Chapter IV: The Fire-Festivals of Europe (12)

[752] Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third Edition (London, 1881), p. 320. The writer does not say where this took place; probably it was in Cornwall or Devonshire.

[753] Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 184.

[754] _County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 2, Suffolk_, collected and edited by the Lady Eveline Camilla Gurdon (London, 1893), pp. 190 _sq._, quoting _Some Materials for the History of Wherstead_ by F. Barham Zincke (Ipswich, 1887), p. 168.

[755] _County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 2, Suffolk_, p. 191, referring to Murray's _Handbook for Essex, Suffolk_, etc., p. 109.

[756] (Sir) John Rhys, "Manx Folklore and Superstitions," _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) pp. 300-302; repeated in his _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 306 _sq._ Sir John Rhys does not doubt that the old woman saw, as she said, a live sheep being burnt on old May-day; but he doubts whether it was done as a sacrifice. He adds: "I have failed to find anybody else in Andreas or Bride, or indeed in the whole island, who will now confess to having ever heard of the sheep sacrifice on old May-day." However, the evidence I have adduced of a custom of burnt sacrifice among English rustics tends to confirm the old woman's statement, that the burning of the live sheep which she witnessed was not an act of wanton cruelty but a sacrifice per formed for the public good.

[757] (Sir) John Rhys, "Manx Folklore and Superstitions," _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) pp. 299 _sq.; id., Celtic Folklore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 304 _sq._ We have seen that by burning the blood of a bewitched bullock a farmer expected to compel the witch to appear. See above, p. 303.

[758] Olaus Magnus, _Historia de Gentium Septentrionalium Conditionibus_, lib xviii. cap. 47, p. 713 (ed. Bâle, 1567).

[759] Collin de Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 473 _sq._, referring to Boguet.

[760] Collin de Plancy, _op. cit._ iii. 473.

[761] Felix Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris, 1902), i. 239 _sq._ The same story is told in Upper Brittany. See Paul Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), i. 292. It is a common belief that a man who has once been transformed into a werewolf must remain a were-wolf for seven years unless blood is drawn from him in his animal shape, upon which he at once recovers his human form and is delivered from the bondage and misery of being a were-wolf. See F. Chapiseau, _op. cit._ i. 218-220; Amélie Bosquet, _La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 233. On the belief in were-wolves in general; see W. Hertz, _Der Werwolf_ (Stuttgart, 1862); J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_*[4] i. 915 _sqq._; (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_[2] (London, 1873), i. 308 _sqq._; R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 62-80. In North Germany it is believed that a man can turn himself into a wolf by girding himself with a strap made out of a wolf's hide. Some say that the strap must have nine, others say twelve, holes and a buckle; and that according to the number of the hole through which the man inserts the tongue of the buckle will be the length of time of his transformation. For example, if he puts the tongue of the buckle through the first hole, he will be a wolf for one hour; if he puts it through the second, he will be a wolf for two days; and so on, up to the last hole, which entails a transformation for a full year. But by putting off the girdle the man can resume his human form. The time when were-wolves are most about is the period of the Twelve Nights between Christmas and Epiphany; hence cautious German farmers will not remove the dung from the cattle stalls at that season for fear of attracting the were-wolves to the cattle. See Adalbert Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 375; Ulrich Jahn, _Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen_ (Stettin, 1886), pp. 384, 386, Nos. 491, 495. Down to the time of Elizabeth it was reported that in the county of Tipperary certain men were annually turned into wolves. See W. Camden, _Britain_, translated into English by Philemon Holland (London, 1610), "Ireland," p. 83.

[762] J.J.M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 548.

[763] A. C. Kruijt, "De weerwolf bij de Toradja's van Midden-Celebes," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Landen Volkenkunde,_ xli. (1899) pp. 548-551, 557-560.

[764] A.C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ pp. 552 _sq._

[765] A.C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ pp. 553. For more evidence of the belief in were-wolves, or rather in were-animals of various sorts, particularly were-tigers, in the East Indies, see J.J. M. de Groot, "De Weertijger in onze Koloniën en op het oostaziatische Vasteland," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlix. (1898) pp. 549-585; G.P. Rouffaer, "Matjan Gadoengan," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_ 1. (1899) pp. 67-75; J. Knebel, "De Weertijger op Midden-Java, den Javaan naverteld," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xli. (1899) pp. 568-587; L.M.F. Plate, "Bijdrage tot de kennis van de lykanthropie bij de Sasaksche bevolking in Oost-Lombok," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, liv. (1912) pp. 458-469; G.A. Wilken, "Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel," _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 25-30.

[766] Ernst Marno, _Reisen im Gebiete des blauen und weissen Nil_ (Vienna, 1874), pp. 239 _sq._

[767] Petronius, _Sat._ 61 _sq._ (pp. 40 _sq._, ed. Fr. Buecheler,*[3] Berlin, 1882). The Latin word for a were-wolf (_versipellis_) is expressive: it means literally "skin-shifter," and is equally appropriate whatever the particular animal may be into which the wizard transforms himself. It is to be regretted that we have no such general term in English. The bright moonlight which figures in some of these were-wolf stories is perhaps not a mere embellishment of the tale but has its own significance; for in some places it is believed that the transformation of were-wolves into their bestial shape takes place particularly at full moon. See A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 99, 157; J.L.M. Noguès, _Les Moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), p. 141.

[768] J.G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 6: "In carrying out their unhallowed cantrips, witches assumed various shapes. They became gulls, cormorants, ravens, rats, mice, black sheep, swelling waves, whales, and very frequently cats and hares." To this list of animals into which witches can turn themselves may be added horses, dogs, wolves, foxes, pigs, owls, magpies, wild geese, ducks, serpents, toads, lizards, flies, wasps, and butterflies. See A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_*[2] (Berlin, 1869), p. 150 § 217; L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 327 § 220; Ulrich Jahn, _Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), p. 7. In his _Topography of Ireland_ (chap. 19), a work completed in 1187 A.D., Giraldus Cambrensis records that "it has also been a frequent complaint, from old times as well as in the present, that certain hags in Wales, as well as in Ireland and Scotland, changed themselves into the shape of hares, that, sucking teats under this counterfeit form, they might stealthily rob other people's milk." See _The Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis_, revised and edited by Thomas Wright (London, 1887), p. 83.

[769] _The Folk-lore Journal_, iv. (1886) p. 266; Collin de Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 475; J.L.M. Noguès, _Les Moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), p. 141. In Scotland the cut was known as "scoring above the breath." It consisted of two incisions made crosswise on the witch's forehead, and was "confided in all throughout Scotland as the most powerful counter-charm." See Sir Walter Scott, _Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft_ (London, 1884), p. 272; J.G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 531 _sq._; M.M. Banks, "Scoring a Witch above the Breath," _Folk-lore_, xxiii. (1912) p. 490.

[770] J.L.M. Noguès, _l.c._; L.F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), P. 187.

[771] M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. 117. The wolf-skin is supposed to fall down from heaven and to return to heaven after seven years, if the were-wolf has not been delivered from her unhappy state in the meantime by the burning of the skin.

[772] J.G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 8; compare A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_*[2] (Berlin, 1869), p. 150 § 217. Some think that the sixpence should be crooked. See Rev. W. Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), pp. 71 _sq._, 128; _County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 75.

[773] J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 30.

[774] J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 33.

[775] (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_*[2] (London, 1873), i. 314.

[776] Joseph Glanvil, _Saducismus Triumphatus or Full and Plain Evidence concerning Witches and Apparitions_ (London, 1681), Part ii. p. 205.

[777] Rev. J.C. Atkinson, _Forty Years in a Moorland Parish_ (London, 1891), pp. 82-84.

[778] _County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), pp. 79, 80.

[779] Leland L. Duncan, "Folk-lore Gleanings from County Leitrim," _Folklore_, iv. (1893) pp. 183 _sq._

[780] L.F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 176.

[781] L.F. Sauvé, _op. cit._ pp. 176 _sq._

[782] Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 184 _sq._, No. 203.

[783] E. Meier, _op. cit._ pp. 191 _sq._, No. 215. A similar story of the shoeing of a woman in the shape of a horse is reported from Silesia. See R. Kühnau, _Schlesische Sagen_ (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. pp. 27 _sq._, No. 1380.

[784] R. Kühnau, _Schlesische Sagen_ (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. pp. 23 _sq._, No. 1375. Compare _id._, iii. pp. 28 _sq._, No. 1381.

[785] See for example L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. pp. 328, 329, 334, 339; W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 164, 165 _sq._; H. Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 100 _sq._ The belief in such things is said to be universal among the ignorant and superstitious in Germany. See A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_*[2] (Berlin, 1869), p. 150, § 217. In Wales, also, "the possibility of injuring or marking the witch in her assumed shape so deeply that the bruise remained a mark on her in her natural form was a common belief" (J. Ceredig Davies, _Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales_, Aberystwyth, 1911, p. 243). For Welsh stories of this sort, see J. Ceredig Davies, _l.c._; Rev. Elias Owen, _Welsh Folk-lore_ (Oswestry and Wrexham, N.D., preface dated 1896), pp. 228 _sq._; M. Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 214.

[786] L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 361, § 239.

[787] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 210.

[788] L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 358, § 238.

[789] L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ i. p. 360, § 238e.

[790] "The 'Witch-burning' at Clonmell," _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 373-384. The account there printed is based on the reports of the judicial proceedings before the magistrates and the judge, which were published in _The Irish Times_ for March 26th, 27th, and 28th, April 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 8th, and July 6th, 1895.

[791] John Graham Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 185. In this passage "quick" is used in the old sense of "living," as in the phrase "the quick and the dead." _Nois_ is "nose," _hoill_ is "hole," _quhilk (whilk)_ is "which," and _be_ is "by."

[792] J.G. Dalyell, _op. cit._ p. 186. _Bestiall_=animals; _seik_=sick; _calling_=driving; _guidis_=cattle.

[793] John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 446 _sq._ As to the custom of cutting off the leg of a diseased animal and hanging it up in the house, see above, p. 296, note 1.

[794] (Sir) Arthur Mitchell, A.M., M.D., _On Various Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 12 (reprinted from the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, vol. iv.).

[795] _County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 75, quoting Rev. R.M. Heanley, "The Vikings: traces of their Folklore in Marshland," a paper read before the Viking Club, London, and printed in its _Saga-Book_, vol. iii. Part i. Jan. 1902. The wicken-tree is the mountain-ash or rowan free, which is a very efficient, or at all events a very popular protective against witchcraft. See _County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, pp. 26 _sq._, 98 _sq._; Mabel Peacock, "The Folklore of Lincolnshire," _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) p. 175; J.G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 11 _sq._; Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 188. See further _The Scapegoat_, pp. 266 _sq_.