Chapter I: Preface (1)

The study of Nature has of late years enormously increased, and there is probably no branch of its varied and inexhaustible interests which appeals more strongly to young and old than the fascinating study of Birds.

Every one feels more or less interested in Birds, whether it be from pure affection for the Robins and Tits which beg our hospitality during the winter months, or joy at the coming of the Swallow and Cuckoo as heralds of spring.

For some the interest is perhaps merely a passing regret at the shooting of one of our rare and beautiful migrants, while with others the real love of bird life makes it a moment of intensest pleasure when, for instance, the melodious note of the Nightingale makes us dimly realise something of the innate beauty of Nature herself.

In the following pages will be found not only descriptions and plates of the birds themselves, but, wherever possible, notes on their ways and habits have also been given. These notes having been taken at first hand straight from Nature, it is hoped that they may give a small insight into some of those beautiful mysteries which it is our ambition to unravel, and that, at the same time, they may awaken and stimulate a further desire to know still more of the workings of the great laws of the Universe and the part they play in the lives of even the least of the feathered creatures.

It has been thought best to include in this book every species which has been known to occur in Great Britain, with a description of their leading characteristics and true habitat, so that any bird met with may be easily identified; and the plates have been carefully selected so as to give examples of the most typical species.

For facts relative to geographical distribution and other technical details the author has freely consulted Mr. Howard Saunders' _Manual of British Birds_.

In conclusion, the author hopes most sincerely that this book may often prove to be of help and service to the genuine seeker after reliable information on British Birds, and also that it may encourage observation and further research in a branch of Natural History where discovery ever stimulates to fresh discovery and where interest never fails.

J. LEWIS BONHOTE.
Gade Spring,
Hemel Hempstead, Herts,
_November 1907_.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Missel Thrush _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
2. Song Thrush 4
3. Fieldfare 10
4. Blackbird 16
5. Ring Ouzel 20
6. Wheatear 22
7. Stonechat 30
8. Redstart 32
9. Robin 36
10. Nightingale 38
11. Whitethroat 40
12. Lesser Whitethroat 42
13. Blackcap 46
14. Dartford Warbler 48
15. Fire-crested Wren and Golden-crested Wren 50
16. Chiffchaff and Willow Wren 54
17. Reed Warbler and Marsh Warbler 60
18. Grasshopper Warbler 66
19. Hedge Accentor (Hedge Sparrow) 68
20. Bearded Reedling 72
21. Long-tailed Tit 74
22. Great Tit 76
23. Marsh Tit 78
24. Nuthatch 80
25. Common Wren 82
26. Tree-Creeper 84
27. Pied Wagtail 86
28. Grey Wagtail 88
29. Blue-headed Wagtail 90
30. Tree Pipit and Meadow Pipit 92
31. Red-backed Shrike 102
32. Waxwing 104
33. Spotted Flycatcher 106
34. Sand-Martin 112
35. Greenfinch 114
36. Goldfinch 118
37. Tree-Sparrow 124
38. Chaffinch 126
39. Linnet 130
40. Mealy Redpoll 132
41. Bullfinch 136
42. Crossbill 138
43. Yellow Bunting (Yellow Hammer) 142
44. Cirl Bunting 144
45. Snow Bunting and Lapland Bunting 150
46. Starling 152
47. Jay 156
48. Magpie 158
49. Jackdaw 160
50. Rook 166
51. Skylark 168
52. Common Swift 174
53. Wryneck 178
54. Greater Spotted Woodpecker 180
55. Kingfisher 182
56. Cuckoo 186
57. Barn Owl 190
58. Long-eared Owl 192
59. Tawny Owl 194
60. Golden Eagle 204
61. Peregrine 212
62. Kestrel 216
63. Shag 220
64. Bittern 228
65. Sheld-Duck 240
66. Mallard or Wild Duck 242
67. Shoveller 246
68. Wigeon 252
69. Tufted Duck 256
70. Common Scoter 262
71. Red-breasted Merganser 266
72. Stock Dove 270
73. Turtle Dove 272
74. Red Grouse 276
75. Partridge 280
76. Land-Rail 284
77. Water-Rail 286
78. Moor-hen 288
79. Stone Curlew 294
80. Ringed Plover 300
81. Golden Plover and Grey Plover 304
82. Lapwing 308
83. Oyster-Catcher 312
84. Grey Phalarope and Red-necked Phalarope 314
85. Woodcock 318
86. Dunlin 324
87. Redshank 342
88. Curlew 348
89. Common Tern 354
90. Black-headed Gull 360
91. Herring Gull 364
92. Greater Black-backed Gull 368
93. Kittiwake 370
94. Richardson's Skua 374
95. Razorbill 376
96. Common Guillemot 378
97. Black Guillemot 380
98. Red-throated Diver 386
99. Great-crested Grebe 388
100. Storm Petrel and Leach's Petrel 392

Wing.
1. Lesser Coverts.
2. Median "
Greater or Major Coverts.
3. Primary "
4. Secondary "
Quills, Remiges, or Flight feathers.
5. Primaries
6. Secondaries
7. Bastard-Primary.
8. " Wing.
Leg.
Tarsus.
Ist or hind toe.
IInd or inner toe.
IIIrd or middle toe.
IVth or outer toe.
*This joint is the heel proper, but is commonly called the thigh.

BIRDS OF BRITAIN

THE MISSEL THRUSH
Turdus viscivorus, Linnæus

It was by the sea-coast, on a bleak and wind-swept hill covered with short grass and patches of heather and gorse, that our attention was first directed to a light-coloured bird of fair size which rose at our feet from behind a tussock, and uttering a curious wild churring note, darted away against the strong south-west wind. Well has he earned his name of "Storm Cock" from his wild note and rapid flight. Watch him now, sustained by quick, continuous wing-beats, and now as the wind slackens carried along with a dipping motion and outstretched wings, the whole bird suggestive of strength and activity, and as fickle and changeable in his moods as the elements among which he delights to live.

It was in June that I first saw him, when he and others of his kind, who but a few months before were callow and helpless nestlings, were learning from the summer gale a taste of what they would have to face when winter brought its storms and tempests, for the Storm Cock is no migrant to warmer climes and softer breezes, but leads a regular roving gipsy's life over our Islands, wandering from the northernmost corners of Scotland to the south of England, obeying no will but his own, and guided by no special impulse beyond that of satisfying his own appetite,--by no means a difficult task, as little in the way of berries or insects comes amiss to him. His common name of Missel Thrush (Mistletoe Thrush) is derived from his supposed fondness for this berry, but this is a point on which doubt still exists.

On the day when we first saw him, however, he was engaged in picking up the flies, ants, beetles, and other live prey which the scanty vegetation on the hill enabled him to see and capture easily. In spots where the ground was loose he would dig in his bill and turn over a small bit of earth, then stand with head held expectantly on one side, literally waiting for something to turn up. Often he would repeat this several times with little or no result, then all of a sudden down would go his head and we would make out something between his mandibles, then would come a quick movement of his head and his beak would be empty again.

Suddenly one of his brothers near uttered an alarm-note, and in an instant he was up and across the valley, where for the moment we could not follow him.

Thus, then, he spends his life from May till January: on cliffs by the sea, on bare moorlands, in thick woods--where the mountain-ash berries in their season form a favourite food--over open, cultivated fields where the freshly-turned furrow has unearthed abundant delicacies--or in the country hedgerow where hips and haws, elderberries and sloe are not less appreciated. Here to-day and gone to-morrow, a restless, wandering bird.

As early as January, however, he begins to think of nesting, and having secured a mate, retires to what is for him a comparatively sheltered spot, either to a wood, or preferably to a row of trees along a hedge, and not unfrequently to some fruit-tree in an orchard or garden. Whether or not the Missel Thrush returns year after year to the same spot to nest we cannot say, but, as a rule, the same garden or row of trees will every spring shelter a pair of these birds if once they have nested there.

Although he may probably build his nest quite close to our house, yet the Missel Thrush is always wild and shy, and is rarely seen except as he flies over the garden uttering his unmistakable note, or as he sits on the topmost branch of some tall tree and sings his love-song to his mate below. The song is wild, and consists of a somewhat incoherent medley of notes, which, if not calculated to appeal especially to our musical ear, strikes at any rate a note of harmony with the winter's wind.

The nest is placed on a horizontal branch some 10 or 12 feet from the ground, and often at some distance from the trunk of the tree. The Missel Thrush is very conservative in its choice of a site, and seldom if ever chooses any other position. When built the nest is a fairly conspicuous object, with its foundation of twigs and mud and lined with grass and hay. Towards the end of February, however, we shall one day be surprised to see a large nest in some conspicuous position, and on examination will probably discover the hen, sitting on four to six eggs of a bluish colour with large reddish spots and blotches fairly evenly distributed over their surface. But even now, although we know exactly where the nest of these shy birds is, it will not be easy to see much of them.

When the young are hatched both parents attend most assiduously to the wants of the brood, feeding them on earth-worms, the favourite food of almost all the Thrushes. By the end of March the first brood is on the wing, and the parents busy themselves with a new nest for the reception of their second family. These, too, are hatched and on the wing by the middle of May, and then the whole family, young and old, leave their home to wander round the country until another January brings them back again to add their note of harmony to the winter's wind.

The upper parts are of a uniform ash brown, under parts buffish white thickly spotted with dark brown. The sexes are alike in plumage. The young has the upper parts spotted with buff, and the spots below are much smaller. Length 11 in.; wing 6 in.

THE SONG THRUSH
Turdus musicus, Linnæus

One of the first signs that winter is thinking of releasing its grasp, and that spring, if still some way off, is nevertheless on the way, is the clear melodious song of the Song Thrush. Soon after daybreak (having breakfasted off the early worm) this bird may be heard in almost every garden that can boast of a shrub large enough to conceal him and his nest. Any sort of cultivated country forms his home, either the broad fields, scanty hedgerows, the carefully-cultivated garden of the wealthy, or even the small and dusty plot of the town-dweller.

His food consists chiefly of insects, though worms form a considerable part of his diet, and snails are a delicacy of which he is extremely fond.

There must be few people who have not noticed our brown friend hopping down the garden path with his peculiar sidelong leaps, now and then varied by two or three quick short steps as he conveys a snail to his favourite _abattoir_. This usually consists of a moderate-sized smooth stone, on which the unfortunate snail is beaten till his house falls from him; when this is accomplished there is a quick gulp, and he is gone! Thus refreshed, our friend will mount a near-by twig, clean his bill by rubbing it several times on either side of his perch, preen and shake out his feathers a bit, and then resting on one leg he will whistle his song, which has been rendered by some writers in the following words:--"Deal o' wet, deal o' wet, deal o' wet, I do, I do, I do. Who'd do it: Pretty Dick, Pretty Dick, Pretty Dick, Who'd do it." This will go on for some time until perhaps he happens to glance down at the lawn which he considers his especial preserve. Here he sees something which causes his song to cease in an instant. It is his rival openly flaunting himself before him. There is a swirl of wings as he rushes to the attack! They meet! Their bills snap violently, and there is every prospect of a fight. Then suddenly the rival retreats precipitately into the nearest bush, hotly pursued by our friend, and we have time to notice the peculiar way in which the tail and wings are spread as they disappear. Then we see no more.

Such is the life of one of our commonest birds as we may witness it any day in early spring. By the end of March, or even earlier, its nest may be found in some sheltered nook. It is not often more than 10 feet from the ground, and is generally in the fork of some tree or bush, or on the beam of some old barn or potting shed; perhaps it may be found in the middle of a hedgerow, or occasionally even on the ground. It is composed of rough grass and bents, and lined with mud pressed round and smoothed so as to form a fairly deep cup.

The eggs are five in number, and in colour are a beautiful pale blue, with a few small black or purplish-mauve spots towards the larger end, these markings being in some cases entirely lacking. After a fortnight's incubation the young are hatched; they are then almost naked and only slightly covered with down.

Incubation is carried on by the hen alone, but both birds assist in the feeding, the diet consisting almost entirely of earth-worms. In about a fortnight to three weeks after the young are hatched they leave the nest to find and earn their own living, whilst their parents busy themselves with the cares of another family, for a pair of birds generally rears three broods in the season. After the rearing of the last brood, which is over by the end of June or early in July, both old and young begin to moult. Consequently, at this time of year they are very quiet and skulking in their habits, but we may sometimes catch sight of them in the evenings and early mornings when they come out to feed on lawns and fields where the grass is short and where their favourite earth-worms abound. About the end of August a close observer will often miss his little friend for a few days or even weeks. Then one morning he will again see the familiar figure on the lawn and think that perhaps his companion has returned. But it is not so. The spring visitor has gone to another part of the country, probably not very far away, as this species is only a partial migrant, but nevertheless he has gone, and the bird which has taken his place has come from some more northerly locality to spend the winter. Probably we do not notice the change, and put down the temporary disappearance of our particular Song Thrush to the fact that we chanced not to see him. It is not so, however, for our friend of spring and summer has departed.

The general colour above, including mantle and wings, is uniform olive brown, some of the major and median covers having buffish tips. Breast yellowish, spotted with triangular olive-brown spots, the flanks uniformly olive, chin and throat white, margined with a row of dark streaks. Belly white. Bill brown, base of lower mandible paler. Legs pale flesh. Iris hazel. Length 9·0 in.; wing 4·6 in.

Young birds are spotted on the upper parts. This species is widely and generally distributed throughout the British Isles.

THE REDWING
Turdus iliacus, Linnæus

From the middle to the end of October, when the leaves are falling thickly from the trees, and the dull, dark days of winter are beginning to make themselves felt, we may be aware, while walking along a country lane or through a park, of a new arrival among our birds. There rises, probably from the ground, a dark-coloured bird, whose quick movement will at once catch our eye, and being in company with others similar to himself, we shall have no difficulty in recognising the Redwing. Tired possibly by his long journey, he will settle on the hedge a little in front of us, and begin diligently feeding on any berries he can find, as but little in that line comes amiss to our friend; and soon he will again drop to the ground, and we shall get a glimpse of the deep red feathers under his wings from which he has derived his trivial name. At this season of the year Redwings are essentially wanderers, moving about in flocks of from a dozen to thirty or more, stopping here and there where food is plentiful for a few days or weeks, and then moving on, always southward, as lack of food or the severity of the weather dictates. If the winter be mild, they may be found roosting in large numbers in thick hawthorn hedges or small plantations; for although fond of cover, and spending most of their time among undergrowth on the ground, they are not very partial to large woods, preferring thick hedgerows or small coppices. A cold north wind, accompanied by snow and frost, drives most of these birds away from our shores to sunnier climes: their place, however, is soon taken, if the hard weather be prolonged, by large immigrations of poor storm-driven birds from the north of the Continent, who reach us with barely sufficient strength to seek their food, and who receive, too frequently, an inhospitable reception. Such wanderers become exceedingly tame, and may be found hopping disconsolately round our gardens within a foot or two of us, and the mortality in such seasons as these must be very great. Happily this extreme severity does not often happen, and one is glad to think that as a rule our visitors, driven to us by hard weather abroad, find sustenance in our warmer, if still somewhat boisterous, climate.

In April, that strange homing instinct which animates almost every known bird, causes the Redwings to leave our hedgerows at their most beautiful time, and to seek a northern home where they may settle down and rear their young. There, where song-birds are scarce, his little warble, which would be unnoticed here in our wealth of songsters, is eagerly awaited, and eulogised as though it were the rich outpourings of a nightingale. His nest is built on the ground, or just above it at the foot of some bush, or even in a crevice a short distance up the trunk of a tree; but if so far north as to be beyond the limit of tree growth, a sloping bank or the shelter of some boulder will be selected as the site. The nest is substantially built of grass with a foundation of twigs, and is similar to that of our Blackbird, to which species also the eggs, though slightly smaller, bear a close resemblance. Two broods are sometimes reared in the season, especially in the more southerly parts of its breeding range, and after the duties of family life are over, the birds unite in small flocks, lingering in their northern home till autumnal storms drive them once more among us.

The male in winter is uniform olive brown above. Chest and chin pale buff, thickly and irregularly streaked with dark brown. Sides of face dark brown, a light buffish or white superciliary streak running from the base of the upper mandible over the eye. Flanks deep rich chestnut; remainder of lower parts white, slightly streaked on the sides with olive brown. Bill dark horn colour, legs pale flesh. Length 8·75 in.; wing 4·4 in. The sexes are similar in plumage, but the female is paler and duller in colour than the male. The young bird is spotted on the back, and after the autumn moult may still be recognised by the pale tips to the wing coverts.

Its breeding range extends north of 54° from the Yenesei westward to Scandinavia, and its breeding in our islands has not as yet been authenticated. In winter it is found throughout the south of Europe, extending eastwards through Persia and Turkestan.

THE FIELDFARE
Turdus pilaris, Linnæus

An unwonted note strikes our ears, a sort of "chack" or "chick," and looking round we see that it proceeds from a flock of ten or a dozen birds flying on a straight course high in the air, with quick and regular wing-beats. At first sight they appear like Missel Thrushes, but their flight is less erratic, and their unmistakable note tells us that the last of our migrant Thrushes has arrived to spend the winter with us. Like the Redwing, the Fieldfare is emphatically a bird of the North, although, as he always nests in trees, he does not touch high latitudes, like the Redwing, being restrained in that direction by the limit of tree growth. In summer the woods of the far north form his home, and, as if he himself felt the solitude and intense stillness that reigns there, he breeds generally in small colonies of from ten to a dozen pairs. The nests are generally placed in the first fork of a birch tree, from 4 to 8 feet above the ground. The eggs closely resemble those of the Missel Thrush, but are rather smaller. The Fieldfare's song is very feeble, and consists of an incoherent warble, varied with the "chack, chack" of his call-note. However he is not the only denizen of the woods that feels the need of companionship, as it will generally be found that a few pairs of Redwings have also nested near the colony, and their more melodious song is an added element of cheerfulness. Amid such surroundings the young Fieldfare is hatched, and is carefully tended by his parents, who supply him with worms, insects, beetles, and in fact any small living thing that they can capture. They are most bold and noisy in defence of their young, flying close round an intruder's head, and uttering their alarm-note unceasingly. The young bird being duly fledged, leaves his nest, and in company with others of his own age wanders about the woods, feeding on insects or any fruit he can find; while his parents, to make the most of the short summer, busy themselves with the cares of a second brood. It is not until the first storms and snows of winter come that the Fieldfare leaves his summer home, though during the few weeks that have elapsed since he left the nest he may have wandered aimlessly far from his birthplace. The chill mists of autumn, however, remind him that he must move south, so reluctantly, as if clinging to the edge of winter, he finally takes flight, and we in England hear his "chack, chack" towards the end of October, his numbers being continually augmented as each fresh northerly blast drives some of his kind farther and farther south. While with us, as he is essentially a sociable bird, he attaches himself to wandering flocks of Missel Thrushes and Redwings, and among the former he may always be distinguished by his light-coloured rump, which shows up conspicuously against the darker wings and mantle. Thus he wanders the whole winter through, feeding chiefly on the hips and haws in the hedges, and probably also on worms and grubs, for he may frequently be met with in ploughed fields. At night, with much "chacking," he goes to roost in some thick hedge, coppice, or plantation, where, in company with the Missel Thrushes, he will seek the highest branches, while the Redwing roosts in the thicker growth below. In hard weather he does not seem to suffer like the Redwing, possibly from his marked preference for berries, which even the heaviest snow does not cover. It would seem as if the long journeys which he has to take were distasteful to him, for summer is nearly with us before the last Fieldfares have left our shores, as not uncommonly they may be seen until the middle of May; or perchance he knows that the inhospitable climate, to which he resorts to breed, driven by some irresistible and incomprehensible force, will not till then afford him and his progeny the necessary sustenance. Be that as it may, we can still hear his cheery voice long after we have left winter behind us.

The sexes are alike in plumage, but the female is rather paler in colouring. The adult male in winter has the head and neck slate grey, the feathers of the crown having dark centres which are hardly noticeable at this season; mantle and scapulars deep rufous brown; wing coverts less rufous and showing traces of paler tips. Rump grey; quills and tail dark brown. Fore-neck pale yellow, streaked with dark brown on the sides; chest rufous streaked with brown; flank feathers dark brown with broad white margins concealing the darker colour. Lower breast and chest white. In summer the pale edgings to the under parts wear off, causing him to become nearly black on the flanks and lower breast, while the dark streaks on the crown become much more conspicuous. Bill horn coloured in winter, yellow in summer. Legs and feet dark brown. Total length 10 in.; wing 5·5 in. The plumage of the young bird resembles that of the adult on the back, but the head and rump are much browner; some of the feathers of the mantle have lightish centres, though the amount and extent of these varies greatly. Below it is of a uniform pale yellow, deeper on the breast, each feather having a black terminal heart-shaped spot.

This species is generally distributed throughout the British Isles from October to May; breeding throughout Scandinavia, Russia, and Siberia as far east as the Lena. It does not, as a rule, nest south of the Baltic, though there are said to be isolated colonies in the high mountain regions of Central Europe, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. Its winter migrations extend throughout the whole of Southern Europe and Asia Minor, including both sides of the Mediterranean basin.

THE BLACK-THROATED THRUSH
Turdus atrigularis, Temminck

This is an Eastern species, breeding in Siberia from the Ural Mountains eastwards, and wintering in Persia, Afghanistan, and India. Stragglers have frequently been obtained in Europe, and two or three examples have been taken in these islands.

The adult is brown on the upper parts and whitish below, except for the chin, which is spotted, and the throat and breast, which are black. Length 9·75 in.; wing 5·45 in.

WHITE'S THRUSH
Turdus varius, Pallas

A large Thrush, rather bigger than a Missel Thrush, and not unlike that species in its immature plumage. It is of extremely rare occurrence on our islands, and has only been obtained in about eight or nine counties of England, and on three occasions in Ireland.

Young Missel Thrushes have been frequently recorded as belonging to this species. White's Thrush may, however, always be distinguished by having _fourteen_ tail feathers instead of twelve, and the under side of the wing, which in the Missel Thrush is pure white, has in this species a broad black bar across the centre.

Its summer home lies across Siberia, east of the Yenesei, through Northern China and Japan, whence it migrates in winter to South China and the Philippines.

THE BLACKBIRD
Turdus merula, Linnæus

Mingling with the Song Thrushes on the lawn, but always recognisable by his much longer tail and darker colour, we may at all times of the year see the Blackbird. He is hardly so familiar as his neighbour the Thrush, and prefers to keep near the shrubbery, where, on the least sign of real or imaginary danger, he may retire, and by remaining motionless be secure from observation; but if we follow him, and approach too near, he will fly away, uttering his loud alarm-note of "Cluck, cluck!" He will not be long away, however, and if we remain quiet he will soon be back again, crossing the lawn with long, measured hops, stopping now and again to look round and to spread and "flirt" his broad fan-shaped tail. The Missel Thrush will be sitting on the eggs, and the Song Thrush will have nearly completed her nest, before our sable friend begins to think of matrimonial cares. Towards the end of February his clear flute-like notes will be heard from the shrubbery or hedgerow--a song which, if more mellow in tone, is far shorter and more monotonous than that of the Song Thrush, although the performance of some individual Blackbirds is longer and more pleasing. He will now sing almost continuously, with the exception of a few short intervals spent in chasing his mate, who, unlike him, wears a dull suit of russet brown. And he will have to prove himself a _preux chevalier_ ere he can win his lady fair, for there will almost certainly be two or three other suitors to fight, and the victor alone can claim the lady, while the ousted competitors retire from the field. This extreme combativeness makes the species appear scarcer than is really the case, as each pair will claim suzerain rights over a comparatively large space. The nest is built low down in some bush or hedgerow, on the ground in a bank, in a furze bush or on a heath, and is formed entirely of grass and bents, with a little mud for the foundation, but well lined with finer bents; it is rather larger in diameter, and shallower, than that of the Thrush. The eggs, four to six in number, have a pale blue ground colour, thickly mottled with reddish markings, sometimes uniformly distributed over its surface, at others confined to broader blotches forming a ring round its larger end, or again, in some cases, the markings may be entirely absent. The young, like those of most Thrushes, are fed almost entirely on earthworms, though insects are also swallowed; two or three broods are reared in the season, and as summer advances and fruit ripens, visits are paid to the neighbouring orchards and gardens, the spoils from which form, during the season, a very large proportion of their diet, so there is no doubt that the gardeners' complaints of them are only too well justified. With the advent of the migration season in September and October large numbers leave our shores, only, we fear, to be caught and eaten by our neighbours across the Channel, where members of the Thrush family are considered great delicacies. Many however remain, spending the winter in thick hedgerows, shrubberies, and woods, or anywhere in fact where there is a bush high enough to shelter them. Furze-covered commons are favourite localities, as are also the open heather-covered tops of low hills.

Our friends, however, do not all follow the laws of migration; some do not leave the neighbourhood of their home unless driven away by stronger rivals. And so it happens that year by year, as winter relaxes its grasp, we can see our orange-billed friend on his accustomed perch in hedge or bush singing away in full consciousness that his own power has earned him the right to do so, and quite prepared to defend it again and again, till in course of time he is ousted by another minstrel, who reigns in his stead by the law that "might is right." The Blackbirds found migrating along our shores are either the surplus population, driven farther afield by competition, or wanderers from the colder parts of the Continent of Europe from which it regularly migrates.

_The male_ is of a uniform deep glossy black, with bright orange bill. Legs and feet black. Iris hazel. Young males in their first winter have a black bill. Total length 10·1 in.; wing 5 in.

_The female_ is of a uniform dull sooty brown above; chin greyish, with dark brown streaks; chest reddish brown, each feather with a darker tip, giving it a mottled appearance. Flanks dark brown, sometimes mottled with lighter. Vent sooty grey.

The young of both sexes resemble the female in general appearance, but the feathers of the head and back have light shafts. Young males are a shade darker in colour. Generally distributed throughout the British Isles, except Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, where it only occurs on migration.

THE DUSKY THRUSH
Turdus dubius, Bechstein

This species breeds in Eastern Siberia, from the valley of the Yenesei to the Pacific. Several stragglers have been obtained at different times in Europe, but the only British example was shot in 1905 near Gunthorpe, Notts.

The general colour is greyish brown above, streaked with darker, becoming more rufous on the rump. Quills broadly margined with rufous. Below white, breast and flanks boldly marked with black; under wing coverts and axillaries rufous.

THE RING OUZEL
Turdus torquatus (Linnæus)

"Chuck, chuck"--"chuck, chuck, chuck!" The note is strangely reminiscent of the Fieldfare, but it is now June, and even the latest stragglers of that species have left us. We are on a hillside in Wales, below us lies the Irish Channel, with hardly a ripple on its surface, the hill itself is almost covered with a short growth of furze and heather, the intervening spaces being carpeted with short moss and grass, kept well cropped by the hardy race of sheep for which the Principality is justly famous. "Chuck, chuck"--this time we catch a glimpse of the bird, the beautiful white half-moon on his breast showing up clearly against the black of the rest of his plumage as he sits on one of the boulders that project through the vegetation and refuse to be hidden. He rises, and making a swift semicircular flight, pitches on another point of vantage, whilst the hen also appears and regards us with anxiety. However, as we stay still, she presently disappears, and he, ceasing his monotonous note, hops behind a tussock of grass, and all is quiet. Suddenly he reappears with a fine insect in his beak; we are still regarded with suspicion, and the clucking note is often repeated as he flies round us several times, continually settling for a few seconds to make sure whether our presence is for good or ill before he betrays the whereabouts of his nest, the all-absorbing interest of his life at the present time. Soon he takes another flight, and we lose sight of him as he disappears in a small gully. Following quickly we are just able to see his mate come from the steep side of the ravine, and almost simultaneously he appears and joins her in fluttering round us in a terrible state of agitation, and doubtless with a feeling that had he been more patient we should have gone away without finding his home. As, however, his cries produce no effect, he flies off and settles some distance away. A few feet down the bank, and cunningly hidden near a sheep-path, underneath an overhanging tuft, is the nest, built almost entirely of grass and bents, as is the case with most of the Thrushes, but with little or no mud. The young, four in number, being well grown, scramble out of the nest, calling out at the same time, and bringing their parents round us again, more vociferous than ever. We have, however, no evil intentions, and having satisfied our curiosity we continue our walk. Suddenly a bird rises from behind a stone at our feet, flies a few yards, and disappears round another boulder, this action is repeated several times, till finally, becoming really alarmed, he flies rapidly away over the spur of the hill. His plumage is uniformly dark, just a little lighter on the breast, and we recognise (if we did not already know it) a young bird strongly on the wing; a few yards farther on we see a hen bird, possibly his mother; she leaves her nest with four eggs, which much resemble those of a Blackbird. The nest was placed on the ground, under the shelter of a bramble. On all the moorlands and hills of the British Isles this Ring Ouzel may be found during the summer, nesting either as already described, or in holes of old walls, barns, or in fact wherever a spot can be found well concealed and sheltered from the wind. Towards the end of September he leaves his summer home and is then generally distributed throughout the country, although often overlooked owing to his resemblance to a Blackbird when seen from a short distance. Watch him, however, till he settles, for when alarmed he invariably perches on the top of the hedge before dropping down the other side, while the Blackbird, with his characteristic motion of the tail, enters the hedge at once low down on the near side. The Ring Ouzel is not at home in the cultivated lowlands, and by the end of October they have all left the country.

In Cornwall and Devon they reappear again at the end of February, and working their way northwards through Wales, commence to nest early in April, as soon as spring has made itself felt on the hills. A few may spend the winter in our most south-western counties, and it is probable that our home-bred birds travel entirely by a western route, and that the birds met with in the east and southeast of the country are all foreign bred, for till the end of April birds are found still pursuing their northward journey to lands beyond ours.

The general colour of the upper parts is brownish black, with lighter margins to the wing coverts. Under parts brownish black with broad white crescentic gorget. The female is lighter, and has a narrow gorget. In autumn both sexes have the feathers margined with grey. Length 10 in.; wing 5·5 in.

THE ROCK THRUSH
Monticola saxatilis (Linnæus)

The Rock Thrush is an Eastern species that breeds sparingly from Central Europe eastwards through Southern Siberia and North China, and southwards in Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, and Persia. It has only once been obtained in our islands, namely in Hertfordshire in 1843.

The male is greyish blue on the head, neck, and mantle; white on the rump, tail and under parts bright chestnut. The female is speckled brown above, chin and throat whitish, breast and under parts buff mottled with brown. Length 7·5 in.; wing 4·75 in.

THE WHEATEAR
Saxicola oenanthe (Linnæus)

Before the March winds have subsided, and while the trees and all vegetation are still in their winter sleep, the first of the Wheatears appears in the south-west of England. A lively and sprightly little chap is he, as he sits on a tussock of grass or on a fence, jerking his tail, or darting with a quick sharp flight to some other elevation, showing, as he does so, his conspicuous white rump, while his dark wing feathers and tail and grey back prevent the passer-by from mistaking him for any other species. He is a bird of the open, preferring large sandy stretches or wide moorlands, and it is only during migration that he affects woodlands and the more cultivated districts. As a rule the male birds are the first to arrive, being followed in about a week or ten days by the hens and less vigorous males. Having chosen his mate, about the first or second week in April, he will begin to look for a nesting-site, generally a little way down a rabbit-burrow, or in moorland districts a hole or crevice of a rock or stone wall will be chosen, but wherever placed it will be secure from observation. The nest is loosely built of grass, moss, rabbit fleck, fur, and feathers, or any material that comes handy, and having laid six or seven eggs of a uniform pale-blue colour the hen commences her business of incubation, in which the cock takes no part. He is, however, in constant attendance in the vicinity of the nest, frequently uttering his apology for a song, which consists merely of a few notes carelessly strung together, singing apparently rather from exuberance of spirits than because he really appreciates music, for often, as a spider or other insect comes within his range of vision, he will suddenly break off his song, seize the tempting morsel, and fly up again with his sharp "chack, chack." The nest is somewhat difficult to find, and as a rule can only be discovered by watching the hen bird, who may be recognised by her browner tints; if, however, she suspects you of watching her, she will refuse to return for some considerable time. If you allow your attention to be diverted, she will seize the opportunity to dart home, and your trouble will have been in vain. With the wants, however, of six children to attend to, she will betray less caution; both parents then look after the young, and they may be watched with comparative ease, as, having secured a luscious beakful of insects, spiders especially being a great delicacy, they hop or dart with their peculiar sharp flight from point to point, till finally they are gone, and on approaching the spot where they vanished, you will suddenly see them reappear from some hole or cranny.

The young leave the nest as soon as they are able to hop and flutter, and are then jealously guarded by their parents, who fly round in great excitement if you approach too near. They are soon well on the wing, however, and the old birds are free to burden themselves with another family. During the early part of May, a large variety of the Wheatear may sometimes be seen, most frequently along the sea-shore; these are birds whose home is in the Far North, and which regularly pass through these islands at this time. They are larger and finer birds which have wintered in Africa and have remained on in Southern climes, refusing to be lured away when their English brethren left, but, judging their time as accurately as though possessed of the most reliable of calendars, they leave their tropical winter home when spring in temperate regions has well advanced. Not to be tempted by the attractions our country can offer in its most delightful month, they pursue their journey with restless energy to the apparently inhospitable shores of Greenland. These wanderers, however, do not concern us much; they are gone, and our summer residents are busy with their second brood, and when this is hatched, young and old spend the rest of the warm weather in their home; renewing their plumage, and preparing themselves for the shortening days of autumn, when they pass away to the sunny shores of the Mediterranean and to North Africa, though a few stragglers may possibly be found during the winter in some warm and sheltered nook of Cornwall or Devon. They have gone--October has brought the cold weather, trees are rapidly becoming bare--we go out one morning and find to our surprise that apparently our summer friend has returned; by the next morning he is gone again, and we realise that these passing birds had only stopped to rest before undertaking another night stage on their long journey from the Arctic.

The male is grey on the head, neck, and back; wings black; rump, forehead, and superciliary streak white; lores and ear coverts black. Tail feathers, except the two central ones, which are black, white with broad black tips; underparts white, buffish on the throat and breast; under wing coverts mottled with dark grey and white. The female is brown on the back and ear coverts and much more buff below. The young are greyer and spotted above and below with buff. Length (of small race) 6 in.; wing 3·75 in.

THE ISABELLINE WHEATEAR
Saxicola isabellina, Rüppell

This is a south-eastern species inhabiting the plains of South Russia and Asia Minor in summer, and being a permanent resident in Palestine, Egypt, and East Africa. Only one example has been known in Western Europe; it was shot in Cumberland on November 11, 1887.

This species very closely resembles the Common Wheatear, but may be distinguished as follows: It is more tawny, has more black in its tail, and the under wing coverts are _white_. Length 6·5 in.; wing 3·9 in.

THE BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR
Saxicola stapazina (Linnæus) nec Vieillot

The home of this species is in Southern Europe and North Africa. It has occurred in Sussex on three occasions during both the autumn and spring migrations.

Frontal line, lores, and a large patch extending backwards beyond the ear coverts, wings and wing coverts, black; mantle and breast rufous, rest of the plumage including the throat white. In the female the black is replaced by brownish and the upper parts are brownish grey. Length about 5 in.; wing 3·5 in.

(_N.B._--The name _stapazina_ has, until recently, been used for the next species, whose proper name is _occidentalis_.)

THE BLACK-THROATED WHEATEAR
Saxicola occidentalis, Salvadori

This is a very common summer visitor to the south of Europe, breeding regularly in France as far north as the Loire. It has occurred here on two or three occasions only.

In the male the crown and upper back are golden buff; wings black; under parts pale buffish white; under wing coverts _black_. The female is duller and browner. Length 5·6 in.; wing 3·5 in.

THE DESERT WHEATEAR
Saxicola deserti, Rüppell

This, as its name implies, is a southern desert species and is found widely distributed throughout North Africa and Egypt, to Persia and Afghanistan. It has been taken in Great Britain on at least three occasions--twice in Scotland and once in Yorkshire. It somewhat resembles the preceding species, but may always be distinguished by its tail, which is black almost to the base. Length 5·6 in.; wing 3·6 in.

THE WHINCHAT
Pratincola rubetra (Linnæus)

A merry little fellow is he, arriving in this country with our other summer migrants about the middle of April. His haunts are open fields and pastures, so that he does not often come across his near relation the Stonechat, whom in actions, and to some extent in dress, he clearly resembles.

You will generally first have your attention drawn to him by hearing his well-known note of "u-tick" as you walk across the field, and looking round you will see a small thick-set bird, hanging on to some slender stem which happens to be taller than its fellows; if you approach nearer he will fly a little farther on and settle again. His flight, and the habit of settling on some outstanding stem or spray, is very reminiscent of the Stonechat, but in spring his much paler breast and dark-striped head and buffish face will prevent any confusion. The hens and the young more closely approach in general appearance to the allied species, but the lesser amount of white on the tail and on the head may generally be noted.

Soon after they arrive the nest is begun; this is built on the ground, either under a tussock of grass, or more preferably, if possible, in a sloping bank. It is loosely constructed of grass and bents, and lined with horse hair. The eggs, six or even seven in number, are pale blue, very like those of the Stonechat, but bluer and with less of a greenish hue; as a rule they are absolutely unspotted, but occasionally a few minute rusty specks are present at the larger end. The hen alone sits, but both parents attend to the young. As soon as the first brood is on the wing, generally by the end of May, the parent birds busy themselves with the cares of another family, after which they wander about the open and unenclosed country, till, at the end of August and during the first half of September, they leave our shores for the summer regions of the south.

The male has the upper parts dark brown, mottled with buff. There is a clear, white, superciliary streak; tail feathers dark brown with white bases; wings brown, showing a conspicuous white patch near the body. Under parts bright fawn colour, turning to buff on the belly. The female is similar, but paler and duller; the young resemble the hen, but are slightly spotted on the breast. Length 5·25 in.; wing 3 in.

The species is generally distributed in England, except on the south-west, where it only occurs on migration. In Scotland it is local but widely distributed. In Ireland it breeds in the north, but only occurs in the south on migration.

THE STONECHAT
Pratincola rubicola (Linnæus)

On any rough common, where furze or tangles of bramble form almost the only cover, you may see the Stonechat; summer and winter alike he is there, brightening with his deep chestnut breast and jet-black head and back the otherwise comparatively lifeless spot.

You cannot miss him, or rather, he will not miss you, for as you approach he will rise and settle on the topmost spray of some furze bush, or possibly on the tall stem of grass or thistle.

Jerking his tail with the quivering movement characteristic of his tribe, as though it were on a spring, or uttering his little call of "Tick, tick," he will move ahead with dipping flight to some other point of vantage as you approach, and display as he does so the white on his tail and wings. A bright and happy little chap he is! Living in the open country-side the whole year through, finding there plenty of food, which consists chiefly of caterpillars and other insects, even in our inhospitable winters. Early in April he chooses his mate and sets up housekeeping: the nest, which is loosely built of grass and moss and lined with hair, is very well concealed, being placed near the ground in the centre of a clump of furze or bramble. There, protected by the natural _chevaux de frise_, the six pure blue eggs are laid, and in due course the young are hatched. The male does not sit, but is always to be seen in the vicinity of the nest, and continually brings tit-bits to his mate. Both parents tend the young with great care, and after they have left the nest the family may often be found wandering about together, the male on the approach of danger sitting on the topmost sprays of some bush, while his family remain concealed in the cover, following him singly or two or three at a time as he moves on. A second brood is generally reared in the season, and in autumn, after the moult, a certain amount of wandering takes place, generally in family parties, and at such times we may frequently find them in turnip fields, or on the edge of thick hedgerows, in cultivated country. These wanderings, however, do not generally extend to any great distance from their true home, to which, or to some neighbouring common, they return to spend the winter.

The plumage of the young is brown. The full-grown female resembles the male except that the colouring is less brilliant, and the white markings are not so conspicuous. The male has the head, throat, and back black; a patch on either side of the neck white; tail and wings dark brown with a conspicuous white patch on the wing coverts; breast and under parts bright rufous, lighter on the abdomen. The female has the upper parts striped with brown and the throat spotted with black. The white patches are smaller. The young are mottled and spotted with brown all over. Length 5 in.; wing 2·55 in.

THE SIBERIAN STONECHAT
Pratincola maura, Pallas

This is the representative of the preceding species in Northern Europe and Asia. One example only has been shot on our shores, viz. a male, in Norfolk, on September 2, 1904.

It is characterised by the pure white rump, but in other respects closely resembles the Common Stonechat.

THE REDSTART
Ruticilla phoenicurus (Linnæus)