief materials utilised in the decorative arts of Japan.

IVORIES. Plate 25. ]

IVORY,

doubtless owing to its beautiful texture, colour and adaptability for delicate carving, has been in use from a remote period. Egypt, Assyria, and India have each contributed many beautiful examples of fine craftsmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the centuries preceding the Christian Era. Of Solomon we read in I Kings, 18, x: “Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory and overlaid it with the best gold.” This traditional use of ivory was most probably derived from Egypt, the source of so many of the decorative arts.

In the Periclean age of Greece, ivory was used for the figure of Athene Parthenos by Pheidias, placed inside the Parthenon. This statue of the standing goddess, 40 feet high, was of gold and ivory (called _chryselephantine sculpture_), the drapery being of beaten gold and the exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory. A seated _chryselephantine_ figure of Jupiter, about 58 feet high, in the temple of Olympia, was also by Pheidias. Pausanias the Roman traveller enumerates some ten _chryselephantine_ statues which he saw in his travels, A.D. 140.

The Roman period is noted for the many beautiful Consular diptychs, which may now be seen in our national museums. They consist of two ivory leaves usually 12 by 5 inches, the inside having a slightly sunk plane covered with wax for writing upon, the outside being enriched with delicate carved reliefs (figs. 7, 8, and 9). These diptychs were given by new consuls on their appointment, to their friends and officers of the state. The consul is usually represented seated on the cushioned curule chair, or chair of state, and his name is generally written across the top of one leaf.

The Byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory, of which an illustration is given in fig. 6; the ivory throne of Maximian, Archbishop of Ravenna, A.D. 546-556, is also of this period. A beautiful treatment of ivory was used in the 13th and 14th centuries by the Saracens of Egypt; they frequently worked a fine geometric inlay of ivory upon ebony; in other examples ivory panels were pentagonal, hexagonal, or star-shaped, and carved with delicate arabesques, the framing of the panels being of cedar or ebony. In India ivory carving reached a high degree of perfection, especially in the many ivory combs, with pierced and relief work representing the figure of Buddha surrounded with foliage and richly caparisoned elephants.

In the Carlovingian period, 8th to 10th centuries, ivory was largely used for coffers or small chests. During the early Gothic period in Italy and France, ivory crucifixes, pastoral staffs, croziers, statuettes and triptychs were made in large numbers; and the ivory combs and mirror cases of the Renascence period have fine reliefs of legendary or allegorical subjects. Of pictorial ivories the modern Japanese craftsmen show the highest technical skill, combined with a keen perception of nature and movement, yet their ivories lack the beauty and dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of the early and Mediæval ivories.

MOSAICS. Plate 26. ]

MOSAICS.

The durability, range of colour, and appropriateness of material and treatment to architectural conditions, has placed the art of Mosaic as the chief decorative enrichment of architecture. Its antiquity is unquestionable, for in the Book of Esther, i, 6, we read “of a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble.”

Mosaic is the art of forming patterns by means of pieces of variously-coloured materials, fitted together, and is broadly divided into three classes: (1) OPUS TESSELATUM, or clay mosaic; (2) OPUS LITHOSTRATUM, or stone mosaic; (3) OPUS MISERUM, or glass mosaic. These divisions are again sub-divided into: (1) _Opus Figlinum_, or ceramic mosaic, formed of a vitreous composition and coloured with metallic oxides; (2) _Opus Signinum_, small pieces of tile; (3) _Opus Vermiculatum_, sub-divided into (a) _Majus_, black and white marble, (b) _Medium_, in which all materials and colours were used, and (c) _Minus_, of minute tesseræ, principally used for furniture inlay; (4) _Opus Sculpturatum_, slabs of marble hollowed out and filled in with grey or black marble; (5) _Opus Alexandrinum_, inlay of porphyry and serpentine; and (6) _Opus Sectile_, formed of different laminæ or slices of marble of various colours.

It was in Rome that the art of Mosaic was brought to its greatest perfection, during the 1st and 2nd centuries, A.D., and many splendid examples of this period are now in the museums of the Vatican and at Naples. The finest example came from the House of the Faun, Pompeii, and represents the battle of Issus, between Alexander and Darius. This mosaic, of the 3rd century B.C., is probably a copy of a Greek painting.

Many fine Roman mosaics have been found in England at Cirencester, London, Lincoln (fig. 6), Leicester, and at Brading in the Isle of Wight.