Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use from a remote period in the history of the arts. Its adaptability for casting, its durability, utility and colour have rendered this material one of the most useful and valuable. Of the many fine examples of the early Egyptian and Assyrian bronze now in the British Museum, the most beautiful are the bronzes of Siris, two fragments of armour, with reliefs in repoussé (fig. 4). The many Greek statues in the round, of their Gods and heroes, show the most skilful technique and beauty of form. The Etruscans were clever workers in this material, and they used a most expressive treatment of incised lines, which differentiates their decorative bronzes from those of Greece, with their delicate low reliefs. The bronze mirrors (fig. 2) and the Cista are typical examples of the Etruscan treatment. The finest known cista is that called the “Ficoroni Cista,” by Morios Plantios (3rd century B.C.) and is now in the Collegio Romano; a description, with illustrations of this example is in the “_Magazine of Art_,” April, 1884. Descriptions of this cista and of the many fine examples in the British Museum are given in “_Murray’s Handbook of Greek Archæology_.” Of small decorative bronzes, Naples Museum alone has over 13,000 examples, consisting of candelabra, tripods, tables, chairs and couches, which, eighteen centuries ago, were used by the wealthy Roman citizens. Of bronze equestrian statues, the most renowned are those of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, A.D. 175; Bartolomeo Coleone, at Venice, A.D. 1488, by Andrea Verrocchio; and Alessandro Leopardo; and that of Gattamelata, at Padua, 1453 A.D., by Donatello.

A remarkable bronze figure of the Renascence period is that of Perseus, by Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1570, at Florence, and the figure of Neptune on the fountain at Bologna by Giovanni da Bologna, 1524-90.

The bronze doors of San Zenone, at Verona, (see plates 1 and 3 in “_Aratra Pentelici_” by John Ruskin), and those of the Baptistery, at Florence, by Andrea Pisano and Ghiberti (see Renascence) are typical examples of early Renascence bronzes. The casting of these Bronzes was by the “Cire Perdu” method, that is, by forming a core of firm material nearly the size and shape required, then covering with sheet wax and finishing with the detail required, with sticks of wax projecting to form vents for the escape of steam in casting. The wax is then brushed over with a composition of fine clay and ground crucibles to some thickness and the mould thus formed is connected with the inner one by bronze rods. The wax is then melted out, leaving a cavity Into which the liquid bronze is poured, the core and mould being afterwards removed. Bronze is also cast in piece moulds taken from the model; the piece mould is then lined with sheet clay and put together and the core run in. The clay is then removed and the bronze run in as in the former process. The sand process for casting has now reached a high degree of perfection in which the core and mould are formed by pressure in a fine tenacious sand.

WROUGHT IRON. Plate 34. ]

WROUGHT IRON.

The decorative qualities of iron, with its strength, durability and comparative cheapness, have rendered it one of the most useful metals in the applied arts. Used from an early period for implements of war and the chase, it gradually became associated with architecture and furniture, reaching in the 15th and 16th centuries a remarkable degree of beauty and skilful craftsmanship that has never been excelled. Many fine Norman hinges of wrought iron are still in existence, having a straight central bar or strap, with small scroll terminations; these central straps were strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces, terminating in small serpent forms, probably a survival of the Viking traditions. This form of hinge was succeeded by the Early Gothic hinge, which was a series of spirals springing from the straight bar or strap, the spiral being welded or fastened with collars; these spirals were enriched with the three-lobed foliage or trefoil, typical of the Early Gothic period; fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of Notre Dame, Paris, where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with birds, dragons and small rosettes in stamped iron. This stamped characteristic may be seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of Leighton Buzzard Church, Eaton Bray Church, Bedfordshire, and the Eleanor grill in Westminster Abbey, by Thomas de Leghton, in 1294. In the 14th and 15th centuries, when panelled doors took the place of the earlier doors, this Early Gothic style of hinge was not needed (fig. 5) so that we find no trace of it in that period, but the art of wrought iron was continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock plates of the most varied and delicate workmanship, which enriched the beautiful Gothic chests of the 14th and 15th centuries. The simple wrought screen, which was so largely used in the 13th century was now elaborated, especially in Italy, and fine examples of quatre-foil grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage, cupids and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the cathedrals of Orvieto, Prato and Siena, dating from about 1337 to 1350, and at Santa Croce, Florence, 1371; but it was in Spain and France that the screen reached its culmination. The Spanish screens or “Réjas” in the cathedrals of Seville, Toledo and Granada have a fine range of turned and chiselled vertical bars some 30 to 50 feet high, with an elaborate frieze and cresting.

Beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in France about 1658, for the Louvre and the Royal Chateaux of Anet and Econeu. There are some fine wrought gates at Hampton Court by Jean Tijon, who published some drawings of them in 1693, and many good simple gates of the last century are still in position in many parts of the country.

The wrought iron gate piers in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, with their architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and massive buttresses, in filed, bolted and riveted, are splendid examples of Flemish workmanship, and are probably by Quintin Matsys (1450-1529).

FURNITURE.

The adaptability and universality of wood for domestic and public purposes, its susceptibility to carving and enrichment, its beautiful texture, grain and colour, have made it one of the most useful of materials in the constructive and decorative arts.

The many chairs, tables and chests of ancient times, and the beautiful choir stalls, cabinets and screens of the middle ages are a tribute to the vitality, inventiveness and artistic perception of the old craftsman.

The universality of the chair has tended to preserve the form through many centuries. The chair has undergone various modifications, from the ornate Egyptian one to the Assyrian example with the supports of fir-cones. In the Greek example, the beauty and simplicity of profile is remarkable, while the Chair of St. Peter, 1st century A.D., is purely architectonic with enrichments of gold and ivory.

The Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey, of the time of Edward I., is one of the earliest in England, offering a strong contrast to the chairs of the 18th century by Chippendale and Sheraton.

A Venetian chair of the 16th century shows a skilful but inappropriate treatment.

The Arabians at Cairo, in the 15th century, produced some beautiful geometrical wood panelling, frequently inlaid with ebony and ivory, and having a marvellous intricacy of line and detail.

In Italy, during the 16th century, many beautifully carved cassone or chests, in walnut, enriched with gilding, were produced, similar to the one here figured from South Kensington Museum.

In Italy the beautiful carved choir stalls of the 16th century were frequently enriched with INTARSIA, a light wood inlay upon a dark ground, this intarsia being afterwards slightly etched and black rubbed in, or scorched with hot sand or irons. The choir stalls at St. Organo, Verona, and the Certosa, at Pavia, are fine examples of Intarsia.

In the Renascence of France we meet with many examples of beautiful furniture, great skill, taste and ingenuity being brought to bear upon this work. Jean Goujon, Bachelier and Philibert de l’Orme were famed for their wood carvings in the 16th century.

In 1642, André Charles Boule introduced a veneered work composed of thin tortoise-shell and brass, frequently chased or engraved; this is now termed BOULE work. In some of the later work the shell is laid on a vermilion or gold ground, which greatly enhances its effect. In the 18th century, Boule work was still made in France, but new methods and new men came to the front, amongst others were Riesener and David Roentgen, who produced splendid MARQUETRY of flowers, festoons and diaper patterns inlaid in various coloured woods. Both these men worked in mahogany and ebony, and their lighter marquetry was frequently shaded by scorching with hot sand. These pieces of furniture were usually enriched with gilt, bronze or metal mountings by Gouthière, a contemporary craftsman. A beautiful mode of enriching woodwork was introduced by Vernis Martin, 1706-70; this was the use of a gold and green lac, which was transparent and brilliant, and similar to the beautiful lac work of Japan.

Of English men of this period, Thomas Chippendale produced some good furniture and published a book of designs in 1764, which undoubtedly influenced much of the furniture of that period; Mathias Lock was another noted cabinet maker. In 1789, A. Hepplewhite published a book on furniture, and, in 1795, Thomas Sheraton published a work on the same subject.

The beautiful panelling and carved mantels of the many fine halls of the time of Elizabeth and James are characteristic of English work. Contemporary with this are the beautiful English panelled chests with quaint imagery and enrichments, and the curious Jacobean bed-foot with its pierced pedestal and baluster pillar.

With Grinling Gibbons, who died in 1721, wood carving reached its culmination for delicacy and skilful craftsmanship.

TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 35. ]

TEXTILES.

The utility, universality, construction, texture, ornamentation and colour of textile fabrics are full of interest and suggestiveness, for in the remarkable development of textile fabrics we may trace the continuity of style and tradition, the intermingling of races and customs, and the grafting of religious ideas with the wealth and luxuriance of the past.

All fabrics wrought in the loom are called textiles. They are broadly divided into three classes: 1st, plain fabrics in which the warp and weft alternate equally; 2nd, those fabrics in which a pattern is produced by the warp and weft intermingling in different proportions or colours, figured cloths and tapestries being included in this class; 3rd, those fabrics in which the plain textile NO. 1 is enriched with the needle or by printing, termed embroideries or printed fabrics.

Owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile fabrics are in existence. The oldest examples are found in the tombs of Egypt, where, owing to the dryness of the climate, some fabrics of the early dynasties still remain. They are usually of fine linen and without enrichment, yet upon the same tombs are many painted patterns that undoubtedly show a woven origin. The oldest figured fabrics found in Egypt are of the 6th century A.D., and they show a remarkable similarity to the early patterns of Persia and Byzantium, for it was in India, Persia and Arabia that textiles reached their perfection of workmanship and their wealth of material. This splendid tradition was carried from Persia and India to Byzantium in the 5th century, and in the 8th century the Arabians absorbed and assimilated the arts of Persia, India, Egypt and Spain and brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the 14th and 15th centuries.

The ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and periods are characterised by well-defined forms, differentiated by racial influence, climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of the people. Yet the traditional Eastern origin may be traced through many textile designs, for there is no doubt that India, Persia and Arabia influenced the designs of textile fabrics more than any other nations. This was due no doubt partly to the Eastern weavers carrying their art and traditions with them to various parts of Europe, and also to the exportation of their splendid fabrics, but principally to the beautiful and interesting designs which were perfectly adapted to the process of weaving. It is due no doubt to this frank adaptation of natural forms and their appropriateness to the technical necessities of woven fabrics, that has rendered this Eastern influence so persistent through many centuries in different parts of Europe. It is remarkable that even in Italy during the whole of the Renascence period, with the characteristic scroll forms and acanthus foliation of its architecture and decorative arts, the textiles are quite distinct in style, having the characteristics of the Sicilian, Persian and Indian ornament.

Among the earliest figured fabrics must be placed those of Assyria, of which representations may be seen in Layard’s Book on Nineveh. The patterns consisted of symmetrically placed winged figures with the Hom or Tree of Life and the rosette, which was used as a symbol by Zoraster. It is probable that many of these patterns were embroidered, as the Babylonians were reported to be skilful in the art of embroidery, but it is also certain that some of the patterns were woven. The figured fabrics found in Egypt only date from the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., and show a marked Byzantine and Persian influence (figs. 1-7, plate 35). Characteristic Byzantine examples have medallions and symmetrically placed figures and ornament of the “Hom.” At Alexandria and Antioch, many fine green and gold silk fabrics with ornament in brown outline were produced from the 6th to the 10th centuries.

Under the Saracens, textile fabrics reached their highest development; splendour of colour, beauty and perfection of material and the singularly interesting beauty of the designs being the chief characteristics.

The conquest of Persia, in 632 A.D., by Abu Bekr, the successor of Mahomet, the establishment of Bagdad in 762 as the capital of the Arabian Khalifs, and the invasion of India, in 711, gave a remarkable impetus to the decorative arts, more especially the arts of dyeing, weaving and embroidery. These arts culminated in the splendid period of the Fatimy Khalifs, 909-1171 A.D. Though Mahomet forbade his followers to wear silk, it was largely used by the Saracens and, to evade the injunction, cotton was frequently interwoven with it, and, in India especially, the fabrics often have a cotton warp as a foundation for the weft patterns of coloured silks and gold thread. Many fine examples of Saracenic fabrics of the 11th to the 15th centuries are now in our national museums. The larger portion are from Sicily, and are termed Sicilian or Siculo-Saracenic. They have bands of birds, animals, foliage and inscriptions in blue, green and gold on a red ground. If wholly of silk the fabric was termed _Holosericum_, and if of silk and gold, _Chrysoclavum fundatum_. Drawn gold thread was not used in early fabrics, but gold leaf laid on paper or skin and then rolled round a fine thread of silk was largely used by the Saracenic weavers. The patterns in some of the later Sicilian fabrics of the 13th and 14th centuries have a purple ground in twilled silk, with birds and foliage formed by a weft of gold thread. These patterns were usually symmetrical in arrangement, no doubt partly due to the traditional art of Assyria, but also to the simple necessities of weaving, for in the early looms the turnover of the pattern was frequently used. The Saracenic fabrics produced in Spain are called Hispano-Moresque and are distinguished by splendid crimson or dark blue conventional patterns of silk upon a yellow ground of a fine quality, and a frequent use of strips of gilded parchment in place of the rolled gilt thread. In this period, many fine velvets raised on a satin ground with gold

Plate 36.

SICILIAN FABRIC IN GOLD THREAD ON PURPLE GROUND. 13^{TH} CENTURY. BOCK COLLECTION. MANCHESTER]

Plate 37.

PRINTED COTTON. INDIAN 18^{TH} CENT. S.K.M.]

and silver threads, were made. In the 12th century, Roger II., the Norman King of Northern Sicily, took Corinth and Argos, and carried many weavers and embroiderers from Greece to Sicily, and established them at Palermo, where they quickly assimilated the Sicilian style and produced many fine fabrics during the 13th and 14th centuries.

The crusades now began to influence the arts; in 1098, Antioch was taken and the spoil distributed through Europe; in 1204, Constantinople was taken by Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and the Venetian Doge, Dandolo, and the vast spoil of textiles distributed. It was doubtless under the influence of the crusades that the Sicilian weavers of the 13th and 14th centuries produced the many beautiful fabrics enriched with winged lions, foliated crosses and crowns, rayed stars, harts and birds linked together, and with the introduction of armorial bearings. Early in the 14th century, this splendid tradition was introduced into Italy, and at Lucca many beautiful fabrics were produced, having the same characteristics and technique as the Sicilian fabrics.

The cloak upon the recumbent bronze figure of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey has a pattern of foliage with couchant harts and rayed stars, and was most probably copied from the original silk made for Richard at Lucca or Palermo.

The beautiful materials and designs of Indian textile fabrics are indicative of the love of nature and the splendour of colour of a remote antiquity. Though influenced at various times by Greek, Persian and Arabian traditions, India still preserved an indigenous ornamental art of remarkable freshness and vitality, the designers choosing their own flora and fauna with rare selective power and adaptive qualities. With an instinctive feeling for ornamental art, aided by the splendid colourings of the native dyes, they produced textile fabrics of silks, brocades, and gold and silver lace remarkable for richness and perfection of material, beauty of design and harmony of colour. The Indian pine is a familiar form of enrichment differentiated from the cypress of Persia (fig. 1, plate 22), by the spiral at the apex. This typical pine is treated with a wonderful diversity of detail (figs. 4, 5 and 6, plate 23). The splendid carpets of India were doubtless influenced by the Persian tradition and they follow the same methods and ornamental arrangements, adapting, conventionalizing and emphasising plants, flowers and seeds, and rendering them with a fine feeling for form and colour. Block printing was largely used for silks and cottons, and many splendid examples are now treasured in our museums; an illustration of a printed cotton Palampore from South Kensington is given here, showing the beautiful floral treatment, diversity of detail, and contrast of line and mass. The gold and silver Brocades or “Kincobs” of Ahmedabad and Benares, with patterns of animals, flowers and foliage richly spangled; the delicate muslins of Dacca, the gold and silver primed muslins of Jaipur, and the woollen

Plate 38.

PERSIAN CARPET. 16^{TH} CENTURY. S.K.M]

shawls of Kashmir, with the well-known pine pattern, are splendid examples of richness of material, delicacy and skilfulness of technic, and beauty and appropriateness of ornamentation.

The Pile carpets of Persia, especially those of Kurdistan, Khorassan, Kirman, and Ferahan, are the finest in the world, being magnificent in colour and having bold conventional patterns of their beautiful flora, with birds and animals interspersed with the ornament, giving a largeness of mass and interest and vitality of detail. The illustration on the opposite page is from a fine 16th century Persian carpet, and is a good example of their methods and traditions. The hyacinth, tulip, iris and the pink, are frequently introduced, together with the hom or tree of life. An illustration is given (fig. 2, plate 22) of a Genoa fabric but of Persian design, showing the typical “pink” with its simplicity and beauty of line. This traditional art of Persia had a most marked influence upon the textile fabrics of Europe from the 12th to the 17th centuries. This was no doubt due to many causes, but the perfect adaptability to the process of weaving, the interest, inventiveness and beauty of the ornament, and the singular frank treatment of form and colour, doubtless appealed to the craftsmen of Europe, and hence we find many Persian designs produced in Sicily, Spain, Italy, France and Flanders.

The finest silk velvets and damasks produced from the looms of Florence show a distinct Persian influence in their bold artichoke and pomegranate patterns of the 16th and 17th centuries. In Genoa, similar patterns in many coloured velvets were produced, and it is singular how largely this persistency of type prevails in all countries.

In 1480, Louis XI. introduced the art into France, when looms were established at Tours, and in 1520 they were established at Lyons by Francis I., and the art of weaving rapidly spread. The earliest fabrics of these looms have patterns similar to the Persian and Italian fabrics; but soon the vase pattern, which no doubt had its origin in Byzantine textiles and which had been used by the Persians and Italians, began to influence French designs. However, this rapidly gave place towards the middle of the 17th century to the imitations of ribbons and laces in textile fabrics, together with a more naturalistic treatment of floral forms, and the beauty, suggestiveness and interest of the early patterns now gave way to prettiness, affectation and a naturalistic treatment which culminated in the period of Madame Pompadour.

The remarkable invention of perforated cards for facilitating the weaving of figured fabrics was introduced by Bonchon, 1725, and continued by Falcon in 1728, by Vancanson in 1745, and perfected by Joseph Marie Jacquard, 1752-1834.

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 by Louis the XIV., caused large numbers of weavers to come to England, bringing their art and tradition with them, and many established themselves at Spitalfields which soon rose to some importance. The patterns, necessarily, were purely French in treatment, consisting of natural arrangements of flowers; a sketch is here given of a Spitalfields design for silk damask.

The textile fabrics of Flanders reached a high degree of perfection in the 16th and 17th centuries, Bruges being famous for its silk damasks and velvets, the patterns showing the traditional Persian or the pomegranate and artichoke type of the Florentine textiles. Block printing had been introduced into Flanders in the 15th century and many fine patterns with Indian motives were produced up to the 17th century.

At Ypres, fine diapered linen was manufactured, and Ghent was famous for its woollens, but the remarkable prosperity of Flanders was destroyed by the Spanish occupation (1556-1648).

Then large numbers of Flemish weavers came to England and settled in many parts of the country, bringing their traditions and craftsmanship, which have undoubtedly had a most marked influence upon the production of cotton and woollen textile fabrics in England.

Tapestry, of which many fine examples of the 16th and 17th centuries are treasured in our museums and palaces, differs from most woven fabrics in its method of production, which consists of interweaving and knotting short pieces of coloured wefts, which form the pattern, to a strong warp, a ground weft being thrown across each pick to bind the material well together;

TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 39. ]

this is almost the same method as that used in the manufacture of the Indian and Persian carpets. It was during the 14th and 15th centuries, at Arras in Flanders, that storied tapestries were brought to their culmination and the tapestry workers became a most powerful guild. From about 1480, Brussels produced many magnificent hangings from designs by the great masters of the Italian Renascence. Raphael’s famous cartoons which are now in the South Kensington Museum are the original designs for the ten tapestries manufactured at Brussels for Pope Leo X. for the enrichment of the Sistine chapel in the Vatican; the seven cartoons, three being lost, were purchased by Charles I.

Many of the great Flemish painters also designed for the Brussels tapestries, such as Van Orley, Van Leyden and Jan Mabuse.

Francis I. caused tapestry looms to be set up at Fontainbleau in 1339, under the direction of the Italian, Serlio, but it was not until the Gobelin tapestry manufactory was established in 1603 in the Faubourg Saint Marcel by the Fleming, Marc de Comans, and François de la Planche, that French tapestry reached any importance. Under the Minister Colbert in 1667, the Royal Gobelin manufactory produced many fine tapestries designed by the head of the establishment, Charles le Brun.

About 1590, some carpets called Savonnerie were made in the Louvre, the technique being somewhat similar to the Persian carpets but the patterns were more pictorial and naturalistic in treatment; fine tapestries were also produced at Beauvais and Aubusson. Tapestry had been manufactured in England as early as the reign of Edward III., but it was not until the time of James I. that it assumed any importance, when a tapestry manufactory was established at Mortlake by Francis Crane.

Some fine Flemish tapestries are in the South Kensington museum and eight large pieces by Bernard Van Orley are in the Great Hall of Hampton Court. The coloured cartoons by Mantegna in Hampton Court, representing the Triumph of Cæsar, were to be reproduced in tapestry for the Duke of Mantua. There are some fine Gobelin and Beauvais tapestries in Windsor Castle which were gifts from the Court of France, and they all show the most consummate technique, beauty of material and harmony of colour.

The well-known Bayeux tapestry is embroidered in coloured wools upon a white linen ground. It is 214 feet in length and 22 inches in width and divided in 72 compartments with incidents representing the Norman invasion of England by William I.

Though reputed to be the work of Queen Matilda, the probability is that it is the work of English hands some few years after the invasion. This embroidery or tapestry is still preserved in the cathedral of Bayeux.

The remarkable civilization of the Incas or Peruvians, is shown in the many splendid objects of the industrial arts now treasured in our museums. Of these relics of a vanished civilization, the textile

PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 40. ]

PERUVIAN TEXTILES. Plate 41. ]

fabrics are, perhaps, the most instructive and interesting. The high technical skill of the craftsmanship, the fine spinning of the wool and cotton, and the perfection of the dyeing of the yarn, together with the skilful weaving of the figured cloths and tapestries are a tribute to the vitality and civilization of a people remote from all Asiatic or European influences.

Many of the fabrics are of double cloth, of deep brown and pale straw colour, and show the same colour and pattern on both sides of the cloth. Some of the fabrics are tapestry woven, having short strands of coloured wool inserted into the fabric by the aid of the needle, and they somewhat resemble the Gobelin tapestry in their method of production.

A few of these Peruvian cotton fabrics are ornamented by means of tied or knotted work, identical with the Bandhana or knotted work termed Chunti Cloth, of the North-west province of India. These knotted patterns consist of simple spots arranged in square, zig-zag or curved lines. The pattern is first marked with a red earth on the plain fabric; then the pattern or spots are tied up tightly with cotton thread and the whole dipped in the dye which only acts on the untied portions of the cloth; a white pattern on a coloured ground is thus produced, both sides being alike.

These Peruvian textiles are remarkable for the absence of the beautiful flora of Peru as elements for decoration. The fylfot or fret is a frequent form of enrichment (plates 40-41.) The wave scroll so typical of Greek work is also a remarkable element in Peruvian ornament, and illustrates the singular development of the same ideas and aspect of form among people so remote from each other as the Greeks and Peruvians.

But the patterns that sharply differentiate Peruvian examples from all other styles are the conventional treatments of figures, birds, fishes and animals. The llama is conspicuous in many patterns, but the bird forms are the most remarkable, having many variations of type and treatment. Illustrations are given in plates 40 and 41, all taken from the Smithies Loan Collection at Manchester. Other examples of these interesting fabrics may be seen in the Smithies collection at South Kensington, showing the wonderful diversity of the treatment of pattern designing by a people so remote as the Peruvians.

It is difficult to fix any date for these Peruvian examples, but as it is known that during the reign of Inca Pachacutic (circa 1390), the ceramic art was at its best, we may assume that the sister art of weaving reached its perfection about the same period, and continued until the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century.

FRETS. Plate 42. ]

FRETS.

The remarkable universality of the fret, the simplicity and rhythm of detail, its adaptability and usefulness for surface enrichment, have made the fret one of the best known forms of ornamentation. It was used in the surface decorations of the tombs of Egypt, the temples of Greece, and the civic and domestic buildings of Rome.

The Greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys was used on the simple abacus and plain fascias of the Dorian architecture, in bands upon the painted vases, and in a concentric form when used in the interior of the red-figured circular cylix. The Romans, without imparting freshness, used the same right-angled key pattern, chiefly as borders for mosaic pavements and upon the horizontal soffits of their architecture. The Byzantine using the same type in conjunction with the cross and circle gave more significance to the fret.

The Arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line together with the right-angled key, obtaining a wonderful degree of complexity and richness.

The Celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one, but the recurrent angle is rounded to a curve.

Chinese and Japanese frets are usually right-angled, and are used in great profusion, often in a secondary field or background.

The Japanese key or “_Fret diaper_” is used in the greatest profusion; it is used alike on silks and brocades, damascened in metal, in cloisonné enamel and in lacquered work, and is frequently arranged in irregular shaped compartments or medallions.

The Greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the Japanese, who generally use the disconnected or irregular fret. A similar irregular fret border was used by the Peruvians (plate 41), by the Mexicans, and by the natives of Polynesia.

The Assyrian and Byzantine guilloche is but a curved fret, but additional interest is given by the introduction of radiating forms in the principal interstices of the fret (fig. 5, plate 11.)

Plate 43. ]

CONTINUITY OF STYLE

in architecture and ornament has always been influenced by tradition, racial influence, and the myths and religious beliefs of the people, and it developed with the progress of the nation, often culminating in some great epoch. Frequently the continuity was carried on by some contemporary or succeeding race, modified by different conditions and environments, yet still retaining the style in its general characteristics, or, this thread of continuity was occasionally lost for a time, only to spring into new life, endowed with fresh vitality and beauty, culminating again in splendour. Then fresh religious ideas and conditions engrafted their symbolism and traditions upon the style, thus forming a new period in the history of art.

Ornament is the expression of the people or of the priestcraft, and in its primitive state was used symbolically. The ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia probably shows this primitive state of ornamentation. Isolated as these islanders were from the influence of Eastern or Western art, and with but little communication among the various islands, the ornamental art of these people has its own traditions and characteristics, each province or group of islands showing different ideas and details in proportion to its culture or state of civilization, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia the lowest, while with the Marquesans the ornament is almost pure picture writings. The illustration of the beautiful paddle in the Heape collection, with its geometric ornamentation, shows the continuity and ornamental development of the representation of the human figure, which was originally chosen by the priesthood for its significance or divinity.

In Europe and Asia all trace of this primitive stage has ceased to exist. The development and continuity of ideas and customs, the traditions of style and craftsmanship carried on through many centuries of the world’s history have obliterated the early or primitive style of ornament, chosen first for its significance or emblematic character.

Some remarkable examples of pottery and woven textile fabrics have been recently found in the ancient cemeteries of Peru--relics of the Incas--long anterior to the Spanish conquest. Many fine examples of these woven textiles of cotton and wool are now in the South Kensington museum, forming the Smithies collection, and, as in the ornament of Polynesia, floral forms are entirely absent, the ornament consisting of conventional representations of the human figure, with the owl, condor and the toucan, mingled with the wave scroll and the fret, elements doubtless chosen for their significance.

Many beautiful illustrations could be chosen from the history of ornament, showing this continuity and persistency of line and form and its remarkable influence upon contemporary and succeeding races.

Perhaps the form and enrichment of the Architectural Capital offer one of the most interesting and instructive fields of study in the history and evolution of architecture. The remarkable persistency of the capital as a distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many centuries, though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial influences, yet still preserving a remarkable similarity of form and enrichment among the various nations of the earth.

The function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the columns the weight of the entablature or archivolt, and the beauty and appropriateness of the capital depends:--

First, upon this functional treatment of strength;

Second, upon the beauty of profile or mass;

Third, upon the enrichment and proportion of the capital.

The dignified Doric capital of the Greeks illustrates these functions and conditions by its perfect adaptability, simple functional strength, beauty of profile, appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and harmony of parts, qualities which are essential to beauty of architecture. In the Parthenon, B.C. 438, we have the finest treatment of this capital--a treatment full of dignity, reserve, and unison of profile (plate 6). The many examples of the Doric Order in Greece and her colonies attest to the esteem in which this order was held by the Greeks. The Indian capital (plate 24) exhibits the same functional treatment by the use of brackets or modillions, which undoubtedly are a survival of a wooden construction, and which are typical of Eastern architecture.

The remarkable persistency of the profile, and enrichment of the capital extending through a period of 4,000 years, may be illustrated by a series of diagrams of typical examples. The profile of the capital has not varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here given, and the enrichment of the bell is remarkable for its persistency, though differentiated by racial influences. The Corinthian capital, with its volutes and acanthus foliage, is but the architectural continuity of the Egyptian capital. The only pure Greek example of this order is from the monument of Lysicrates, but the Romans continued the tradition, assimilating and elaborating until they produced the magnificent capitals of the portico of the Pantheon and the temple of Castor and Pollux. In these examples the leaves are arranged in series of two rows of eight leaves each, the volutes springing from sheaths and stems between the leaves, which support the angle of the volutes. The example of early French Gothic has similar characteristics and illustrates the continuity of style.

The Ionic capital, though one of the most persistent in the history of architecture, never reached the architectonic perfection of other capitals. This was undoubtedly owing to the wooden origin being incompatible with the necessities of stone and marble. There is a want of unity between the volutes and ovolo of the capital; in brief, it has neither coherence nor harmony of parts. The exquisite craftsmanship of the capitals of the Erectheum, with their anthemion enrichment of the greatest purity, the beauty of the ovolo and the subtility of the volutes compensates to some extent for the lack of unison (plate 6). The enrichment of the architectural capital is no doubt a survival of the primitive custom of binding floral forms round the simple functional capital, these forms being afterwards perpetuated in stone or marble.

In early Corinthian examples these floral forms were frequently of beaten metal, which, in turn, gave place to the beautiful marble foliage of the Greeks and Romans.

That the ancients used metal work in their capitals we have abundant proof. In the descriptions of the building of Solomon’s Temple we read of “Two chapiters of molten brass to set upon the pillars, and nets of chequer work and wreath of chain work to set upon the top of the pillars.”

The Composite capital is deficient in coherence and unity of parts, having the same defects as its prototype the Ionic. The annexed illustration from Ancient Rome gives an unusual treatment by the introduction of the human figure in the centre of the face of the capital.

The Byzantine capital differs from those of the Greeks and Romans in its marked symbolism of detail and the prevalence of the cushion form. Functionally, this type of capital is admirable, yet it lacks the vigorous upward growth of the Egyptian and early Gothic capitals.

The Byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity and variety of detail, such as interlacing circles and crosses with their mystic symbolism, basket work, chequered details, and the traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks.

These features are seen in the greatest profusion at S. Sophia at Constantinople; S. Apollinare and S. Vitale at Ravenna, and S. Marco at Venice. These splendid capitals of a splendid period are exceedingly beautiful in fertile inventiveness of enrichment, and show the assimilative power of the Byzantine craftsmen. The abundant use of chequer work, wreaths of chain work, and of lily work in Byzantine capitals, many of which are figured in Ruskin’s “Stones of Venice,” show the continuity of style and tradition in architecture.

The Byzantine capitals have the square abacus, usually consisting of a simple fillet and chamfer enriched with the billet, dentil or star pattern. The Dosseret, a singular adjunct to the capital was introduced during this period; it was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed upon the abacus of the capital to give additional height (plate 11).

The Byzantine influence is seen upon the Norman capitals with their square abacus of fillet and chamfer, and the cushion profile of capital. Some remarkable Siculo-Norman capitals are in the cloisters of the Benedictine Monastery of Monreale in Sicily, A.D. 1174-1184. The great fertility of inventiveness in the 200 capitals, their storiation, the intermingling of figures, birds and animals with the classic and Byzantine foliage makes this cloister one of the most remarkable in the history of the world. The Arabian capital, which frequently shows the traditional volute, differs from the typical bell-shaped form in its marked squareness of profile with flat or low reliefs enriched with colour.

The Early Gothic capital is one of the most vigorous and beautiful. The perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving, the significance of its detail as emblematic of the Trinity, the spiral growth of its foliage and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are the chief characteristics of this period. Lacking, perhaps, the delicacy or variety of detail of the Byzantine period or the later Gothic work, it excelled them in the appropriateness of its enrichment, which is more beautiful in the Early English examples with their circular abacus than in contemporary French capitals where the square abacus was prevalent. The transition from the circular column to the square abacus was always felt to be a difficulty, and was rarely overcome, but in the circular abacus of the Early English capitals we have a break in the continuity of the style of the capital.

The English foliage of this period differs from the French in the use of a deep mid-rib and simple trefoil leaf. The French examples have a less pronounced mid-rib, and the leaf is convex in form and divided into three lobes, and the foliage adheres more closely to the bell, consequently the brilliant play of light and shade which is so characteristic of Early English work, is generally absent from French examples (fig. 12, plate 16).

The Decorated Gothic capitals differ essentially from those of the Early Gothic period, a more natural type of foliage being used, consisting of the briony, maple, mallow and oak. This foliage was carved with singular delicacy of touch and grace of profile, and is beautiful in its modelling and play of light and shade, yet frequently the capitals are trivial in conception and arrangement, lacking that architectonic character which is so essential to all architectural constructive features.

The perpendicular or late Gothic capital was usually octagonal in form with square conventional foliage of the vine, showing a marked decadence in tradition and craftsmanship (fig. 9, plate 17).

The Renascence capital was frequently marked by a fine feeling for profile, splendid craftsmanship, diversity of enrichment, and vitality of conception, more especially in Italy, where the tradition of architecture culminated in the works of such remarkable men as Leon Battista Alberti, Bramante, Baldassare Peruzzi, San Micheli, Serlio, Palladio, and Sansovenio. The tradition was worthily carried on in France by Pierre Lescot, Jean Bullant, Philipert de Lorme, and De Brosse, and in England by Inigo Jones, Wren, and Chambers.

TERMS USED IN ORNAMENTAL ART.

Ornament is the means by which Beauty or Significance is imparted to Utility. It is either Symbolical or Aesthetic. Symbolic ornament consists of elements or forms chosen for the sake of their _significance_--Aesthetic ornament consists of forms or elements chosen for their _Beauty_ alone, or their power of appealing to the senses.

Of the historic styles of ornament, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Byzantine, Scandinavian, Persian, Indian, Gothic, Polynesian, and much of the Chinese and Japanese are symbolical, having elements and ornamental details chosen for their significance; while in the Greek, Roman, and Renascence ornament, the purely aesthetic motive is characteristic.

Ornament, again, may be natural or conventional--Imitative or Inventive. The terms “natural” and “imitative” have the same significance--viz., the exact copying of natural forms, so that they become principal--not secondary as perfect ornament should be. Conventional ornament is the adaptation of natural forms to ornamental and technical requirements, and is seen in its greatest beauty in the frank treatment by the Indians and Persians of their flora and fauna for the decorative enrichment of their textile fabrics, pottery, and jewellery.

Inventive ornament is that which consists of elements not derived from any natural source; the Moresque style is a good example of this type.

The _elements_ of ornament are the details or forms chosen for ornamental motives, and the _principals_ of ornament are the arrangement of these forms and details; they comprise repetition, alternation, symmetry, radiation, balance, proportion, variety, eurythmy, contrast, intersection, complication, fitness, and utility.

_Repetition_ is the use of elements in a continuous series; _Alternation_ is the repetition of an element at intervals, with others intervening; _Symmetry_: when the leading lines are equal or similar (or reciprocal) on both sides; _Radiation_: when the lines spring from a centre, for example, a bird’s wing and the flower of the daisy; _Balance_ and _Proportion_: when the relation and harmony of parts is based upon natural laws; _Variety_ implies difference in the details, with respect to form or type; _Eurythmy_ signifies rhythms or harmony in ornament; _Contrast_ is the arrangement in close proximity of colours or forms of opposite characters, as the straight line with the curve, or light with dark; _Intersection_ is the crossing of the leading lines, the Arabian, Moresque and Celtic styles are examples of this principle; _Complication_ is the effect produced by elements so arranged as to be more or less difficult to trace with the eye alone: as in the Japanese key and the Moresque star pattern. _Fitness_ and _utility_ as their names imply are essentials in all good periods of ornamentation.

* * * * *

Text Books upon Architecture and Ornament.

Classic and Early Christian Architecture _Roger Smith_, 5/-
Gothic and Renascence _Roger Smith_, 5/-
Glossary of Architecture _J. Parker_, 7/6
Handbook of Architectural Styles _Rosengarten_, 7/6
Introduction to Gothic Architecture _J. Parker_, 5/-
Three Manuals of Gothic Ornament _J. Parker_, _each_ 1/-
Classic and Early Christian Sculpture _G. Redford_, 5/-
Gothic and Renascence Sculpture _Leader Scott_, 5/-
Handbook of Greek Sculpture, 2 vols. _Ed. Gardner_, 10/-
History of Greek Art _Tarbell_, 5/-
Analysis of Ornament _J. Wornum_, 8/-
Handbook of Ornament _Meyer_, 10/6

An excellent series of illustrated Handbooks upon the Industrial Arts by writers of repute, is published by the Science and Art Department, and may be obtained at the Bookstall of the South Kensington Museum, at a cost of 1/-each part (paper covers), or they may be purchased through Messrs. Chapman and Hall, at 2/6 each part, bound in cloth, they include:

The Industrial Arts of India _Sir G. Birdwood_ }
“ “ Spain _Juan F. Riano_ }
“ “ Denmark _J. J. Worsaae_ }
“ “ Scandinavia _Hans Hildebrand_ }
The Saracens of Egypt _Stanley Lane Poole_ } each in
Early Christian Art in Ireland _Margaret Stokes_ } two parts.
English Earthenware _A. H. Church_ }
“ Porcelain _A. H. Church_ }
French Pottery _P. Gasnault & E. Garnier_ }
Wrought Iron Work _J. Starkie Gardner_ }

Bronzes _Drury E. Fortnum_ }
College and Corporation Plate _Wilfred Cripps_ }
Furniture _J. H. Pollen_ }
Gold and Silversmith’s Work _J. H. Pollen_ }
Glass _A. Nesbitt_ }
Ivories _W. Maskell_ } complete
Japanese Pottery _A. W. Franks_ } in
Maiolica _Drury E. Fortnum_ } one part.
Persian Art _R. Murdoch Smith_ }
Textile Fabrics _Rev. Daniel Rock_ }
Tapestry _Alfred de Champeaux_}
The Industrial Arts }

* * * * *

Works of Reference.

Architecture:--

Antiquities of Rome _Taylor & Cresy_.
Antiquities of Athens _Stuart & Revett_.
Analysis of Gothic Architecture _Brandon_.
Architecture for General Readers _H. H. Statham_.
Byzantine Architecture _Texies & Pullan_.
Constantinople _Salzenberg_.
Civil Architecture _Chambers_.
Decorated Window Tracery _E. Sharpe_.
Encyclopædia of Architecture _Gwilt_.
English Renascence Architecture _J. A. Gotch_.
Gothic Mouldings _F. A. Paley_.
Gothic Architecture _T. Rickman_.
Gothic Architecture in France _E. Corroyer_.
Gothic Architecture in Spain _G. E. Street_.
Gothic Foliage _J. K. Collings_.
Handbook of Architecture _J. Fergusson_.
History of Architecture _J. Fergusson_.
Indian and Eastern Architecture _J. Fergusson_.
Mansions of England _J. Nash_.
Old English Mansions _C. Richardson_.
Orders of Architecture _R. Phéne Spiers_.
Orders of Architecture _C. Norman_.
Orders of Architecture _J. M. Manch_.
Spanish Renascence _D. N. Prentice_.
Stones of Venice _J. Ruskin_.
Seven Lamps of Architecture _J. Ruskin_.
The Seven Periods of Church Architecture _E. Sharpe_.

Ornament and Sculpture:--

Art of the Old English Potter _L. M. Solon_.
Ancient Pottery _S. Birch_.
Alphabets _E. Strange_.
Alphabets _Lewis F. Day_.
Basis of Design _Walter Crane_.
Fresco Decoration in Italy _L. Gruner_.
Grammar of Ornament _Owen Jones_.
Greek and Roman Sculpture _W. G. Perry_.
Greek Vase Painting _Jane Harrison_.
Glass Painting _C. Winston_.
Stained Glass Windows _Lewis F. Day_.
Handbook of Greek Archæology _A. S. Murray_.
Primitive Greece }
Persia }
Phrygia } _George Perrot and
Sardinia and Asia Minor } C. Chipiez_.
Chaldea and Assyria }
Egypt }

Keramic Art of Japan _Audsley & Bowles_.
Nineveh _Layard_.
Ornamental Metal Work _Digby Wyatt_.
Ornamental Art _Gruner_.
Ornamental Textiles _Fischbach_.
Ornament of Textile Fabrics _Dupont Auberville_.
Pompeii _Zahn_.
Polychromatic Ornament _Racinet_.
The Alhambra _Owen Jones_.
Alfred Stevens, his life and work _Hugh Stannus_.

Many excellent “CANTOR LECTURES,” by experts, upon the practical application of the Industrial Arts, will be found in the _Society of Arts Journal_.

The following Lectures may be studied with advantage:

April, 1891 Cloisonné _Clement Heaton_.

Feb., 1894 Decorative Treatment of Artificial
Foliage _Hugh Stannus_.

April, 1891 Decorative Treatment of Natural
Foliage _Hugh Stannus_.

June, 1897 Delft Ware _J. W. L. Glaisher_.

March, 1891 Enamels _J. Starkie Gardner_.

Jan., 1892 Indian Art _Sir G. Birdwood_.

Feb., 1892 Japanese Pottery _E. Hart_.

Feb., 1891 Lithography _W. Simpson_.

Jan., 1897 Material and Design in Pottery _William Burton_.

April, 1891 Plaster Work _A. Robinson_.

Feb., 1891 Storiation _Hugh Stannus_.

Feb., 1891 S’graffito _Heywood Sumner_.

March, 1899 Vitreous Enamels _C. Davenport_.

Feb., 1898 Some Laws of Form in Applied Art _Hugh Stannus_.

In the transactions of the Rochdale Literary Society for 1891 (_Aldine Press_) is a most instructive and well-illustrated article on “The Ornamental Art of Savage People,” by _Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe_, translated by Mrs. H. C. March.

The transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society (1891) contains an excellent article upon “The Pagan Christian Overlap in the North,” by _H. Colley March, M.D._

The illustrated articles in the transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects, may also be studied with advantage, they include:

1892 Byzantine Architecture _George Aitchison_.

1892 Casting in Metals _D. Graham, H. Longden &
H. Singer_.

1891 Decorative Plaster Work _G. Robinson, Heywood Sumner
and Stephen Webb_.

1897 Heraldry in English Mediæval
Architecture _W. H. St. John Hope_.

1897 Heraldry of the Renascence in England _Alfred Gotch_.

1898 Heraldic Drawing _J. D. Crace_.

1894 Mosaics _C. H. Harrison & J. C. Powell_.

1898 Sculptured Columns of the Temple at
Ephesus _A. S. Murray_.

1891 Sculpture in relation to Architecture _G. Simonds_.

1892 Stained Glass _H. Charpenter, J.
Powell, H. Westlake
and C. Heaton_.

1891 Wrought Iron Work, Mediæval Period _J. Starkie Gardner_.

1891 Wrought Iron Work, Renascence Period _J. Starkie Gardner_.

Good articles are found in the _Magazine of Art_, they include:

1897 Chippendale Furniture _C. Dempsey_.

1893 Design _Walter Crane_.

1890 Embroidered Bookcovers _S. E. Prideaux_.

1896 Ironwork _J. Starkie Gardner_.

1888 Language of Line _Walter Crane_.

1882-3 Stained Glass _Lewis F. Day_.

1883 Sheraton Furniture _E. Balfour_.

1891 The Use of Metals in Bookbinding _S. E. Prideaux_.

1884 The Ficoroni Dressing Case

1896 The Influence of Architecture Style
upon Design _Walter Crane_.

In the _Art Journal_, there is:

1888 Ancient Glass in the British Museum _Henry Wallis_.

1889 Antique Glass in the Naples Museum _Henry Wallis_.

1888 Textile Fabrics in the South Kensington
Museum _Gilbert R. Redgrave_.

1887 Meaning in Ornament _Lewis F. Day_.

1888 The Boulaq Museum _Henry Wallis_.

In the _Portfolio_, there is:

1893 Old English Pottery _A. H. Church_.
1893 English Enamels _J. Starkie Gardner_.
1893 English Bookbinding _W. Y. Fletcher_.
1894 Bookbinding in France _W. Y. Fletcher_.
1894 Italian Book Illustrations _A. W. Pollard_.
1894 Josiah Wedgwood _A. H. Church_.
1898 Greek Bronzes _A. S. Murray_.
1897 Armour in England _J. Starkie Gardner_.
1898 Foreign Armour in England _J. Starkie Gardner_.

In the _Builder_, there are the Royal Academy Lectures upon Architecture given by _George Aitchison, R.A._ They include:

1891 Roman Architecture.
1892 Saracenic Architecture.
1893 Byzantine Architecture.
1894 Renascence Architecture.
1896 Romanesque Architecture.

Index.

PAGE.

Alberti, Leon, Battista, 57

Aldus Manutius, 54

Alhambra, 63

Amasis, 77

Anthemion, 7-17

Andreani, Andrea, 54

Apollodorus, 27

Arabesque, 53-54

Arch of Septimus Severus, 21

Architecture
Capitals, 126
Composite, 22
Corinthian, 10
Decorated Gothic, 39-46-130
Doric, 9
Early Gothic, 38-45-129
English Renascence, 60
French Renascence, 58
Ionic, 9
Italian Renascence, 56
Perpendicular Gothic, 46
Tuscan, 22

Atrium, 23

Baccio d’Agnolo, 57

Balducco di Pisa, 50

Baptistery at Pisa, 49

Baptistery at Florence, 50-103

Basilica of Trajan, 27

Black Figure Vases, 77

Boule, André, 59-107

Bramante, 57

Bronzes, 103

Brunelleschi, 51-57

Buen Retiro, 83

Bullant, Jean, 58

Busti, Agostino, 54

Cachrylion, 77

Cambio, Arnolfo di, 49

Caradosso, 51

Caryatides, 9

Castor Ware, 80

Cellini, Benvenuto, 51

Celtic Ornament, 35

Ceramic Art, 78

Chairs, 106

Chaldea, 7

Champlevé Enamels, 35

Chinese Ornament, 71

Chippendale, 106

Chryselephantine Sculpture, 73

Cinque-Cento Ornament, 49-52

Classification of Temples, 11

Classification of Gothic Architecture, 36

Cloisonné Enamels, 91

Coleone, Bartolomeo, 103

Cologne Pots, 82

Column of Trajan, 27

Column of Marcus Aurelius, 27

Compluvium, 23

Continuity of Style, 125

Crockets, 45

Cronaca, 57

Decorated Gothic Details, 46

Delft Ware, 80

Dipylon Ware, 77

Domus, 23

Donatello, 51

Duris, 77

Early Gothic Details, 45

Earthenware, 79

Egyptian Ornament, 5

Elgin Marbles, 13

Elizabethan Ornament, 60

Elizabethan Mansions, 60

Enamels, 91

English Cathedrals, 40

English Renascence, 60

Epiktetos, 77

Euphronios, 77

Exekias, 77

Fauces, 23

Flaxman, 82

Fontana, 57

Fontano, Orazio, 87

French Cathedrals, 40

Frets, 123

Frieze of the Parthenon, 15

Frieze at Phigaleia, 15

Frieze at Pergamos, 16

Frieze from Susa, 17

Georgio, Maestro, 87-88

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 50-103

Giotto, 49

Glass, 95-97

Gobelin Tapestry, 59

Goldsmith’s Work, 101

Gothic Architecture, 36

Goujon, Jean, 59-107

Gouthière, 59-107

Greek Architecture, 9

Greek Ceramics, 77

Grisaille Enamel, 93

Grisaille Glass, 98

Grinling Gibbons, 107

Grolier, 59

Henri Deux Period, 58

Henri Deux Pottery, 81

Henri Quatre, 58

Hepplewhite, 107

Hieron, 77

Hispano-Moresque Pottery, 87

Impluvium, 23

Indian Ornament, 69

Insular, 23

Ivories, 73

Jacobean, 60

Japanese Ornament, 71

Jean, Juste, 58

Jeweller’s Enamel, 92

Lacunaria, 25

Lancet Period, 38

Leoni, Lione, 51

Leoni, Pompeoni, 51

Lescot, Pierre, 58

Lombardo, Pietro, Tullio and Antonio, 54-56

Lotus, 7

Louis Quatorze, 59

Louis Quinze, 59

Louis Seize, 59

Maiolica, 87

Mantegna, Andrea, 54

Marquetry, 107

Matteo Civitali, 51

Mausoleum, 16

Melanesia, 3

Michel Angelo, 52

Michelozzi, 57

Mino da Fiesole, 51

Mosaics, 75

Mycenæ or Colonial Ware, 77

Nicosthenes, 77

Nineveh, 7

Norman Architecture, 37

Oiron Pottery, 81