Chapter IV: The Fire-Festivals of Europe (10)

Sometimes, however, the animal has not even been buried alive, it has been merely killed and then buried. In this emasculated form the sacrifice, we may say with confidence, is absolutely useless for the purpose of stopping a murrain. Nevertheless, it has been tried. Thus in Lincolnshire, when the cattle plague was so prevalent in 1866, there was, I believe, not a single cowshed in Marshland but had its wicken cross over the door; and other charms more powerful than this were in some cases resorted to. I never heard of the use of the needfire in the Marsh, though it was, I believe, used on the wolds not many miles off. But I knew of at least one case in which a calf was killed and solemnly buried feet pointing upwards at the threshold of the cowshed. When our garthman told me of this, I pointed out to him that the charm had failed, for the disease had not spared that shed. But he promptly replied, "Yis, but owd Edwards were a soight too cliver; he were that mean he slew nobbutt a wankling cauf as were bound to deny anny road; if he had nobbutt tekken his best cauf it wud hev worked reight enuff; 'tain't in reason that owd skrat 'ud be hanselled wi' wankling draffle."[795]

Notes:

[262] See Jacob Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_*[4] (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 502, 510, 516.

[263] W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 518 _sq._

[264] In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, kap. vi. pp. 497 _sqq._ Compare also J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 500 _sqq._; Walter E. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 46 _sqq._; F. Vogt, "Scheibentreiben und Frühlingsfeuer," _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, iii. (1893) pp. 349-369; _ibid._ iv. (1894) pp. 195-197.

[265] _The Scapegoat_, pp. 316 _sqq._

[266] The first Sunday in Lent is known as _Invocavit_ from the first word of the mass for the day (O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 67).

[267] Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 141-143; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels, N.D.), pp. 124 _sq._

[268] Émile Hublard, _Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême_ (Mons, 1899), pp. 25. For the loan of this work I am indebted to Mrs. Wherry of St. Peter's Terrace, Cambridge.

[269] É. Hublard, _op. cit._ pp. 27 _sq._

[270] A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), p. 68.

[271] L.F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 56. The popular name for the bonfires in the Upper Vosges (_Hautes-Vosges_) is _chavandes_.

[272] E. Cortet, _Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 101 _sq._ The local name for these bonfires is _bures_.

[273] Charles Beauquier, _Les mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 33 _sq._ In Bresse the custom was similar. See _La Bresse Louhannaise, Bulletin Mensuel, Organe de la Société d'Agriculture et d'Horticulture de l'Arrondissement de Louhans_, Mars, 1906, pp. 111 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ p. 100. The usual name for the bonfires is _chevannes_ or _schvannes_; but in some places they are called _foulères, foualères, failles_, or _bourdifailles_ (Ch. Beauquier, _op. cit._ p. 34). But the Sunday is called the Sunday of the _brandons, bures, bordes_, or _boidès_, according to the place. The _brandons_ are the torches which are carried about the streets and the fields; the bonfires, as we have seen, bear another name. A curious custom, observed on the same Sunday in Franche-Comté, requires that couples married within the year should distribute boiled peas to all the young folks of both sexes who demand them at the door. The lads and lasses go about from house to house, making the customary request; in some places they wear masks or are otherwise disguised. See Ch. Beauquier, _op. cit._ pp. 31-33.

[274] Curiously enough, while the singular is _granno-mio_, the plural is _grannas-mias_.

[275] Dr. Pommerol, "La fête des Brandons et le dieu Gaulois Grannus," _Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris_, v. Série, ii. (1901) pp. 427-429.

[276] _Op. cit._ pp. 428 _sq._

[277] H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) pp. 216 _sq._, Nos. 4646-4652.

[278] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London, 1888), pp. 22-25.

[279] Émile Hublard, _Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême_ (Mons, 1899), p. 38, quoting Dom Grenier, _Histoire de la Province de Picardie_.

[280] É. Hublard, _op. cit._ p. 39, quoting Dom Grenier.

[281] M. Desgranges, "Usages du Canton de Bonneval," _Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, i. (Paris, 1817) pp. 236-238; Felix Chapiseau, _Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris, 1902), i. 315 _sq._

[282] John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 100.

[283] E. Cortet, _Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 99 _sq.; La Bresse Louhannaise_, Mars, 1906, p. 111.

[284] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 283 _sq._ A similar, though not identical, custom prevailed at Valenciennes (_ibid._ p. 338).

[285] A. de Nore, _op. cit._ p. 302.

[286] Désiré Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_ (Paris, 1854), pp. 191 _sq._

[287] Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et légendes du centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875). i. 35 _sqq._

[288] Jules Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Rocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1887), ii. 131 _sq._ For more evidence of customs of this sort observed in various parts of France on the first Sunday in Lent, see Madame Clément, _Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc., _du Département du Nord_*[2] (Cambrai, 1836), pp. 351 _sqq._; Émile Hublard, _Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême_ (Mons, 1899), pp. 33 _sqq._

[289] J.H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 21-25; N. Hocker, in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p. 90; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), p. 501.

[290] N. Hocker, _op. cit._ pp. 89 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

[291] F.J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), p. 20; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

[292] Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 380 _sqq._; Anton Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 56 _sqq._, 66 _sqq._; _Bavaria, Landes-und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), ii. 2, pp. 838 _sq._; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 211, § 232; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._ One of the popular German names for the first Sunday in Lent is White Sunday, which is not to be confused with the first Sunday after Easter, which also goes by the name of White Sunday (E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 380; A. Birlinger, _op. cit._ ii. 56).

[293] H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue," _Revue Archéologique_, iii. série, iv. (1884) pp. 139 _sq._

[294] August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 189; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 207; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus,_ pp. 500 _sq._

[295] W. Kolbe, _Hessiche Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_*[2] (Marburg, 1888), p. 36.

[296] Adalbert Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_*[2] (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 86, quoting Hocker, _Des Mosellandes Geschichten, Sagen und Legenden_ (Trier, 1852), pp. 415 _sqq._ Compare W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 501; and below, pp. 163 _sq._ Thus it appears that the ceremony of rolling the fiery wheel down hill was observed twice a year at Konz, once on the first Sunday in Lent, and once at Midsummer.

[297] H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aarau, 1884), pp. 214-216; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, "Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch," _Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde_, xi. (1907) pp. 247-249; _id., Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), pp. 135 _sq._

[298] Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), pp. 293 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 498. See _The Dying God_, p. 239.

[299] J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 20; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 499.

[300] L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 39, § 306; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 498.

[301] W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 499.

[302] W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 498 _sq._

[303] W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 499.

[304] Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), pp. 234 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 499 _sq._

[305] John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 157 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, pp. 502-505; Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), pp. 172 _sq._; Anton Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 472 _sq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 26; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 241 _sq._; Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 139 _sq._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 371; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_*[2] (Berlin, 1869), pp. 68 _sq._, § 81; Ignaz V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_*[2] (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_*[2] (Marburg, 1888), pp. 44 _sqq._; _County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, Leicestershire and Rutland_, collected by C.J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 75 _sq._; A. Tiraboschi, "Usi pasquali nel Bergamasco," _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizione Popolari_, i. (1892) pp. 442 _sq._ The ecclesiastical custom of lighting the Paschal or Easter candle is very fully described by Mr. H.J. Feasey, _Ancient English Holy Week Ceremonial_ (London, 1897), pp. 179 _sqq._ These candles were sometimes of prodigious size; in the cathedrals of Norwich and Durham, for example, they reached almost to the roof, from which they had to be lighted. Often they went by the name of the Judas Light or the Judas Candle; and sometimes small waxen figures of Judas were hung on them. See H.J. Feasey, _op. cit._ pp. 193, 213 _sqq._ As to the ritual of the new fire at St. Peter's in Rome, see R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421; and as to the early history of the rite in the Catholic church, see Mgr. L. Duchesne, _Origines du Culte Chrétien_*[3] (Paris, 1903), pp. 250-257.]

[306] _Bavaria, Landes und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 1002 _sq._

[307] Gennaro Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 122 _sq._

[308] G. Finamore, _op. cit._ pp. 123 _sq._

[309] Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione Greco-Latina negli Usi e nelle Credenze Popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 48 _sq._

[310] Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 62 _sq._

[311] K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aits Stadt und Stift Hildesheim_*[2] (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177 _sq._, 179 _sq._

[312] M. Lexer, "Volksüberlieferungen aus dem Lesachthal in Karnten," _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iii. (1855) p. 31.

[313] _The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe_, 1570, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 52, _recto._ The title of the original poem was _Regnum Papisticum_. The author, Thomas Kirchmeyer (Naogeorgus, as he called himself), died in 1577. The book is a satire on the abuses and superstitions of the Catholic Church. Only one perfect copy of Googe's translation is known to exist: it is in the University Library at Cambridge. See Mr. R.C. Hope's introduction to his reprint of this rare work, pp. xv. _sq._ The words, "Then Clappers ceasse, and belles are set againe at libertée," refer to the custom in Catholic countries of silencing the church bells for two days from noon on Maundy Thursday to noon on Easter Saturday and substituting for their music the harsh clatter of wooden rattles. See R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i, 412 _sq._ According to another account the church bells are silent from midnight on the Wednesday preceding Maundy Thursday till matins on Easter Day. See W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London, 1875-1880), ii. 1161, referring to _Ordo Roman_. i. _u.s._

[314] R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421.

[315] Miss Jessie L. Weston, "The _Scoppio del Carro_ at Florence," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 182-184; "Lo Scoppio del Carro," _Resurrezione, Numero Unico del Sabato Santo_ (Florence, April, 1906), p. 1 (giving a picture of the car with its pyramid of fire-works). The latter paper was kindly sent to me from Florence by my friend Professor W.J. Lewis. I have also received a letter on the subject from Signor Carlo Placci, dated 4 (or 7) September, 1905, 1 Via Alfieri, Firenze.

[316] Frederick Starr, "Holy Week in Mexico," _The Journal of American Folk-lore_, xii. (1899) pp. 164 _sq._; C. Boyson Taylor, "Easter in Many Lands," _Everybody's Magazine_, New York, 1903, p. 293. I have to thank Mr. S.S. Cohen, of 1525 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, for sending me a cutting from the latter magazine.

[317] K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 458 _sq._; E. Montet, "Religion et Superstition dans l'Amérique du Sud," _Revue de l'Histoire des Religions_, xxxii. (1895) p. 145.

[318] J.J. von Tschudi, _Peru, Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1838-1842_ (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 189 _sq._

[319] H. Candelier, _Rio-Hacha et les Indiens Goajires_ (Paris, 1893), p. 85.

[320] Henry Maundrell, "A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, A.D. 1697," in Bohn's _Early Travellers in Palestine_ (London, 1848), pp. 462-465; Mgr. Auvergne, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, x. (1837) pp. 23 _sq._; A.P. Stanley, _Sinai and Palestine_, Second Edition (London, 1856), pp. 460-465; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 137-139; A.W. Kinglake, _Eothen_, chapter xvi. pp. 158-163 (Temple Classics edition); Father N. Abougit, S.J., "Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre," _Les Missions Catholiques_, viii. (1876) pp. 518 _sq._; Rev. C.T. Wilson, _Peasant Life in the Holy Land_ (London, 1906), pp. 45 _sq._; P. Saint-yves, "Le Renouvellement du Feu Sacré," _Revue des Traditions Populaires_, xxvii. (1912) pp. 449 _sqq._ The distribution of the new fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the subject of a picture by Holman Hunt. From some printed notes on the picture, with which Mrs. Holman Hunt was so kind as to furnish me, it appears that the new fire is carried by horsemen to Bethlehem and Jaffa, and that a Russian ship conveys it from Jaffa to Odessa, whence it is distributed all over the country.

[321] Father X. Abougit, S.J., "Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre," _Les Missions Catholiques_, viii. (1876) pp. 165-168.

[322] I have described the ceremony as I witnessed it at Athens, on April 13th, 1890. Compare _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 275. Having been honoured, like other strangers, with a place on the platform, I did not myself detect Lucifer at work among the multitude below; I merely suspected his insidious presence.

[323] W.H.D. Rouse, "Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades," _Folk-lore_, x. (1899) p. 178.

[324] Mrs. A.E. Gardner was so kind as to send me a photograph of a Theban Judas dangling from a gallows and partially enveloped in smoke. The photograph was taken at Thebes during the Easter celebration of 1891.

[325] G.F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_ (Cambridge, 1903) p. 37.

[326] Cirbied, "Mémoire sur la gouvernment et sur la religion des anciens Arméniens," _Mémoires publiées par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, ii. (1820) pp. 285-287; Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 72-74. The ceremony is said to be merely a continuation of an old heathen festival which was held at the beginning of spring in honour of the fire-god Mihr. A bonfire was made in a public place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning throughout the year in each of the fire-god's temples.

[327] _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 32, ii. 243; _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78, 136.

[328] Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_ translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871), vol. ii. pp. 155-163. Compare Juan de Velasco, "Histoire du Royaume de Quito," in H. Ternaux-Compans's _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de l'Amérique_, xviii. (Paris, 1840) p. 140.

[329] B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), bk. ii. chapters 18 and 37, pp. 76, 161; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 136.

[330] Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, "The Zuñi Indians," _Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 108-141, 148-162, especially pp. 108, 109, 114 _sq._, 120 _sq._, 130 _sq._, 132, 148 _sq._, 157 _sq._ I have already described these ceremonies in _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 237 _sq._ Among the Hopi (Moqui) Indians of Walpi, another pueblo village of this region, new fire is ceremonially kindled by friction in November. See Jesse Walter Fewkes, "The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony," _Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi. 422-458; _id._, "The Group of Tusayan Ceremonials called _Katcinas," Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1897), p. 263; _id._, "Hopi _Katcinas," Twenty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1903), p. 24.

[331] Henry R. Schoolcraft, _Notes on the Iroquois_ (Albany, 1847), p. 137. Schoolcraft did not know the date of the ceremony, but he conjectured that it fell at the end of the Iroquois year, which was a lunar year of twelve or thirteen months. He says: "That the close of the lunar series should have been the period of putting out the fire, and the beginning of the next, the time of relumination, from new fire, is so consonant to analogy in the tropical tribes, as to be probable" (_op. cit._ p. 138).

[332] C.F. Hall, _Life with the Esquimaux_ (London, 1864), ii. 323.

[333] Franz Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural, History_, xv. Part i. (New York, 1901) p. 151.

[334] G. Nachtigal, _Saharâ und Sûdân_, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 251.

[335] Major C. Percival, "Tropical Africa, on the Border Line of Mohamedan Civilization," _The Geographical Journal_, xlii. (1913) pp. 253 _sq._

[336] Adrien Germain, "Note sur Zanzibar et la côte orientale de l'Afrique," _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), v. Série xvi. (1868) p. 557; _Les Missions Catholiques_, iii. (1870) p. 270; Charles New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1873), p. 65; Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 36; O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiele_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 55 _sq._; C. Velten, _Sitten und Gebräucheaer Suaheli_ (Göttingen,1903), pp. 342-344.

[337] Duarte Barbosa, _Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar_ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), p. 8; _id._, in _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. i. (1898) p. 96; Damião de Goes, "Chronicle of the Most Fortunate King Dom Emanuel," in _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. iii. (1899) pp. 130 _sq._ The name Benametapa (more correctly _monomotapa_) appears to have been the regular title of the paramount chief, which the Portuguese took to be the name of the country. The people over whom he ruled seem to have been the Bantu tribe of the Makalanga in the neighbourhood of Sofala. See G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) pp. 481-484. It is to their custom of annually extinguishing and relighting the fire that Montaigne refers in his essay (i. 22, vol. i. p. 140 of Charpentier's edition), though he mentions no names.

[338] Sir H.H. Johnson, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 426, 439.

[339] W.H.R. Rivers, _The Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 290-292.

[340] Lieut. R. Stewart, "Notes on Northern Cachar," _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ xxiv. (1855) p. 612.

[341] A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866) pp. 49 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 325 _sq._

[342] G. Schlegel, _Uranographie Chinoise_ (The Hague and Leyden, 1875), pp. 139-143; C. Puini, "Il fuoco nella tradizione degli antichi Cinesi," _Giornale della Società Asiatica Italiana_, i. (1887) pp. 20-23; J.J.M. de Groot, _Les Fétes annuellement célébrées à Émoui (Amoy)_ (Paris, 1886), i. 208 _sqq._ The notion that fire can be worn out with age meets us also in Brahman ritual. See the _Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882) p. 230 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).

[343] W.G. Aston, _Shinto, The Way of the Gods_ (London, 1905), pp. 258 _sq._, compare p. 193. The wands in question are sticks whittled near the top into a mass of adherent shavings; they go by the name of _kedzurikake_ ("part-shaved"), and resemble the sacred _inao_ of the Aino. See W.G. Aston, _op. cit._ p. 191; and as to the _inao_, see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 185, with note 2.

[344] Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 82; Homer, _Iliad_, i. 590, _sqq._

[345] Philostiatus, _Heroica_, xx. 24.

[346] Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 143 _sq._; Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 12. 6.

[347] Festus, ed. C.O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839), p. 106, _s.v._ "Ignis." Plutarch describes a method of rekindling the sacred fire by means of the sun's rays reflected from a hollow mirror (_Numa_, 9); but he seems to be referring to a Greek rather than to the Roman custom. The rule of celibacy imposed on the Vestals, whose duty it was to relight the sacred fire as well as to preserve it when it was once made, is perhaps explained by a superstition current among French peasants that if a girl can blow up a smouldering candle into a flame she is a virgin, but that if she fails to do so, she is not. See Jules Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 27; B. Souché, _Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses_ (Niort, 1880), p. 12. At least it seems more likely that the rule sprang from a superstition of this sort than from a simple calculation of expediency, as I formerly suggested (_Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885) p. 158). Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings>_ ii. 234 _sqq._

[348] Geoffrey Keating, D.D., _The History of Ireland, translated from the original Gaelic, and copiously annotated_, by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), p. 300, with the translator's note. Compare (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London, 1888), pp. 514 _sq._

[349] W.R.S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 254 _sq._

[350] A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 134 _sqq.; id., Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 312 _sq._; J.D.H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen der Altmark_ (Berlin, 1839), pp. 75 _sq._; K. Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_*[2] (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 240; H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_ (Leipsic, 1855), p. 63; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), pp. 240-242; W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg, 1888), pp. 44-47; F.A. Reimann, _Deutsche Volksfeste_ (Weimar, 1839), p. 37; "Sitten und Gebräuche in Duderstadt," _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sitten-kunde_, ii. (1855) p. 107; K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheim_*[2] (Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177, 180; O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt," _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 76.

[351] L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. p. 43 _sq._, §313; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 505 _sq._

[352] L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ ii. p. 43, §313.

[353] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 512; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_, pp. 506 _sq._

[354] H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_ (Leipsic, 1855), p. 63; _id._, in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p. 79; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 507.

[355] A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 312 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

[356] W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_ p. 508. Compare J.W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 74; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.

[357] A. Kuhn, _l.c._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 508.

[358] _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 956.

[359] See above, pp. 116 _sq._, 119.

[360] F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 211 _sq._, § 233; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, pp. 507 _sq._

[361] _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 357.

[362] F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 212 _sq._, § 236.

[363] F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 78 _sq._, §§ 114, 115. The customs observed at these places and at Althenneberg are described together by W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 505.

[364] A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. 82, § 106; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 508.

[365] Elard Hugo Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 97 _sq._

[366] _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ See further below, vol. ii. pp. 298 _sqq._

[367] J.W. Wolf, _Beiträge sur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 75 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 506.

[368] L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 228.

[369] W. Müller, _Beiträge sur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mahren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 321, 397 _sq._ In Wagstadt, a town of Austrian Silesia, a boy in a red waistcoat used to play the part of Judas on the Wednesday before Good Friday. He was chased from before the church door by the other school children, who pursued him through the streets with shouts and the noise of rattles and clappers till they reached a certain suburb, where they always caught and beat him because he had betrayed the Redeemer. See Anton Peter, _Volksthümliches aus österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 282 _sq._; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 77 _sq._

[370] _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of John Ramsay, Esq., of Ochtertyre, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 439-445. As to the _tein-eigin_ or need-fire, see below, pp. 269 _sqq_. The etymology of the word Beltane is uncertain; the popular derivation of the first part from the Phoenician Baal is absurd. See, for example, John Graham Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 176 _sq._: "The recognition of the pagan divinity Baal, or Bel, the Sun, is discovered through innumerable etymological sources. In the records of Scottish history, down to the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, multiplied prohibitions were issued from the fountains of ecclesiastical ordinances, against kindling _Bailfires_, of which the origin cannot be mistaken. The festival of this divinity was commemorated in Scotland until the latest date." Modern scholars are not agreed as to the derivation of the name Beltane. See Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 268 _sq._; J.A. MacCulloch, _The Religion of the Ancient Celts_ (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 264.

[371] "_Bal-tein_ signifies the _fire of Baal. Baal_ or _Ball_ is the only word in Gaelic for _a globe_. This festival was probably in honour of the sun, whose return, in his apparent annual course, they celebrated, on account of his having such a visible influence, by his genial warmth, on the productions of the earth. That the Caledonians paid a superstitious respect to the sun, as was the practice among many other nations, is evident, not only by the sacrifice at Baltein, but upon many other occasions. When a Highlander goes to bathe, or to drink waters out of a consecrated fountain, he must always approach by going round the place, _from east to west on the south side_, in imitation of the apparent diurnal motion of the sun. When the dead are laid in the earth, the grave is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is conducted to her future spouse, in the presence of the minister, and the glass goes round a company, in the course of the sun. This is called, in Gaelic, going round the right, or the _lucky way_. The opposite course is the wrong, or the _unlucky_ way. And if a person's meat or drink were to affect the wind-pipe, or come against his breath, they instantly cry out _deisheal_! which is an ejaculation praying that it may go by the right way" (Rev. J. Robertson, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xi. 621 note). Compare J.G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 229 _sq._: "_The Right-hand Turn_ (_Deiseal_).-- This was the most important of all the observances. The rule is '_Deiseal_ (i.e. the right-hand turn) for everything,' and consists in doing all things with a motion corresponding to the course of the sun, or from left to right. This is the manner in which screw-nails are driven, and is common with many for no reason but its convenience. Old men in the Highlands were very particular about it. The coffin was taken _deiseal_ about the grave, when about to be lowered; boats were turned to sea according to it, and drams are given to the present day to a company. When putting a straw rope on a house or corn-stack, if the assistant went _tuaitheal_ (i.e. against the course of the sun), the old man was ready to come down and thrash him. On coming to a house the visitor should go round it _deiseal_ to secure luck in the object of his visit. After milking a cow the dairy-maid should strike it _deiseal_ with the shackle, saying 'out and home' (_mach 'us dachaigh_). This secures its safe return. The word is from _deas_, right-hand, and _iul_, direction, and of itself contains no allusion to the sun." Compare M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J. Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 612 _sq._: "There was an ancient custom in the island of Lewis, to make a fiery circle about the houses, corn, cattle, etc., belonging to each particular family: a man carried fire in his right hand, and went round, and it was called _dessil_, from the right hand, which in the ancient language is called _dess_.... There is another way of the _dessil_, or carrying fire round about women before they are churched, after child-bearing; and it is used likewise about children until they are christened; both which are performed in the morning and at night. This is only practised now by some of the ancient midwives: I enquired their reason for this custom, which I told them was altogether unlawful; this disobliged them mightily, insomuch that they would give me no satisfaction. But others, that were of a more agreeable temper, told me that fire-round was an effectual means to preserve both the mother and the infant from the power of evil spirits, who are ready at such times to do mischief, and sometimes carry away the infant; and when they get them once in their possession, return them poor meagre skeletons; and these infants are said to have voracious appetites, constantly craving for meat. In this case it was usual with those who believed that their children were thus taken away, to dig a grave in the fields upon quarter-day, and there to lay the fairy skeleton till next morning; at which time the parents went to the place, where they doubted not to find their own child instead of this skeleton. Some of the poorer sort of people in these islands retain the custom of performing these rounds sun-ways about the persons of their benefactors three times, when they bless them, and wish good success to all their enterprizes. Some are very careful when they set out to sea that the boat be first rowed about sun-ways; and if this be neglected, they are afraid their voyage may prove unfortunate." Probably the superstition was based entirely on the supposed luckiness of the right hand, which accordingly, in making a circuit round an object, is kept towards the centre. As to a supposed worship of the sun among the Scottish Highlanders, compare J.G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, p. 304: "Both the sun (_a Ghrian_) and moon (_a Ghealach_) are feminine in Gaelic, and the names are simply descriptive of their appearance. There is no trace of a Sun-God or Moon-Goddess." As to the etymology of Beltane, see above, p. 149 note.

[372] Rev. James Robertson (Parish Minister of Callander), in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xi. 620 _sq._

[373] Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," in John Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.

[374] Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, v. 84.

[375] Rev. Allan Stewart, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xv. 517 note.

[376] Rev. Walter Gregor, "Notes on Beltane Cakes," _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 2 _sq._ The Beltane cakes with the nine knobs on them remind us of the cakes with twelve knobs which the Athenians offered to Cronus and other deities (see _The Scapegoat_, p. 351). The King of the Bean on Twelfth Night was chosen by means of a cake, which was broken in as many pieces as there were persons present, and the person who received the piece containing a bean or a coin became king. See J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 22 _sq.; The Scapegoat_, pp. 313 _sqq._

[377] Shaw, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in J. Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 136. The part of Scotland to which Shaw's description applies is what he calls the province or country of Murray, extending from the river Spey on the east to the river Beauly on the west, and south-west to Loch Lochy.

[378] Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 167.

[379] A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) p. 41. The St. Michael's cake (_Strùthan na h'eill Micheil_), referred to in the text, is described as "the size of a quern" in circumference. "It is kneaded simply with water, and marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal parts, and then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It is not polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but when it is cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed with buttermilk, is spread first on one side, then on the other, and it is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in use, which tradition associates with the female sex, is that of a triangle with the corners cut off. A _strùhthan_ or _strùhdhan_ (the word seems to be used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the household, including servants and herds. When harvest is late, an early patch of corn is mown on purpose for the _strùthan_" (A. Goodrich-Freer, _op. cit._ pp. 44. _sq._.)

[380] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 22-24.

[381] Jonathan Ceredig Davies, _Folklore of West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

[382] Joseph Train, _An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), i. 314 _sq._

[383] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 309; _id._, "The Coligny Calendar," _Proceedings of the British Academy, 1909-1910_, pp. 261 _sq._ See further _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 53 _sq._

[384] Professor Frank Granger, "Early Man," in _The Victoria History of the County of Nottingham_, edited by William Page, i. (London, 1906) pp. 186 _sq._

[385] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 310; _id._, "Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions," _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) pp. 303 _sq._

[386] P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 290 _sq._, referring to Kuno Meyer, _Hibernia Minora_, p. 49 and _Glossary_, 23.

[387] J.B. Bury, _The Life of St. Patrick_ (London, 1905), pp. 104 _sqq._

[388] Above, p. 147.

[389] Geoffrey Keating, D.D., _The History of Ireland_, translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), pp. 300 _sq._

[390] (Sir) John Rhys, "Manx Folk-lore and Superstition," _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 303; _id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 309. Compare P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 291: "The custom of driving cattle through fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on the eve of the 24th June (St. John's Day), continued in Ireland, as well as in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living memory." In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael, _Carmina Gadelica_, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, "I saw it done in Ireland."

[391] L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 233 _sq._

[392] Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 211 _sq._; Br. Jelínek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens," _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, _Sitte, Branch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 71.

[393] J.A.E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The superstitions relating to witches at this season are legion. For instance, in Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a physical blemish can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to the witches on Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a cross-road, make three crosses on the blemish, and say, "In the name of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." Thus the blemish, whatever it may be, is left behind him at the cross-road, and when the witches sweep by on their way to the Brocken, they must take it with them, and it sticks to them henceforth. Moreover, three crosses chalked up on the doors of houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis Night will effectually prevent any of the infernal crew from entering and doing harm to man or beast. See E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_ (Halle, 1846), pp. 148 _sq.; Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), p. 116.

[394] See _The Scapegoat_, pp. 158 _sqq._

[395] As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe in general see the evidence collected in the "Specimen Calendarii Gentilis," appended to the _Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta_, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.

[396] John Mitchell Kemble, _The Saxons in England_, New Edition (London, 1876), i. 361 _sq_., quoting "an ancient MS. written in England, and now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. 50." The passage is quoted in part by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 298 _sq._, by R.T. Hampson, _Medii Aevi Kalendarium_ (London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 509. The same explanations of the Midsummer fires and of the custom of trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are given also by John Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ (appended to the _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ of G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. 556 _recto: "Solent porro hoc tempore_ [the Eve of St. John the Baptist] _ex veteri consuetudine mortuorum animalium ossa comburi, quod hujusmodi habet originem. Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones appellamus.... Haec inquam animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant, in terra ambulant. Sed quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod fere fit) saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales ejicunt ex quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo hujusmodi inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idem etiam modo ab omnibus observatur.... Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia in eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, a quo cogitur paulatim descendere_." The substance of the passage is repeated in other words by G. Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of the thirteenth century, in his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_, lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442 _verso_, ed. Lyons, 1584). Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 516.

With the notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare the popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska "it is believed that a subtle essence or unclean influence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is caught in utensils of any kind it will produce sickness. As a result, immediately on the commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her pots, wooden buckets, and dishes" (E.W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and practices prevail among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the Swabian peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison falls on the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow, gather fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, the people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the mantel-shelf of the stove, and pray to be delivered from the danger. See Anton Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 189. Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water is poisoned during a solar eclipse (F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 297); and Thuringian bumpkins cover up the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is particularly poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. See August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 287. As eclipses are commonly supposed by the ignorant to be caused by a monster attacking the sun or moon (E.B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,*[2] London, 1873, i. 328 _sqq._), we may surmise, on the analogy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that the unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the monster or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with each other.

[397] _The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570_, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 54 _verso_. As to this work see above, p. 125 note 1.

[398] J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), pp. 225 _sq._

[399] Tessier, "Sur la fête annuelle de la roue flamboyante de la Saint-Jean, à Basse-Kontz, arrondissement de Thionville," _Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, v. (1823) pp. 379-393. Tessier witnessed the ceremony, 23rd June 1822 (not 1823, as is sometimes stated). His account has been reproduced more or less fully by J. Grimm (_Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 515 _sq._) W. Mannhardt (_Der Baumkultus_, pp. 510 _sq._), and H. Gaidoz ("Le dieu gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue," _Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 24 _sq._).

[400] _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 373 _sq_.; compare _id_., iii. 327 _sq_. As to the burning discs at the spring festivals, see above, pp. 116 _sq_., 119, 143.

[401] _Op. cit_. ii. 260 _sq_., iii. 936, 956, iv. 2. p. 360.

[402] _Op. cit_. ii. 260.

[403] _Op. cit._ iv. i. p. 242. We have seen (p. 163) that in the sixteenth century these customs and beliefs were common in Germany. It is also a German superstition that a house which contains a brand from the midsummer bonfire will not be struck by lightning (J.W. Wolf, _Beiträge, zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 217, § 185).

[404] J. Boemus, _Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium_ (Lyons, 1541), p. 226.

[405] Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), pp. 181 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 510.

[406] A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 96 _sqq._, § 128, pp. 103 _sq._, § 129; _id., Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 116-120; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 423 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 510.

[407] F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 215 _sq._, § 242; _id._, ii. 549.

[408] A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 99-101.

[409] Elard Hugo Mayer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 103 _sq._, 225 _sq._

[410] W. von Schulenberg, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Jahrgang 1897_, pp. 494 _sq._ (bound up with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxix. 1897).

[411] H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu Gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue," _Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 29 _sq._

[412] Bruno Stehle, "Volksglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen," _Globus_, lix. (1891) pp. 378 _sq._; "Die Sommerwendfeier im St. Amarinthale," _Der Urquell_, N.F., i. (1897) pp. 181 _sqq._

[413] J.H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40 _sq._ According to one writer, the garlands are composed of St. John's wort (Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_, Iserlohn, N.D., p. 33). As to the use of St. John's wort at Midsummer, see below, vol. ii. pp. 54 _sqq._

[414] A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 390.

[415] Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 33 _sq._

[416] C.L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), ii. 144 _sqq._

[417] Philo vom Walde, _Schlesien in Sage und Brauch_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 124; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 136 _sq._

[418] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie,_*[4] i. 517 _sq._

[419] From information supplied by Mr. Sigurd K. Heiberg, engineer, of Bergen, Norway, who in his boyhood regularly collected fuel for the fires. I have to thank Miss Anderson, of Barskimming, Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly procuring the information for me from Mr. Heiberg.

The Blocksberg, where German as well as Norwegian witches gather for their great Sabbaths on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) and Midsummer Eve, is commonly identified with the Brocken, the highest peak of the Harz mountains. But in Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and probably elsewhere, villages have their own local Blocksberg, which is generally a hill or open place in the neighbourhood; a number of places in Pomerania go by the name of the Blocksberg. See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_*[4] ii. 878 _sq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), pp. 4 _sq._; _id._, _Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen_ (Stettin, 1886), p. 329.

[420] L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 259, 265.

[421] L. Lloyd, _op. cit._ pp. 261 _sq._ These springs are called "sacrificial fonts" (_Offer källor_) and are "so named because in heathen times the limbs of the slaughtered victim, whether man or beast, were here washed prior to immolation" (L. Lloyd, _op. cit._ p. 261).

[422] E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 164.

[423] Ignaz V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_*[2] (Innsbruck, 1871), ii. p. 159, § 1354.

[424] I.V. Zingerle, _op. cit._ p. 159, §§ 1353, 1355, 1356; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 513.

[425] W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

[426] F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. p. 210, § 231.

[427] Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), pp. 307 _sq._

[428] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_*[4] i. 519; Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 308; Joseph Virgil Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Bohmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 80, § 636; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Bohmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 306-311; Br. Jelfnek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens," _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien>_ xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905) pp. 84-86.

[429] Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 263-265.

[430] Anton Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 287.

[431] Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), pp. 308 _sq._

[432] _The Dying God_, p. 262. Compare M. Kowalewsky, in _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 467.

[433] W.R.S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition (London, 1872), p. 240.

[434] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 519; W.R.S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), pp. 240, 391.

[435] W.R.S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 240.

[436] W.R.S. Ralston, _l.c._

[437] W.J.A. von Tettau und J.D.H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 277.

[438] M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_*[2] (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.

[439] F.S. Krauss, "Altslavische Feuergewinnung," _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 318.

[440] J.G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), i. 178-180, ii. 24 _sq._ Ligho was an old heathen deity, whose joyous festival used to fall in spring.

[441] Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 775 _sqq._

[442] Friederich S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), pp. 176 _sq._

[443] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 519.

[444] H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Magyar_ (Münster i. W., 1893), pp. 40-44.

[445] A. von Ipolyi, "Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn," _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp. 270 _sq._

[446] J.G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_, ii. 268 _sq._; F.J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which I have translated "weeds" is in Esthonian _kaste-heinad_, in German _Thaugras_. Apparently it is the name of a special kind of weed.

[447] Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, _Mythische und Magische Lieder der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 62.

[448] J.B. Holzmayer, "Osiliana," _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) pp. 62 _sq._ Wiedemann also observes that the sports in which young couples engage in the woods on this evening are not always decorous (_Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, p. 362).

[449] J.G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_, ii. 447 _sq._

[450] J.G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen, _Studien über die innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands_ (Hanover, 1847), i. 446 _sqq._

[451] Alfred de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 19.

[452] It is notable that St. John is the only saint whose birthday the Church celebrates with honours like those which she accords to the nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note I.

[453] Bossuet, _Oeuvres_ (Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 ("Catéchisme du diocèse de Meaux"). His description of the superstitions is, in his own words, as follows: "_Danser à l'entour du feu, jouer, faire des festins, chanter des chansons deshonnètes, jeter des herbes par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à jeun, en porter sur soi, les conserver le long de l'année, garder des tisons ou des charbons du feu, et autres semblables._" This and other evidence of the custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch. Cuissard in his tract _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884).

[454] Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), pp. 40 _sq._

[455] A. Le Braz, _La Légende de la Mort en Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893), p. 279. For an explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into the fire, see below, p. 240.

[456] M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), pp. 116 _sq._

[457] Collin de Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; J.W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, "Du Culte de St. Jean Baptiste," _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189 _sq._

[458] Eugene Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), p. 216; Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), p. 24.

[459] Paul Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 192-195. In Upper Brittany these bonfires are called _rieux_ or _raviers_.

[460] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fétes Religieuses_, p. 216.

[461] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 219, 228, 231; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 215 _sq._

[462] J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 219-224.

[463] This description is quoted by Madame Clément (_Histoire des fêtes civites et religieuses_, etc., _de la Belgique Méridionale_, Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. Liebrecht (_Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209 _sq._); and W. Mannhardt (_Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, Berlin, 1877, pp. 323 _sqq._) from the _Magazin pittoresque_, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287 _sqq._ A slightly condensed account is given, from the same source, by E. Cortet (_Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, pp. 221 _sq._).

[464] Bazin, quoted by Breuil, in _Mémoires de la Société d' Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 191 note.

[465] Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), pp. 118, 406.

[466] Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, _op. cit._ p. 407.