Chapter IV: The Fire-Festivals of Europe (11)

[467] Felix Chapiseau, _Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris, 1902), i. 318-320. In Perche the midsummer bonfires were called _marolles_. As to the custom formerly observed at Bullou, near Chateaudun, see a correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 117.

[468] Albert Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 88 _sq._

[469] L.F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 186.

[470] Désiré Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_ (Paris, 1854), pp. 207 _sqq._; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, pp. 217 _sq._

[471] Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires de la Provence_ (Paris, 1885), p. 142.

[472] Charles Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 89. The names of the bonfires vary with the place; among them are _failles, bourdifailles, bâs_ or _baux, feulères_ or _folières_, and _chavannes_.

[473] _La Bresse Louhannaise_, Juin, 1906, p. 207.

[474] Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 78 _sqq._ The writer adopts the absurd derivation of _jônée_ from Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal, Bel, or Belus figures prominently in this and many other accounts of the European fire-festivals.

[475] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150.

[476] Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 408.

[477] Guerry, "Sur les usages et traditions du Poitou," _Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, viii. (1829) pp. 451 _sq._

[478] Breuil, in _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 206; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_, i. 83; J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 225.

[479] H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue," _Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note 3.

[480] L. Pineau, _Le Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 499 _sq._ In Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_, p. 219).

[481] A. de Nore, _Coutumes Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 149 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 218 _sq._

[482] Dupin, "Notice sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du département des Deux-Sèvres," _Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, iv. (1823) p. 110.

[483] J.L.M. Noguès, _Les moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178 _sq._

[484] H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue," _Revue Archéologique_, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.

[485] Ch. Cuissard, _Les Feux de la Saint-Jean_ (Orleans, 1884), pp. 22 _sq._

[486] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ p. 127.

[487] Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 341 _sq._

[488] Aubin-Louis Millin, _op. cit._ iii. 28.

[489] A. de Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 19 _sq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Reminiscences populaires de la Provence_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the custom at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil, _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 190 note. The custom of drenching people on this occasion with water used to prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other towns in the south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured on the heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See Breuil, _op. cit._ pp. 237 _sq._

[490] A. de Nore, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._; E. Cortet, _op. cit._ pp. 218, 219 _sq._

[491] Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 416 _sq._ 439.

[492] Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _op. cit._ i. 439-442.

[493] Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc., _du Département du Nord_ (Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J.W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. 392; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_. p. 513.

[494] E. Monseur, _Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels, N.D.), p. 130, §§ 1783, 1786, 1787.

[495] Joseph Strutt, _The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_, New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.

[496] John Stow, _A Survay of London_, edited by Henry Morley (London, N.D.), pp. 126 _sq._ Stow's _Survay_ was written in 1598.

[497] John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 338; T.F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer to _Status Scholae Etonensis_ (A.D. 1560).

[498] John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), p. 26.

[499] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 300 _sq._, 318, compare pp. 305, 306, 308 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus_, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson, _View of Northumberland_, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, p. (15), under the head "Midsummer":--"It is usual to raise fires on the tops of high hills and in the villages, and sport and danse around them; this is of very remote antiquity, and the first cause lost in the distance of time."

[500] Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, quoted by William Borlase, _Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), p. 135 note.

[501] _County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie, _An Historical, Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of Northumberland_, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 217.

[502] _County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour, p. 75.

[503] _County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour, p. 75.

[504] _The Denham Tracts_, edited by J. Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342 _sq._, quoting _Archælogia Aeliana_, N.S., vii. 73, and the _Proceedings_ of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, vi. 242 _sq._; _County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75 _sq._ Whalton is a village of Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.

[505] _County Folk-lore_, vol. vi. _East Riding of Yorkshire_, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.

[506] John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), p. 96, compare _id._, p. 26.

[507] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 311.

[508] William Borlase, LL.D., _Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), pp. 135 _sq._ The Eve of St. Peter is June 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or the day of St. Peter. See above, pp. 194 _sq._ 196 _sq._, and below, pp. 199 _sq._, 202, 207.

[509] J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 318, 319; T.F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 315.

[510] William Bottrell, _Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall_ (Penzance, 1870), pp. 8 _sq._, 55 _sq._; James Napier, _Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_ (Paisley, 1879), p. 173.

[511] Richard Edmonds, _The Land's End District_ (London, 1862), pp. 66 _sq._; Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207 _sq._

[512] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 27 _sq._ Compare Jonathan Ceredig Davies, _Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.

[513] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 318.

[514] Joseph Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.

[515] Sir Henry Piers, _Description of the County of Westmeath_, written in 1682, published by (General) Charles Vallancey, _Collectanea de Rebus Hibernieis_, i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123 _sq._

[516] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 303, quoting the author of the _Survey of the South of Ireland_, p. 232.

[517] J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 305, quoting the author of the _Comical Pilgrim's Pilgrimage into Ireland_ (1723), p. 92.

[518] _The Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124 _sq._ The writer dates the festival on June 21st, which is probably a mistake.

[519] T.F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 321 _sq._, quoting the _Liverpool Mercury_ of June 29th, 1867.

[520] L.L. Duncan, "Further Notes from County Leitrim," _Folk-lore_, v. (1894) p. 193.

[521] A.C. Haddon, "A Batch of Irish Folk-lore," _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 351, 359.

[522] G.H. Kinahan, "Notes on Irish Folk-lore," _Folk-lore Record_, iv. (1881) p. 97.

[523] Charlotte Elizabeth, _Personal Recollections_, quoted by Rev. Alexander Hislop, _The Two Babylons_ (Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.

[524] Lady Wilde, _Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland_ (London, 1887), i. 214 _sq._

[525] T.F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 322 _sq._, quoting the _Hibernian Magazine_, July 1817. As to the worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 288 _sq._, 366 _sqq._

[526] Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the parish of Monquhitter in Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that in Scotland "before the bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve, the houses were decorated with foliage brought from the woods" (_Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, London, 1899, pp. 80 _sq._). For his authority he refers to _Chambers' Journal_, July, 1842.

[527] John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.

[528] Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in John Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 136.

[529] A. Macdonald, "Midsummer Bonfires," _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 105 _sq._

[530] From notes kindly furnished to me by the Rev. J.C. Higgins, parish minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins adds that he knows of no superstition connected with the fire, and no tradition of its origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in 1898, but, as Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar circumstances, "I did not happen to arrive at the season of the festival." Indeed the snow was falling thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful woods of "the Castle o' Montgomery" immortalized by Burns. From a notice in _The Scotsman_ of 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that the old custom was observed as usual that year.

[531] Thomas Moresinus, _Papatus seu Depravatae Religionis Origo et Incrementum_ (Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.

[532] Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.

[533] Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of Madrid, published in _Le Temps_, September 1898. An extract from the newspaper was sent me, but without mention of the day of the month when it appeared. The fires on St. John's Eve in Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the custom from a passage in a romance (_Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 518). The custom of washing or bathing on the morning of St. John's Day is mentioned by the Spanish historian Diego Duran, _Historia de las Indias de Nueva España_, edited by J.F. Ramirez (Mexico, 1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the morning of St. John's Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy, Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 8; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 157.

[534] M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. Seemann, "Folklore of the Azores," _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._; Theophilo Braga, _O Povo Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes_ (Lisbon, 1885), ii. 304 _sq._, 307 _sq._

[535] See below, pp. 234 _sqq._

[536] Angelo de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 185 note 1.

[537] _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 202 _sq._

[538] G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 154 _sq._

[539] G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, pp. 158-160. We may compare the Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and splashing water at Midsummer. See above, pp. 193 _sq._, 208.

[540] Giuseppe Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), pp. 246, 308 _sq._; _id., Usi e Costumi, Credenze e Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano_ (Palermo, 1889), pp. 146 _sq._

[541] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 518.

[542] V. Busuttil, _Holiday Customs in Malta, and Sports, Usages, Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of the Maltese People_ (Malta, 1894), pp. 56 _sqq._ The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H.W. Underwood (letter dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). See _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 77 _sq._

[543] W. R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 128. The custom was reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 (_Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 520).

[544] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 519.

[545] G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau, _Le Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), pp. 308 _sq._

[546] W.R. Paton, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 94. From the stones cast into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as in Scotland, Wales, and probably Brittany. See above, p. 183, and below, pp. 230 _sq._, 239, 240.

[547] W.H.D. Rouse, "Folklore from the Southern Sporades," _Folk-lore_, x. (1899) p. 179.

[548] Lucy M.J. Garnett, _The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore, the Christian Women_ (London, 1890), p. 122; G.F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 57.

[549] J.G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 156.

[550] K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Natur-Völkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 561.

[551] Alcide d'Orbigny, _Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale_, ii. (Paris and Strasbourg, 1839-1843), p. 420; D. Forbes, "On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru," _Journal of the Ethnological Society of London_, ii. (1870) p. 235.

[552] Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 566 _sq_. For an older but briefer notice of the Midsummer fires in North Africa, see Giuseppe Ferraro, _Superstizioni, Usi e Proverbi Monferrini_ (Palermo, 1886), pp. 34 _sq._: "Also in Algeria, among the Mussalmans, and in Morocco, as Alvise da Cadamosto reports in his _Relazione dei viaggi d'Africa_, which may be read in Ramusio, people used to hold great festivities on St. John's Night; they kindled everywhere huge fires of straw (the _Palilia_ of the Romans), in which they threw incense and perfumes the whole night long in order to invoke the divine blessing on the fruit-trees." See also Budgett Meakin, _The Moors_ (London, 1902), p. 394: "The Berber festivals are mainly those of Islam, though a few traces of their predecessors are observable. Of these the most noteworthy is Midsummer or St. John's Day, still celebrated in a special manner, and styled _El Ansarah_. In the Rîf it is celebrated by the lighting of bonfires only, but in other parts there is a special dish prepared of wheat, raisins, etc., resembling the frumenty consumed at the New Year. It is worthy of remark that the Old Style Gregorian calendar is maintained among them, with corruptions of Latin names."

[553] Edward Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folklore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 28-30; _id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 79-83.

[554] E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 30 _sq._; _id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture_, etc., pp. 83 _sq._

[555] Edmond Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 _sq._

[556] E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 31 _sq._; _id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture_, etc., pp. 84-86.

[557] See K. Vollers, in Dr. James Hastings's _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_ iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) _s.v._ "Calendar (Muslim)," pp. 126 _sq._ However, L. Ideler held that even before the time of Mohammed the Arab year was lunar and vague, and that intercalation was only employed in order to fix the pilgrimage month in autumn, which, on account of the milder weather and the abundance of food, is the best time for pilgrims to go to Mecca. See L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und techischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 495 _sqq._

[558] E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_, pp. 496, 509, 532, 543, 569. It is somewhat remarkable that the tenth, not the first, day of the first month should be reckoned New Year's Day.

[559] E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 40-42.

[560] E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 541 _sq._

[561] E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 42; _id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), p. 101.

[562] E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905), pp. 42 _sq._, 46 _sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture_, etc., _in Morocco_, pp. 99 _sqq._

[563] G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_ (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 60 _sq._

[564] "Narrative of the Adventures of four Russian Sailors, who were cast in a storm upon the uncultivated island of East Spitzbergen," translated from the German of P.L. Le Roy, in John Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), i. 603. This passage is quoted from the original by (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 259 _sq._

[565] See _The Scapegoat_, pp. 166 _sq._

[566] E.K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 110 _sqq._

[567] In Eastern Europe to this day the great season for driving out the cattle to pasture for the first time in spring is St. George's Day, the twenty-third of April, which is not far removed from May Day. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 324 _sqq._ As to the bisection of the Celtic year, see the old authority quoted by P.W. Joyce, _The Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), ii. 390: "The whole year was [originally] divided into two parts--Summer from 1st May to 1st November, and Winter from 1st November to 1st May." On this subject compare (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 460, 514 _sqq.; id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 _sqq._; J.A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings's _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) p. 80.

[568] See below, p. 225.

[569] Above, pp. 146 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 59 _sqq._

[570] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Manx and Welsh_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 316, 317 _sq._; J.A. MacCulloch, in Dr. James Hastings's _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, iii. (Edinburgh, 1910) _s.v._ "Calendar," p. 80, referring to Kelly, _English and Manx Dictionary_ (Douglas, 1866), _s.v._ "Blein." Hogmanay is the popular Scotch name for the last day of the year. See Dr. J. Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), ii. 602 _sq._

[571] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_, i. 316 _sq._

[572] Above, p. 139.

[573] See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 309-318. As I have there pointed out, the Catholic Church succeeded in altering the date of the festival by one day, but not in changing the character of the festival. All Souls' Day is now the second instead of the first of November. But we can hardly doubt that the Saints, who have taken possession of the first of November, wrested it from the Souls of the Dead, the original proprietors. After all, the Saints are only one particular class of the Souls of the Dead; so that the change which the Church effected, no doubt for the purpose of disguising the heathen character of the festival, is less great than appears at first sight.

[574] In Wales "it was firmly believed in former times that on All Hallows' Eve the spirit of a departed person was to be seen at midnight on every cross-road and on every stile" (Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_, London, 1909, p. 254).

[575] E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 68.

[576] A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) p. 53.

[577] (Sir) Jolin Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), p. 516.

[578] P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 264 _sq._, ii. 556.

[579] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 516.

[580] Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 61 _sq._

[581] Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 258-260.

[582] Douglas Hyde, _Beside the Fire, a Collection of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories_ (London, 1890), pp. 104, 105, 121-128.

[583] P.W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 229.

[584] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 254.

[585] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, pp. 514 _sq._ In order to see the apparitions all you had to do was to run thrice round the parish church and then peep through the key-hole of the door. See Marie Trevelyan, _op. cit._ p. 254; J. C. Davies, _Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 77.

[586] Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 75.

[587] Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 282.

[588] Thomas Pennant, "Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides in 1772," in John Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) pp. 383 _sq._ In quoting the passage I have corrected what seem to be two misprints.

[589] John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 437 _sq._ This account was written in the eighteenth century.

[590] Rev. James Robertson, Parish minister of Callander, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xi. (Edinburgh, 1794), pp. 621 _sq._

[591] Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_ v. (Edinburgh, 1793) pp. 84 _sq._

[592] Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 67.

[593] James Napier, _Folk Lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland within this Century_ (Paisley, 1879), p. 179.

[594] J. G. Frazer, "Folk-lore at Balquhidder," _The Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) p. 270.

[595] Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), pp. 167 _sq._

[596] Rev. A. Johnstone, as to the parish of Monquhitter, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xxi. (Edinburgh, 1799) pp. 145 _sq._

[597] A. Macdonald, "Some former Customs of the Royal Parish of Crathie, Scotland," _Folk-lore_, xviii. (1907) p. 85. The writer adds: "In this way the 'faulds' were purged of evil spirits." But it does not appear whether this expresses the belief of the people or only the interpretation of the writer.

[598] Rev. John Gregorson Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 282 _sq._

[599] Robert Burns, _Hallowe'en_, with the poet's note; Rev. Walter Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 84; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 69; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 287.

[600] R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. Walter Gregor, _l.c._; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ pp. 70 _sq._; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 286.

[601] R. Burns, _l.c._.; Rev. W. Gregor, _l.c._; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 73; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 285; A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) pp. 54 _sq._

[602] R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 85; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 71; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 285. According to the last of these writers, the winnowing had to be done in the devil's name.

[603] R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _l.c._; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 72; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 286; A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides," _Folklore_, xiii. (1902) p. 54.

[604] Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 283.

[605] Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 283 _sq._; A. Goodrich-Freer, _l.c._

[606] Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 284.

[607] R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ p. 85; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit._ p. 70; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 284. Where nuts were not to be had, peas were substituted.

[608] Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 284.

[609] Rev. J.G. Campbell, _l.c._ According to my recollection of Hallowe'en customs observed in my boyhood at Helensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, another way was to stir the floating apples and then drop a fork on them as they bobbed about in the water. Success consisted in pinning one of the apples with the fork.

[610] R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit_. pp. 85 _sq_.; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit_. pp. 72 _sq_.; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit_. p. 287.

[611] R. Burns, _l.c._; Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit_. p. 85; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _op. cit_. pp. 69 _sq_.; Rev. J.G. Campbell, _op. cit_. p. 285. It is the last of these writers who gives what may be called the Trinitarian form of the divination.

[612] Miss E.J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 74 _sq_.

[613] A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) p. 55.

[614] Pennant's manuscript, quoted by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 389 _sq_.

[615] Sir Richard Colt Hoare, _The Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales A.D. MCLXXXVIII. by Giraldus de Barri_ (London, 1806), ii. 315; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 390. The passage quoted in the text occurs in one of Hoare's notes on the Itinerary. The dipping for apples, burning of nuts, and so forth, are mentioned also by Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 253, 255.

[616] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 515 _sq._ As to the Hallowe'en bonfires in Wales compare J.C. Davies, _Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales_ (Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 77.

[617] See above, p. 183.

[618] See above, p. 231.

[619] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 254 _sq._

[620] (General) Charles Vallancey, _Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis_, iii. (Dublin, 1786), pp. 459-461.

[621] Miss A. Watson, quoted by A.C. Haddon, "A Batch of Irish Folk-lore," _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 361 _sq._

[622] Leland L. Duncan, "Further Notes from County Leitrim," _Folk-lore_, v. (1894) pp. 195-197.

[623] H.J. Byrne, "All Hallows Eve and other Festivals in Connaught," _Folk-lore_, xviii. (1907) pp. 437 _sq._

[624] Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 123; (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 315 _sqq._

[625] (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901), i. 318-321.

[626] John Harland and T.T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_ (Manchester and London, 1882), pp. 3 _sq_.

[627] J. Harland and T.T. Wilkinson, _op. cit_. p. 140.

[628] Annie Milner, in William Hone's _Year Book_ (London, preface dated January, 1832), coll. 1276-1279 (letter dated June, 1831); R.T. Hampson, _Medii Aevi Kalendarium_ (London, 1841), i. 365; T.F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 395.

[629] _County Folk-lore_ vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 78. Compare W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England_ (London, 1879), pp. 96 _sq_.

[630] Baron Dupin, in _Mémoires publiées par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, iv. (1823) p. 108.

[631] The evidence for the solar origin of Christmas is given in _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 254-256.

[632] For the various names (Yu-batch, Yu-block, Yule-log, etc.) see Francis Grose, _Provincial Glossary_, New Edition (London, 1811), p. 141; Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_ (London, 1898-1905), vi. 593, _s.v._ "Yule."

[633] "I am pretty confident that the Yule block will be found, in its first use, to have been only a counterpart of the Midsummer fires, made within doors because of the cold weather at this winter solstice, as those in the hot season, at the summer one, are kindled in the open air." (John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, London, 1882-1883, i. 471). His opinion is approved by W. Mannhardt _(Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_, p. 236).

[634] "_Et arborem in nativitate domini ad festivum ignem suum adducendam esse dicebat_" (quoted by Jacob Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, i. 522).

[635] Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbrauche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 12. The Sieg and Lahn are two rivers of Central Germany, between Siegen and Marburg.

[636] J.H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 4.

[637] Adalbert Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. § 319, pp. 103 _sq_.

[638] A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ ii. § 523, p. 187.

[639] August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 172.

[640] K. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), pp. 108 _sq._

[641] Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), ii. 326 _sq._ Compare J.W. Wolf, _Beiträgezur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1858), i. 117.

[642] J.B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_*[5] (Paris, 1741), i. 302 _sq._; Eugène Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. _266 sq._

[643] J.B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p. 323.

[644] Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 336 _sq._ The fire so kindled was called _caco fuech_.

[645] Alfred de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 151 _sq._ The three festivals during which the Yule log is expected to burn are probably Christmas Day (December 25th), St. Stephen's Day (December 26th), and St. John the Evangelist's Day (December 27th). Compare J.L.M. Noguès, _Les Moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), pp. 45-47. According to the latter writer, in Saintonge it was the mistress of the house who blessed the Yule log, sprinkling salt and holy water on it; in Poitou it was the eldest male who officiated. The log was called the _cosse de Nô_.

[646] Laisnel de Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centres de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 1-3.

[647] Jules Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 291. The author speaks of the custom as still practised in out-of-the-way villages at the time when he wrote. The usage of preserving the remains of the Yule-log (called _tréfouet_) in Normandy is mentioned also by M'elle Amélie Bosquet, _La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 294.

[648] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 256.

[649] Paul Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 217 _sq._

[650] Albert Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 96 _sq._

[651] See above, p. 251.

[652] Lerouze, in _Mémoires de l'Academie Celtique_, iii. (1809) p. 441, quoted by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 469 note.

[653] L.F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 370 _sq._

[654] Charles Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 183.

[655] A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 302 _sq._

[656] John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 467.

[657] J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 455; _The Denham Tracts_, edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 25 _sq._

[658] Herrick, _Hesperides_, "Ceremonies for Christmasse":

"_Come, bring with a noise, My merrie merrie boyes, The Christmas log to the firing_;... _With the last yeeres brand Light the neiv block_"

And, again, in his verses, "Ceremonies for Candlemasse Day":

"_Kindle the Christmas brand, and then Till sunne-set let it burne; Which quencht, then lay it up agen, Till Christmas next returne. Part must be kept, wherewith to teend The Christmas log next yeare; And where 'tis safely kept, the fiend Can do no mischiefe there_"

See _The Works of Robert Herrick_ (Edinburgh, 1823), vol. ii. pp. 91, 124. From these latter verses it seems that the Yule log was replaced on the fire on Candlemas (the second of February).

[659] Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 398 note 2. See also below, pp. 257, 258, as to the Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, and Welsh practice.

[660] Francis Grose, _Provincial Glossary_, Second Edition (London, 1811), pp. 141 _sq._; T.F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 466.

[661] _County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour and edited by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1904), p. 79.

[662] _County Folk-lore,_ vol. ii. _North Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty,_ collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), pp. 273, 274, 275 _sq_.

[663] _County Folk-lore_, vol. vi. _East Riding of Yorkshire_, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), pp. 23, 118, compare p. 114.

[664] John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), p. 5.

[665] _County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 219. Elsewhere in Lincolnshire the Yule-log seems to have been called the Yule-clog (_op. cit_. pp. 215, 216).

[666] Mrs. Samuel Chandler (Sarah Whateley), quoted in _The Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1883) pp. 351 _sq_.

[667] Miss C.S. Burne and Miss G.F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 397 _sq_. One of the informants of these writers says (_op. cit._ p. 399): "In 1845 I was at the Vessons farmhouse, near the Eastbridge Coppice (at the northern end of the Stiperstones). The floor was of flags, an unusual thing in this part. Observing a sort of roadway through the kitchen, and the flags much broken, I enquired what caused it, and was told it was from the horses' hoofs drawing in the 'Christmas Brund.'"

[668] Mrs. Ella Mary Leather, _The Folklore of Herefordshire_ (Hereford and London, 1912), p. 109. Compare Miss C.S. Burne, "Herefordshire Notes," _The Folk-lore Journal_, iv. (1886) p. 167.

[669] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 28.

[670] "In earlier ages, and even so late as towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the Servian village organisation and the Servian agriculture had yet another distinguishing feature. The dangers from wild beasts in old time, the want of security for life and property during the Turkish rule, or rather misrule, the natural difficulties of the agriculture, more especially the lack in agricultural labourers, induced the Servian peasants not to leave the parental house but to remain together on the family's property. In the same yard, within the same fence, one could see around the ancestral house a number of wooden huts which contained one or two rooms, and were used as sleeping places for the sons, nephews and grandsons and their wives. Men and women of three generations could be often seen living in that way together, and working together the land which was considered as common property of the whole family. This expanded family, remaining with all its branches together, and, so to say, under the same roof, working together, dividing the fruits of their joint labours together, this family and an agricultural association in one, was called _Zadrooga_ (The Association). This combination of family and agricultural association has morally, economically, socially, and politically rendered very important services to the Servians. The headman or chief (called _Stareshina_) of such family association is generally the oldest male member of the family. He is the administrator of the common property and director of work. He is the executive chairman of the association. Generally he does not give any order without having consulted all the grown-up male members of the _Zadroega_" (Chedo Mijatovich, _Servia and the Servians_, London, 1908, pp. 237 _sq._). As to the house-communities of the South Slavs see further Og. M. Utiesenovic, _Die Hauskommunionen der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1859); F. Demelic, _Le Droit Coutumier des Slaves Méridionaux_ (Paris, 1876), pp. 23 _sqq._; F.S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), pp. 64 _sqq._ Since Servia, freed from Turkish oppression, has become a well-regulated European state, with laws borrowed from the codes of France and Germany, the old house-communities have been rapidly disappearing (Chedo Mijatovich, _op. cit._ p. 240).

[671] Chedo Mijatovich, _Servia and the Servians_ (London, 1908), pp. 98-105.

[672] Baron Rajacsich, _Das Leben, die Sitten und Gebräuche der im Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1873), pp. 122-128.

[673] Baron Rajacsich, _Das Leben, die Sitten und Gebrauche der im Kaiserthume Oesterreich lebenden Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1873), pp. 129-131. The Yule log (_badnyak_) is also known in Bulgaria, where the women place it on the hearth on Christmas Eve. See A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 361.

[674] M. Edith Durham, _High Albania_ (London, 1909), p. 129.

[675] R.F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894) p. 71.

[676] See above, pp. 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258. Similarly at Candlemas people lighted candles in the churches, then took them home and kept them, and thought that by lighting them at any time they could keep off thunder, storm, and tempest. See Barnabe Googe, _The Popish Kingdom_ (reprinted London, 1880), p. 48 _verso_.

[677] See above, pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 263.

[678] See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 356 _sqq._

[679] See above, pp. 248, 249, 250, 251, 264.

[680] August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), pp. 171 _sq._

[681] Jules Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 289 _sq._

[682] Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 124, referring to Cregeen's _Manx Dictionary_, p. 67.

[683] R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 789-791, quoting _The Banffshire Journal_; Miss C.F. Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_ (London, 1883), p. 226; Miss E.J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 223-225; Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 244 _sq_.; _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 11-14, 46. Miss Gordon Gumming and Miss Guthrie say that the burning of the Clavie took place upon Yule Night; but this seems to be a mistake.

[684] Caesar, _De bello Gallico_, vii. 23.

[685] Hugh W. Young, F.S.A. Scot., _Notes on the Ramparts of Burghead as revealed by recent Excavations_ (Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 3 _sqq_.; _Notes on further Excavations at Burghead_ (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 7 _sqq_. These papers are reprinted from the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, vols. xxv., xxvii. Mr. Young concludes as follows: "It is proved that the fort at Burghead was raised by a people skilled in engineering, who used axes and chisels of iron; who shot balista stones over 20 lbs. in weight; and whose daily food was the _bos longifrons_. A people who made paved roads, and sunk artesian wells, and used Roman beads and pins. The riddle of Burghead should not now be very difficult to read." (_Notes on further Excavations at Burghead_, pp. 14 _sq_.). For a loan of Mr. Young's pamphlets I am indebted to the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute David.

[686] Robert Cowie, M.A., M.D., _Shetland, Descriptive and Historical_ (Aberdeen, 1871), pp. 127 _sq._; _County Folk-lore_, vol. iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G.F. Black and edited by Northcote W. Thomas (London, 1903), pp. 203 _sq._ A similar celebration, known as Up-helly-a, takes place at Lerwick on the 29th of January, twenty-four days after Old Christmas. See _The Scapegoat_, pp. 167-169. Perhaps the popular festival of Up-helly-a has absorbed some of the features of the Christmas Eve celebration.

[687] Thomas Hyde, _Historia Religionis veterum Persarum_ (Oxford, 1700), pp. 255-257.

[688] On the need-fire see Jacob Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_*[4] i. 501 _sqq._; J.W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852-1857), i. 116 _sq._, ii. 378 _sqq._; Adalbert Kuhn, _Die Herabkunjt des Feuers und des Göttertranks_*[2] (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 41 _sqq._; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 48 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 518 _sqq._; Charles Elton, _Origins of English History_ (London, 1882), pp. 293 _sqq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 26 _sqq._ Grimm would derive the name _need-_fire (German, _niedfyr, nodfyr, nodfeur, nothfeur_) from _need_ (German, _noth_), "necessity," so that the phrase need-fire would mean "a forced fire." This is the sense attached to it in Lindenbrog's glossary on the capitularies, quoted by Grimm, _op. cit._ i. p. 502: "_Eum ergo ignem_ nodfeur _et_ nodfyr, _quasi necessarium ignem vocant_" C.L. Rochholz would connect _need_ with a verb _nieten_ "to churn," so that need-fire would mean "churned fire." See C.L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149 _sq._ This interpretion is confirmed by the name _ankenmilch bohren_, which is given to the need-fire in some parts of Switzerland. See E. Hoffmann-Krayer, "Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch," _Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskünde_, xi. (1907) p. 245.

[689] "_Illos sacrilegos ignes, quos_ niedfyr _vocant_," quoted by J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 502; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 312.

[690] _Indiculus Superstitionum et Paganiarum_, No. XV., "_De igne fricato de ligno i.e._ nodfyr." A convenient edition of the _Indiculus_ has been published with a commentary by H.A. Saupe (Leipsic, 1891). As to the date of the work, see the editor's introduction, pp. 4 _sq_.

[691] Karl Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_,*[2] (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), pp. 252 _sq._, quoting a letter of the mayor (_Schultheiss_) of Neustadt to the mayor of Marburg dated 12th December 1605.

[692] Bartholomäus Carrichter, _Der Teutschen Speisskammer_ (Strasburg, 1614), Fol. pag. 17 and 18, quoted by C.L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), ii. 148 _sq._

[693] Joh. Reiskius, _Untersuchung des Notfeuers_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1696), p. 51, quoted by J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 502 _sq._; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 313.

[694] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, *[4] i. 503 _sq._

[695] J. Grimm, _op. cit._ i. 504.

[696] Adalbert Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 369.

[697] Karl Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 149-151.

[698] Carl und Theodor Colshorn, _Märchen und Sagen_ (Hanover, 1854), pp. 234-236, from the description of an eye-witness.

[699] Heinrich Pröhle, _Harzbilder, Sitten und Gebräuche aus dem Harz-gebirge_ (Leipsic, 1855), pp. 74 _sq._ The date of this need-fire is not given; probably it was about the middle of the nineteenth century.

[700] R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), pp. 313 _sq._

[701] R. Andree, _op. cit._ pp. 314 _sq._

[702] Montanus, _Die deutschen Volks-feste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 127.

[703] Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 204.

[704] Anton Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 250.

[705] Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 209.

[706] C.L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), ii. 149.

[707] E. Hoffmann-Krayer, "Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch," _Schweizerisches Archiv fur Volkskunde_, xi. (1907) pp. 244-246.

[708] E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _op. cit._ p. 246.

[709] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 505.

[710] "Old-time Survivals in remote Norwegian Dales," _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 314, 322 _sq._ This record of Norwegian folk-lore is translated from a little work _Sundalen og Öksendalens Beskrivelse_ written by Pastor Chr. Glükstad and published at Christiania "about twenty years ago."

[711] Prof. VI. Titelbach, "Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven," _Inter-nationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) pp. 2 _sq._ We have seen (above, p. 220) that in Russia the need-fire is, or used to be, annually kindled on the eighteenth of August. As to the need-fire in Bulgaria see also below, pp. 284 _sq._

[712] F.S. Krauss, "Altslavische Feuergewinnung," _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 318, quoting P. Ljiebenov, _Baba Ega_ (Trnovo, 1887), p. 44.

[713] F.S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 319, quoting _Wisla_, vol. iv. pp. 1, 244 _sqq._

[714] F.S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 318, quoting Oskar Kolberg, in _Mazowsze_, vol. iv. p. 138.

[715] F.S. Krauss, "Slavische Feuerbohrer," _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 140. The evidence quoted by Dr. Krauss is that of his father, who often told of his experience to his son.

[716] Prof. Vl. Titelbach, "Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven," _Internationales Archiv fur Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 3.

[717] See below, vol. ii. pp. 168 _sqq._

[718] Adolf Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 194-199.

[719] _Wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina_, redigirt von Moriz Hoernes, iii. (Vienna, 1895) pp. 574 _sq._

[720] "_Pro fidei divinae integritate servanda recolat lector quod, cum hoc anno in Laodonia pestis grassaretur in pecudes armenti, quam vocant usitate Lungessouth, quidam bestiales, habitu claustrales non animo, docebant idiotas patriae ignem confrictione de lignis educere et simulachrum Priapi statuere, et per haec bestiis succurrere_" quoted by J.M. Kemble, _The Saxons in England_ (London, 1849), i. 358 _sq._; A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_*[2] (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 43; Ulrich Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884) p. 31.

[721] W.G.M. Jones Barker, _The Three Days of Wensleydale_ (London, 1854), pp. 90 _sq._; _County Folk-lore_, vol. ii., _North Riding of Yorkshire, York and the Ainsty_, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1901), p. 181.

[722] _The Denham Tracts, a Collection of Folklore by Michael Aislabie Denham_, edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 50.

[723] Harry Speight, _Tramps and Drives in the Craven Highlands_ (London, 1895), p. 162. Compare, _id., The Craven and North-West Yorkshire Highlands_ (London, 1892), pp. 206 _sq._

[724] J.M. Kemble, _The Saxons in England_ (London, 1849), i. 361 note.

[725] E. Mackenzie, _An Historical, Topographical and Descriptive View of the County of Northumberland_, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 218, quoted in _County Folk-lore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 45. Compare J.T. Brockett, _Glossary of North Country Words_, p. 147, quoted by Mrs. M.C. Balfour, _l.c.: "Need-fire_ ... an ignition produced by the friction of two pieces of dried wood. The vulgar opinion is, that an angel strikes a tree, and that the fire is thereby obtained. Need-fire, I am told, is still employed in the case of cattle infected with the murrain. They were formerly driven through the smoke of a fire made of straw, etc." The first edition of Brockett's _Glossary_ was published in 1825.

[726] W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folklore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), pp. 167 _sq._ Compare _County Folklore_, vol. iv. _Northumberland_, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 45. Stamfordham is in Northumberland. The vicar's testimony seems to have referred to the first half of the nineteenth century.

[727] M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J. Pinkerton's _General Collection of Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809), p. 611. The second edition of Martin's book, which Pinkerton reprints, was published at London in 1716. For John Ramsay's account of the need-fire, see above, pp. 147 _sq._

[728] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 506, referring to Miss Austin as his authority.

[729] As to the custom of sacrificing one of a plague-stricken herd or flock for the purpose of saving the rest, see below, pp. 300 _sqq._

[730] John Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson, iii. (Paisley, 1880) pp. 349 _sq._, referring to "Agr. Surv. Caithn., pp. 200, 201."

[731] R.C. Maclagan, "Sacred Fire," _Folk-lore_, ix. (1898) pp. 280 _sq._ As to the fire-drill see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 207 _sqq._

[732] W. Grant Stewart, _The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1823), pp. 214-216; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 53 _sq._

[733] Alexander Carmichael, _Carmina Gadelica_ (Edinburgh, 1900), ii. 340 _sq._

[734] See above, pp. 154, 156, 157, 159 _sq._

[735] _Census of India, 1911_, vol. xiv. _Punjab_, Part i. _Report_, by Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 302. So in the north-east of Scotland "those who were born with their feet first possessed great power to heal all kinds of sprains, lumbago, and rheumatism, either by rubbing the affected part, or by trampling on it. The chief virtue lay in the feet. Those who came into the world in this fashion often exercised their power to their own profit." See Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), pp. 45 _sq._

[736] Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 186. The fumigation of the byres with juniper is a charm against witchcraft. See J.G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. ii. The "quarter-ill" is a disease of cattle, which affects the animals only in one limb or quarter. "A very gross superstition is observed by some people in Angus, as an antidote against this ill. A piece is cut out of the thigh of one of the cattle that has died of it. This they hang up within the chimney, in order to preserve the rest of the cattle from being infected. It is believed that as long as it hangs there, it will prevent the disease from approaching the place. It is therefore carefully preserved; and in case of the family removing, transported to the new farm, as one of their valuable effects. It is handed down from one generation to another" (J. Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson, iii. 575, _s.v._ "Quarter-ill"). See further Rev. W. Gregor, _op. cit._ pp. 186 _sq._: "The forelegs of one of the animals that had died were cut off a little above the knee, and hung over the fire-place in the kitchen. It was thought sufficient by some if they were placed over the door of the byre, in the 'crap o' the wa'.' Sometimes the heart and part of the liver and lungs were cut out, and hung over the fireplace instead of the fore-feet. Boiling them was at times substituted for hanging them over the hearth." Compare W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), p. 167: "A curious aid to the rearing of cattle came lately to the knowledge of Mr. George Walker, a gentleman of the city of Durham. During an excursion of a few miles into the country, he observed a sort of rigging attached to the chimney of a farmhouse well known to him, and asked what it meant. The good wife told him that they had experienced great difficulty that year in rearing their calves; the poor little creatures all died off, so they had taken the leg and thigh of one of the dead calves, and hung it in a chimney by a rope, since which they had not lost another calf." In the light of facts cited below (pp. 315 _sqq._) we may conjecture that the intention of cutting off the legs or cutting out the heart, liver, and lungs of the animals and hanging them up or boiling them, is by means of homoeopathic magic to inflict corresponding injuries on the witch who cast the fatal spell on the cattle.

[737] _The Mirror_, 24th June, 1826, quoted by J. M. Kemble, _The Saxons in England_ (London, 1849), i. 360 note 2.

[738] Leland L. Duncan, "Fairy Beliefs and other Folklore Notes from County Leitrim," _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896) pp. 181 _sq._

[739] (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 237 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 207 _sqq._

[740] For some examples of such extinctions, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 261 _sqq._, 267 _sq._; _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 311, ii. 73 _sq._; and above, pp. 124 _sq._, 132-139. The reasons for extinguishing fires ceremonially appear to vary with the occasion. Sometimes the motive seems to be a fear of burning or at least singeing a ghost, who is hovering invisible in the air; sometimes it is apparently an idea that a fire is old and tired with burning so long, and that it must be relieved of the fatiguing duty by a young and vigorous flame.

[741] Above, pp. 147, 154. The same custom appears to have been observed in Ireland. See above, p. 158.

[742] J.N.B. Hewitt, "New Fire among the Iroquois," _The American Anthropologist_, ii. (1889) p. 319.

[743] J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,*[4] i. 507.

[744] See above, p. 290.

[745] William Hone, _Every-day Book_ (London, preface dated 1827), i. coll. 853 _sq._ (June 24th), quoting Hitchin's _History of Cornwall_.

[746] Hunt, _Romances and Drolls of the West of England_, 1st series, p. 237, quoted by W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), p. 149. Compare J.G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 184: "Here also maybe found a solution of that recent expedient so ignorantly practised in the neighbouring kingdom, where one having lost many of his herd by witchcraft, as he concluded, burnt a living calf to break the spell and preserve the remainder."

[747] Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 23.

[748] W. Henderson, _op. cit._ pp. 148 _sq._

[749] Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 186.

[750] R. N. Worth, _History of Devonshire_, Second Edition (London, 1886), p. 339. The diabolical nature of the toad probably explains why people in Herefordshire think that if you wear a toad's heart concealed about your person you can steal to your heart's content without being found out. A suspected thief was overheard boasting, "They never catches _me_: and they never ooll neither. I allus wears a toad's heart round my neck, _I_ does." See Mrs. Ella M. Leather, in _Folk-lore_, xxiv. (1913) p. 238.

[751] Above, p. 301.