Chapter V: Preface (5)

In appearance he much resembles the Skylark, but, unlike that species, which is always so alert and ever on the move, the Corn Bunting spends most of his day sitting in an exposed situation on a hedge or on some tall plant in the open field. The nest is a fairly neat structure of grass, roots, and moss, with a lining of horsehair, and is usually placed on the ground in the middle of a field, and often at no great distance from a bush or some other post of vantage on which, as noted above, he spends the greater part of the day. The eggs are extremely handsome, being of a creamy white boldly blotched and scrolled with very dark brown. Insects and seeds are equally consumed, and both being abundant on the cultivated land, in which he delights, he earns an easy living with the minimum of exertion.

During the winter months he loves company and consorts with the Larks and Finches, generally roosting on the ground with the former.

The sexes are alike and have the upper parts pale brown streaked with a darker shade of the same colour. Throat whitish margined with brown spots; rest of the under parts buffish white spotted on the breast and flanks with brown. Length 7 in.; wing 3·6 in.

The young are rather darker and have the wing coverts broadly margined with fulvous.

It is by no means so abundant as the next species but is widely distributed in open, wild, or cultivated country.

THE YELLOW BUNTING
Emberiza citrinella, Linnæus

Day after day throughout the spring and early summer months the Yellow Bunting may be found, sitting on the topmost spray of a hedge and repeating with monotonous frequency his little song, which has often been rendered by the words, "A little bit of bread and no cheese." It is neither long nor pretty, there is no music in it, and it is delivered without soul or fervour, yet in open and cultivated country, where the songs of the woodland birds are absent, it forms on a warm summer's day, a fitting accompaniment to the more ambitious performance of the Lark. Decked out in bright yellow livery toned down and shaded with other dark markings, the Yellow Bunting receives too little recognition at our hands and is not appreciated at his true worth. Harmless, bright, and sociable in habits, he may be found throughout the year in the open fields and hedgerows, and except during the summer months, when insects form a large portion of his diet, he is essentially a seed-eater, destroying in countless numbers the seeds of the various weeds that have a hard struggle for life amongst the cultivated crops.

The nest is a neat structure of grass, roots, and moss woven together and is lined with horsehair. Five eggs form the usual clutch; they are whitish streaked and veined, after the manner characteristic of this family, with purplish red.

In autumn the young and old visit the standing crops in family parties, and they pass the winter seeking their food on the ground in stubbles and fallows or visiting the stack-yards for the fallen grain.

The male has the head, throat, and under parts bright yellow, spotted or streaked, except on the throat, with dark brown. Mantle yellowish brown with darker streaks. Rump reddish brown. Wings brown with broad deep rufous edgings to the secondaries and wing coverts. Tail feathers dark brown with white spots near the tip of the inner web of the two outer pairs. The female resembles the male, but it is very much duller and darker in colour. The young are pale brown all over, lighter on the under parts and more rufous on the back, each feather having a dark central stripe. Length 6·5 in.; wing 3·25 in.

This species is widely distributed throughout Great Britain, and is often known as the Yellow Hammer, the latter word being a corruption of "Ammer," the German word for a Bunting.

THE CIRL BUNTING
Emberiza cirlus, Linnæus

This species is very similar to the Yellow Bunting in habits and plumage, from which it may be most easily distinguished by the black throat and a black line through the eye. In our islands, however, it is very local and chiefly confined to the southern counties, but stragglers have been met with as far north as Yorkshire.

Although frequenting the hedgerows and open country it delights in trees, uttering its song from the higher branches of some hedgerow elm.

The nest is placed near the ground and constructed of similar materials to that of the Yellow Bunting, but the eggs differ in having the markings bolder and chiefly restricted to the larger end, and the hair lines, so numerous on those of the former species, are much fewer in number. Two broods are reared in the season, the young birds being fed on grasshoppers and insects, and the rest of the year is spent in the fields in company with other flocks of Finches.

The male has the top of the head and nape and rump greyish green, streaked with darker. Wing coverts and feathers of the mantle deep reddish brown with dark median spot or streak and broad light margins. Wing and tail dark brown. Cheeks yellow with black line through the eye. Chin and throat black, succeeded by a narrow yellow collar. Upper breast grey; lower breast chestnut. Rest of under parts pale yellow, becoming brownish streaked with darker on the flanks.

The female is much duller in colour and has the throat yellow. She closely resembles the hen Yellow Hammer, but may be distinguished by the absence of yellow on the head and by the lesser wing coverts being reddish brown and not black. The young roughly resemble the female. Length 6·5 in.; wing 3·25 in.

THE ORTOLAN BUNTING
Emberiza hortulana, Linnæus

Up to within the last few years this bird was so freely imported alive to supply the wants of epicures that a large number of its supposed occurrences in these islands are open to suspicion. There seems, however, little doubt, that genuine wild examples have reached these islands from time to time.

This species breeds sparingly in Scandinavia and thence southwards through Denmark, Germany, and France, but it is only in the south of Europe that it becomes common, migrating eastwards and southwards to Abyssinia and North India in winter.

The male has the head greyish; rest of upper parts pale brown streaked with black. Throat yellow, becoming greyish on the upper breast; rest of under parts pale chestnut. The hen is duller with darker streaks on the head. Length 6 in.; wing 3·25 in.

THE MEADOW BUNTING
Emberiza cia, Linnæus

This Bunting is found throughout Central and Southern Europe; it has only been recorded in this country during the last four years.

The head is blue grey, with three dark stripes across it; wings and tail dark brown, the secondaries edged with rufous; the whole of the rest of the plumage pale cinnamon brown with darker stripes on the back. Length 6·2 in.; wings 3·1 in.

THE SIBERIAN MEADOW BUNTING
Emberiza cloides, Brandt

This Asiatic species has only once been taken in Europe, namely at Flamborough Head in 1886. The colour of the upper parts is chiefly chestnut. There is a white superciliary stripe, and a white patch on the cheeks. The under parts are white with a chestnut band across the upper breast Length 6·5 in.; wing 3·4 in.

THE RUSTIC BUNTING
Emberiza rustica, Pallas

This is an eastern species, nesting from Archangel eastwards across Siberia, migrating southwards in winter. Of late years it seems to have had a tendency to spread westwards, and stragglers have occurred throughout Europe, including Great Britain.

The adult male is a very handsome bird; the head is black with the exception of a white stripe behind the eye; the upper parts and a band across the breast, chestnut. Under parts white striped with chestnut. The female has the head brown mottled with black, and is otherwise much duller than the male. The young is brown above streaked with darker, the under parts whitish streaked with brown. Length 5·4 in.; wing 3·2 in.

THE LITTLE BUNTING
Emberiza pusilla, Pallas

The Little Bunting has a breeding range similar to the last species and occurs almost yearly on migration in Southern Europe, the south-east of France forming its western limit.

The male has the head chestnut with the exception of a black superciliary stripe; rest of the upper parts reddish brown streaked with darker. Chin and throat pale chestnut, under parts white streaked with black on the breast and flanks. The female is duller, and the young bird has the chestnut of the crown replaced by buff. Length 5 in.; wing 2·75 in.

THE YELLOW-BREASTED BUNTING
Emberiza aureola, Pallas

This is an Arctic species, ranging in summer across Siberia eastwards from Archangel; in winter it migrates to Palestine and Southern Asia.

An immature female was shot in Norfolk in September 1905.

The adult has the forehead, cheeks, and chin black; rest of upper parts deep reddish brown, brightest on the rump; under parts bright yellow with a narrow chestnut collar across the upper breast. Length 5 in.; wing 3·1 in. The female is much duller, and in winter the colours in both sexes are obscured by long greyish margins.

REED BUNTING
Emberiza schoeniclus, Linnæus

The Reed Bunting is an inhabitant of marshy places where osiers, alders, and long rough sedgy grass and reeds abound, and in such localities it is by no means uncommon. In summer the male may often be seen clinging to some reed stem, as he sings his very short and feeble song. Owing to his black head and white collar, which enable him to be very easily distinguished, he is known in some parts of the country as the Black-headed Bunting. The true Black-headed Bunting is, however, a very different bird, but it so rarely occurs in this country that the confusion likely to arise is not very serious. The nest is placed on the ground in the rough grass at the base of some shrub, or in the side of a tussock, and always near water. It is a fairly neat structure, built, like the nests of all Buntings, of grass, bents, and moss, with a lining of hair. The eggs, four to six in number, are very characteristic of this species, the ground colour is usually purplish grey, boldly blotched, marked and streaked with dark brown. Very handsome clutches are sometimes found, in which the ground colour is pale green, showing off the dark scrolls and blotches to great advantage. If the nest be discovered and frequently visited after the young are hatched, they will leave it at a very early age, long before they can fly. In such cases, however, the anxiety of the parent birds as they fly round and round the spot soon leads to the discovery of their children.

Except under stress of weather, it is a very resident species, seldom leaving its favourite haunts, but sometimes in winter, when these are frozen over, it will be found in the fields consorting with large flocks of Buntings and Finches. As a rule, however, it is by no means gregarious, rarely more than ten or twelve being found together.

In summer the male has the whole of the head and chin deep black, surrounded by a white collar and having a white stripe along the line of the lower mandible. Mantle and wings black with broad rufous and grey edgings. Rump grey streaked with black. Under parts white striped with brown on the flanks. In winter the black and white of the head and neck are largely obscured by pale brownish margins to each feather.

The female has the upper parts tawny brown with darker centres to the feathers. Under parts pale buff streaked with brown. The young resemble the female. Length 6 in; wing 3 in.

THE LAPLAND BUNTING
Calcarius lapponicus (Linnæus)

This species is only known to us by the appearance of a few stragglers that have wandered here from time to time in autumn and winter, though during the last few years its occurrences have been more numerous and regular, especially along our eastern and south-eastern shores. In its winter dress it bears at a distance a superficial resemblance to the Lark, and from being found in situations, viz. salt marshes near the coast, where the latter is also abundant it has probably frequently been overlooked.

It is another of those species whose home is circumpolar, and rears its young on the lonely tundras of Lapland, Novaya Zembla, and Franz Josef Land. In winter it moves southward, but becomes scarce south of the Baltic and is unknown in Italy, the south of France, and Spain. As mentioned above, the adult in winter is not unlike a Lark at a distance, but in summer the male is a very handsome bird. The crown, cheeks, throat, and breast are black, the hind neck is banded with deep chestnut, which is separated from the black of the head by a white stripe, which, starting behind the eye, runs backwards for a short distance and then turns downwards, to lose itself in the white of the abdomen. The rest of the upper parts are brownish with darker centres to the feathers, while the under parts are white with dark streaks on the flanks. In winter the brighter colours are hidden by long brown margins to the feathers which wear off in spring. The female retains her dull dress throughout the year.

The hind claw in this species is straight and longer than the toe. Length 6·25 in.; wing 3·6 in.

THE SNOW BUNTING
Plectrophenax nivalis (Linnæus)

Like the preceding species, the true home of this bird is also in the Far North; it has, however, a much wider breeding range, and a few pairs nest annually on the mountains of Scotland and in the Shetlands.

The nest is placed on the ground, hidden in a cleft of the rock or among loose boulders, and, as is characteristic of nests in holes, is very loose in construction. It is made of moss and dry grass, and is warmly lined with feathers. About six eggs, of a very pale blue spotted and zoned round the larger end with purplish red, form the clutch.

Unlike the Lapland Bunting, which is found in the salt marshes or on the tundras of the North, this species shows a predilection for the rocky coasts or hills covered with loose boulders and is seldom found in the localities frequented by the former bird. In winter it is a regular migrant to our east coast, and also visits the west, but more sparingly.

In cold winters it becomes much more abundant, returning northwards, however, on the first approach of milder weather.

In summer the adult male has the back, inner secondaries, two-thirds of each of the primaries, and the six central tail feathers black, the rest of the plumage being white; the female resembles her mate but is rather smaller, the head and neck are streaked with greyish white, and there is less white on the wing.

In winter both sexes have broad tawny margins to the feathers of the back, while the head, breast, and flanks are largely suffused with the same colour. The young bird is greyish brown, spotted both above and below with a darker tint of the same colour. Length 6·55 in.; wing 4·4 in.

THE STARLING
Sturnus vulgaris, Linnæus

Except that it commits depredations in the cherry orchards as the fruit ripens, nothing but good can be said of the Starling. Tame, confiding, no mean songster, and an excellent mimic, he is very welcome wherever found. In autumn he congregates in vast flocks, whose numbers reach many thousands, and there must be few people who have not noticed these flocks go through their aerial evolutions, now drawing close together in a compact mass, or spreading out in wedge-shaped formation, rising and falling as though imbued with one mind. These flocks are to a large extent migratory, and in the evening will often collect to roost on reed-beds, which are laid flat with their weight. To enter such a spot quietly just after dusk and then make a noise, will afford one a sensation never to be forgotten, as they rise with a sound like rolling thunder, caused by the clattering of thousands of wings against the reeds, while others farther off, disturbed in turn, will also rise, until the whole flock is on the wing, circling round our head with a subdued roar which increases and diminishes as they approach or retreat. In a few minutes, however, if we remain quiet, they will soon begin to return, making no sound except the rattling together of the reeds as they settle, and in a few minutes all is quiet once more. At daybreak the flock divides into smaller parties which set out to forage in the neighbouring country. In the afternoon, as their hunger is appeased, the scattered flocks begin to collect again, and it is then that we may observe the evolutions referred to above, till finally at dusk they are all roosting once more in the reed-bed. After staying in the locality for some time, their numbers being increased by fresh arrivals daily, they will one night fail to return to their accustomed quarters, but will instead start on a long journey on which we are unable to follow them. Apart, however, from these large flocks, smaller bodies will be found throughout the winter, wandering over the country and even penetrating the parks and gardens of our large cities. In March and April a migration of small flocks returning to their accustomed breeding haunts takes place, but the immense flocks of the autumn are never seen, and we can but suspect that Nature has in some way or other taken heavy toll of them.

Any hole in a tree or wall, the roof of a house, drain-pipes, church towers, or cliffs suit this species for a nesting-site. An untidy mass of straw, grass, and rubbish is collected to form a nest, and a few feathers, or wool, are added as lining. Five eggs of a uniform pale blue form the clutch, and two broods are reared in the season. The young when fledged begin at once to join with those from other nests and thus form the nucleus of the immense flocks which are, perhaps, one of the main characteristics of this species.

It feeds chiefly on insects, worms, and slugs, which are sought for in damp meadows and pasture-lands. It walks in a curious deliberate way, and on seeing a likely worm casting, it pushes in its closed beak, and after drawing it back with open mandibles, the hole, thus enlarged, is examined for the grub it may contain. It is also very partial to sheep runs, settling on the sheep's backs and relieving them of many and various ticks and parasites.

The sexes are practically alike and in winter the whole of the plumage is glossy black, with metallic reflections, the feathers of the upper parts being tipped with buff and those of the under parts with white. In summer it loses almost all the spots on the under parts and a large proportion of those on the back. The bill is lemon yellow in summer and blackish in winter. The young are greyish brown all over, rather lighter on the chin and under parts. In very old birds the feathers round the base of the bill wear off, leaving a bare patch as in the Rook. Length 8·5 in.; wing 5·2 in.

THE ROSE-COLOURED PASTOR
Pastor roseus (Linnæus)

Eastern Europe and Asia is the true breeding home of this species, which wanders about in immense numbers, breeding gregariously wherever it happens to find itself at that season. Stragglers from these flocks often join with other migrating hosts of birds, and thus this species occurs as an irregular wanderer over the rest of Europe. The farther west, however, the rarer it becomes, and its occurrences in our islands, though noted from most districts, are not very frequent. It is about the size of the common Starling but has a longish black crest. Except for the back, shoulders, breast, and belly, which are rose pink, it is of a uniform metallic black. Length 8·5 in.; wing 5 in.

THE CHOUGH
Pyrrhocorax graculus (Linnæus)

This bird is one of the handsomest and at the same time our rarest member of the Crow family. With its glossy black plumage and brilliant red legs and beak it forms a beautiful sight to the ornithologist as he watches it flying over the wild and wind-swept headland that juts out into the Atlantic.

Its flight is extremely graceful and peculiar; a few beats of its wings, then it glides onward with outstretched pinions, the ends of the outer primaries being well separated from each other; its wings close, it drops towards the ground, and then with a few more beats it recovers its former level and continues its flight. This species, which is only found on rocky coasts, is yearly becoming scarcer, but its chief enemy, if we except the ubiquitous egg-collector, is one of its own family, the Jackdaw. As this latter species extends its breeding quarters, so the Chough has to give way before it, being turned out of its nesting-holes till, weary of ineffectual attempts, it leaves the locality. In other places that king of Falcons, the Peregrine, will attack it, resulting in its very rapid extermination. This, however, is apparently an acquired taste on the part of certain Peregrines only, as we have known both species to nest on the same cliff without apparently interfering with each other in the least.

Any hole or fissure in the rock, or the ledge of some cliff, will provide this bird with a nesting-site, and a substantial cup-shaped structure of roots and twigs is built, and lined with wool, rabbit fleck, and hair. Three to five eggs are laid; they are pale greyish white in colour, spotted and streaked with grey or pale brown. Both parents attend to the wants of their young, feeding them on larvæ grubs and beetles. This species is almost entirely an insect-feeder and far less omnivorous than most of his kind, the long curved beak being especially useful for poking the soft earth or overturning the stones in its search for food. The note, which is very frequently uttered, is not unlike that of the Jackdaw but rather more metallic.

The adult is of a deep, glossy blue black all over. Bill and legs cherry red. The sexes are alike and the young only differ in having the bill and legs dull orange. Length 16 in.; wing 10·7 in.

This species is now only to be found in the wilder and more remote parts of the west of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. A few solitary pairs may still be found in some parts of England, but they are rapidly disappearing.

THE NUTCRACKER
Nucifraga caryocatactes (Linnæus)

A few stragglers of this species have occasionally visited our east and south-east coasts in autumn, and at least two examples have been recorded from Scotland, but it has not so far visited Ireland. Fir forests in Scandinavia and Central Europe form the home of this bird, where it is resident and breeds early in the year while the snow is still on the ground. In appearance it is quite unlike any of our other species of Crow, being pale umber brown profusely spotted, except on the crown, with triangular white markings. Length 12 in.; wing 7·5 in.

THE JAY
Garrulus glandarius (Linnæus)

Considering the ruthless war waged on this unfortunate species by every gamekeeper throughout the country, it is little short of marvellous that we can still hear his harsh scream in most of our woods.

He is very wary and cautious, and spends most of his time, except when actually feeding, on the tops of the trees, flying off with many protestations to another part of the wood on the least sign of danger. His great supposed sin is the destruction of the Pheasants' eggs, though we doubt whether his depredations are sufficiently great to warrant his wholesale slaughter. The fox has been saved from extermination in the interests of hunting, and it is now conceded that, after all, his presence does not so greatly affect the interests of those whose sport lies with the gun rather than with the horse, and if only keepers could be taught to leave the Jay alone the loss of a few head of game, that would hardly be missed, would surely be more than compensated for by the sight of this beautiful species as he dodges through the wood in front of the beaters. No better watch-dog could be found, and many a trespasser will quit a wood owing to the tell-tale warning given by the Jay. Noisy and active as he is during the winter, he becomes in spring exceptionally quiet, and only when the nest is approached does he give any indication of his presence in the neighbourhood. The nest is generally placed some ten feet from the ground in the fork of a tender sapling and is made entirely of twigs and lined with fine roots. It is open and cup-shaped, and the eggs, small for the size of the bird, are pale green in ground colour very thickly mottled with olive brown with, generally a narrow black irregular line at the larger end. The young are chiefly fed on insects, spiders, and grubs, but this species is practically omnivorous and nothing comes amiss, large numbers of berries being eaten in winter. In this country he is strictly resident, rarely wandering far from the woods which formed his summer home, but in the northern parts of his range on the Continent he migrates, sometimes in considerable flocks, some of which visit our shores in autumn, and although these Continental birds are said to be distinguishable from our own native race, we suspect that it is largely owing to these immigrations that we can still number the Jay as one of our common indigenous birds.

The general colour of the nape, mantle, and under parts is vinous brown. Crown of the head whitish streaked with black; malar stripe black. Chin, rump, and under tail coverts white; tail and primaries black, the latter with white outer margins. Secondaries black, the outermost five with white bases. Wing coverts barred white, black, and blue. Length 14·25 in.; wing 7·2 in. The sexes and young are all alike in plumage.

This species is generally distributed, except in the north of Scotland and Ireland, where it becomes scarce.

It is perhaps worthy of note that in the Jays and Crows which build open nests, the nestlings have dark-coloured mouths with no marked light edging, whereas in the Jackdaw, that breeds in holes, the sides of the mouth are enlarged and whitish in colour and show up conspicuously in the semi-darkness of their home.

THE MAGPIE
Pica rustica (Scopoli)

This is another species against whom every man's hand in this country is raised. Being much less a bird of the woods and preferring to make its home in high trees growing in hedgerows, or even in tall hedges, it has unfortunately suffered much more than the Jay and is now very local in its distribution. Bold and omnivorous, it finds little difficulty in procuring a livelihood, and if it settles in the neighbourhood of a poultry or game farm it must be conceded that it will do considerable damage. On the other hand, it will also destroy countless worms, slugs, mice, and even young rats, so that it is by no means wholly mischievous, and in other countries where it is unmolested it becomes very tame and confiding, nesting in farm-yards or even in the towns, and those countries seem but little the worse for its presence. A fine showy bird, it is a pleasure to see him as he flies with rapid beats of his short wings across some field, rattling out his cheery chatter as he goes. What a perky chap he looks as he struts about on the fallow, or, having had his attention drawn by a strange object some yards off, approaches it with a few long hops and then with characteristic caution stops to examine it from a distance. Satisfied that it is harmless, he stalks to it with slow majestic walk, his head held high in the air and slightly inclined to one side; then suddenly he sees us--a harsh chatter and off he goes to the nearest cover. The nest is a huge domed structure substantially built of twigs, those with sharp spikes or thorns being used for preference. Inside, a deep cup is made of mud, and inside this again is placed a thick lining of grass. The eggs are six in number and of a bluish colour irregularly dotted, mottled, or splashed with olive brown. It is a strictly resident bird, rarely wandering far from its accustomed haunts and frequently going about in pairs.

The whole bird is glossy black with bluish and green reflections, except for the scapulars and belly, which are white. The rump is greyish. Length, including tail, 18 in.; tail 10 in.; wing 7·75 in. The sexes and young are all much alike in plumage.

THE JACKDAW
Corvus monedula, Linnæus

Abundant and gregarious in most parts of the country, this species may in winter be found associating with flocks of Rooks in the open pastures and arable land. It is a noisy bird and the call-note "che-ak" will generally warn us of its presence. It is found in all kinds of situations and localities, being equally at home in the wild open country, along the coast, rocky or alluvial, or on arable land, in well-timbered districts, and even in the middle of our busy cities; but from certain apparently suitable districts it is absent, and although abundant in some towns, in others it is hardly ever found. Along the coast where it does not occur, the Chough still holds its own, but as we noticed under that species the presence of the Jackdaw soon drives away the more delicate bird.

Practically omnivorous, he experiences no difficulty in procuring a living wherever he may be, but will usually be found associated with Rooks or Starlings on the pastures, often perching on the backs of sheep to rid them of the parasites with which they are infested. Holes in trees, walls, or ruins, church towers, chimneys, or cavities in rocks, provide suitable nesting-sites. A rough nest is built of sticks, lined with an abundance of fur, rabbit fleck, wool and any other soft material.

The six eggs are pale blue in colour, with large distinct spots of olive brown.

Although this species is to be found among us at all times of the year, considerable migration both to and from these islands goes on in winter, large flocks sometimes arriving on our eastern coasts.

The sexes are practically indistinguishable, and are of a glossy purplish black on the head and back, and of a somewhat duller greyish black below. The occipital region, nape, and sides of the neck are clear grey, forming a sort of collar. The young birds are duller and lack the grey collar, which is only partially assumed in the first year. Length 13 in.; wing 9·25 in.

THE RAVEN
Corvus corax, Linnæus

There are few birds that can compare with the Raven in the majestic curves and sweeps of its flight as it skirts the wild and rugged headland which forms its home, so that in spite of its occasional depredations on young and sickly lambs, it is unworthy of the persecution to which it is subjected. Scattered pairs are still to be met with round the rocky shores of England, while in the wilder parts of Scotland and Ireland it is still comparatively common. It chooses for its home some wild precipitous crag exposed to the fury of the south-westerly gales, and there it may be found at all times of year, ruling with uncontested sway some couple of miles of coast, where it feeds on any carrion or prey that can be found.

Early in the spring the old nest--a mass of sticks, driftwood, seaweed, and heather, warmly lined with wool and rabbit fleck--will be repaired, and at this season the male is magnificent to watch as he courts his mate in beautiful aerial flight. Early in March the eggs, three to five in number, are laid; they are bluish, densely speckled and blotched with olive brown. The female takes sole charge of the duties of incubation, while her mate, sitting near, keeps close watch and attacks with great boldness and fury any other feathered marauder.

Too often, however, their labours are in vain and man steps in and destroys the nest; but ever faithful to the old home, many pairs continue ineffectually to breed year after year near the same spot, till at last in their old age they succumb to some winter's storm and the spot is the poorer by the loss of one of our noblest birds.

After the young are fledged they remain with their parents for some months, till they are eventually driven out to make way for the new brood of the following year.

The adult is of a deep, glossy, blue black. The female and young only differ from the male in having less lustre on their plumage. Length 25 in.; wing 17 in.

THE CARRION CROW
Corvus corone, Linnæus

With every man's hand against it, the Carrion Crow, which as a scavenger might well be one of our most useful birds, leads a harassed existence. Singly or in pairs it wanders about the country, feeding on anything that comes in its way. Carrion is its chief delight, but in default of that it turns its attention to weak and sickly birds, mice, rats, etc., and, as is the case with other members of the Crow family, it does quite as much good by destroying vermin as it does harm by destroying eggs and young birds.

The nest is generally placed on the top of some high tree or on the ledge of a cliff. It is made of sticks with an inner foundation of mud and warmly lined with wool, bents, rabbit fleck, and hair. The eggs, three to five in number, are very variable in markings, but except in size resemble those of the Raven. For a short time after the young are fledged they wander about in family parties, but they soon separate, and after August more than a pair are seldom seen together, a fact which will help to distinguish it at a distance from the Rook, who is nearly always gregarious. In general appearance this bird is very like the Rook, but it may be distinguished by the following characters. The bill is much stouter and broader and not so long and slender; its colour is black with a greenish gloss and not of a purplish blue, and the feathers have white bases, while those of the Rook are grey; the bristles and feathers at the base of the bill are never worn away as is always the case with Rooks after their second moult. Length 19·5 in.; wing 13 in. In this country it is generally distributed where not too strongly persecuted, becoming commoner in Scotland; but in Ireland it is very rare.

THE HOODED CROW
Corvus cornix, Linnæus

The question as to whether this bird, which interbreeds freely with the Carrion Crow where their ranges overlap, is or is not a good species need not trouble us here. Suffice it to say that in England it occurs numerously as a regular winter immigrant, large numbers crossing the North Sea and arriving on our eastern coasts. Over the rest of our islands its distribution is somewhat capricious. In Wales and the western counties it is rare, whereas in Ireland and Scotland it is well distributed and resident.

In habits it resembles the Carrion Crow but is more found on the sea-shore and estuaries than that species, though it is also found in the wooded districts. The back, shoulder, breast, and under parts are ashy grey, the rest of the body being black as in the Carrion Crow, of which in size and all other respects it is the exact counterpart.

THE ROOK
Corvus frugilegus, Linnæus

There is no more delightful sound in early spring than the "caw" of the Rooks at their "rookeries," as their breeding places are called. Year after year they return regularly to the same clump of trees, on the tops of which they build a fairly substantial nest of sticks, with an inner foundation of mud which is in turn warmly lined with roots, straw, and fine grass. The sites chosen for their homes are more frequently than not near human habitations or on clumps of trees near a highway, and exceptionally, they may choose pollards or low bushes, but as a rule the nests are never less than twenty feet from the ground. The eggs are bluish, with olive brown spots and blotches resembling those of the Carrion Crow, but smaller and more variable.

The young leave the nest just before they can fly, and may then be seen sitting on the topmost branches of the trees as they sway in the wind. This is the time when they are shot for rook-pies, and also under the impression that if they are not thinned out the colony will be deserted. For this belief we are not aware that any proof exists, but curiously enough colonies left to themselves tend to diminish. These birds are rather capricious and will occasionally, even in the nesting season, desert the colony; the presence in the neighbourhood of a pair of Carrion Crows is sometimes the cause, but more often than not the reason is not apparent. As soon as the young can fly, towards the middle or end of May, the rookery is deserted: old and young keep together and wander about the fields and arable land, digging deeply with their powerful bills in search of larvæ and grubs, and destroying countless numbers of wire worms, that renowned pest to agriculture. In this country it does not migrate to any extent; certain plantations are used as regular roosting-places, and as evening draws on in the winter months, long strings of these birds may be seen slowly flying in their heavy characteristic manner to their nightly shelter. Although the flight appears heavy and laboured, they in reality travel at no mean pace, and in their daily search for food often cover great distances. As in the case of Jackdaws and Jays, there is a large immigration yearly on our east coast during October and November, for in Scandinavia and the northern portions of its breeding range it is a regular migrant. Throughout the whole of our islands it is a common bird, but is rather more local in Scotland, and it is only of recent years that it has regularly bred in the extreme north. From continual digging in the ground the feather follicles round the base of the bill become destroyed, leaving a whitish patch of bare skin which is an unfailing characteristic of the adult birds. In young individuals, however, the feathers extend to the base of the bill and do not appear to be permanently lost till during the second autumn moult. The sexes are alike; their colour is a uniform deep and glossy purplish blue. The young resemble their parents, but lack the gloss to their feathers. Length 19 in.; wing 12·65 in.

THE SKYLARK
Alauda arvensis, Linnæus

Of all other birds the Lark is perhaps the one which typifies most thoroughly the freedom of life, and brings to our minds scenes of wide open country, where, bright, free, and unrestrained, he pours forth his song in the boundless expanse of the air.

Hatched in a neat nest of bents and dry grass lined with finer materials and placed on the ground in the middle of an open field, the youthful Lark has early to contend with enemies. Mice and other ground vermin, or the heavy foot of some grazing cattle, frequently destroy the nest and its contents, and the fact that so many escape must be largely ascribed to good luck.

His food is of a very varied nature and nothing comes amiss. The young are fed exclusively on insects, but after leaving the nest they spend their time eagerly feeding on seeds, berries, or anything that comes their way. As summer wanes, giving place to autumn, they collect in large flocks and seek the stubble fields, where the scattered grain gives them abundant nourishment, and on which they become very fat. It is at such times, while they are asleep by night, that they are netted by hundreds for the market. This form of catching can, however, only be successfully carried out shortly after dark on the blackest of nights, for, like all wild animals, they seem to rest with one eye open, and should there be the faintest glimmer of light they will be up and away long before the bird-catcher is near them. In October they become restless, and many wander to the coast, and thence to other countries, their place being taken by the inhabitants of more northerly climates. So the months pass, until a northerly gale and severe frost moves even these hardy northerners, and at such times they may be seen migrating in millions (for they travel almost entirely by day), relentlessly pursuing a southerly course in front of the biting norther. With a change of wind and temperature a large number will drift back again, but the movement will not be so noticeable, and thus they pass their lives, wandering wherever the weather and food may dictate, till in the very early days of spring, or even on fine days throughout the winter, we may hear their voluble song, breathing as it does the joy of freedom in every note. This is almost always uttered on the wing. Springing from the ground with rapid, fluttering wings, he rises perpendicularly higher and higher till he is almost lost to sight in the clouds, though his song still drifts down to us with unaffected clearness; higher and higher he goes, and then in a spiral curve he slowly descends, the song ceasing as he reaches a spot within a few feet of where he rose.

Nest-building is begun in April, and several broods are reared in a season, the song being continued except when he is actually feeding young in the nest.

The adult has the general plumage of a warm brownish tint, mottled and streaked with a darker shade. There is a light-coloured superciliary streak. The chin, throat, and upper breast and flanks are brownish buff streaked with brown, rest of under parts yellowish white. The sexes are alike in plumage but the female is rather smaller. Bird-catchers measure them from tip to tip of the expanded wings, rejecting those which are under one foot, as females. The young have the chin and throat unspotted, and have pale edgings to the feathers of the upper parts. Length about 7 in.; wing (of male) 4 to 5 in.

THE WOOD LARK
Alauda arborea, Linnæus

The Wood Lark is a much rarer bird than the Skylark, and very local in distribution. Rows of trees bordering open fields are the localities chiefly favoured by this species, which, except that it frequently perches, and may often be heard singing from the topmost branch of a tree, much resembles its commoner congener in habits. It feeds almost entirely on the ground, living chiefly on insects. The nest is placed a few yards from the hedge and composed of bents and grass, with a lining of finer materials. The eggs, usually four in number, are of a creamy ground colour, very thickly freckled with reddish brown markings. This species may be most easily distinguished by its song, which is much sweeter and fuller in tone than that of the preceding bird, but lacks the power and exuberance. When rising from the ground to sing, it always does so in a wide spiral curve, differing in that respect also from the Skylark, which rises straight.

The sexes are alike in plumage and resemble the Skylark, but it is a smaller bird and has a short hind toe and is more heavily streaked on the back. Length 6 in.; wing 3·6 in.

THE CRESTED LARK
Alauda cristata, Linnæus

The Crested Lark is a common species on the Continent, even as close to our shores as the north of France, but very few examples have been known to stray to this country. It is not gregarious like the Common Skylark, and the song is not usually uttered on the wing, but in food and other habits it does not differ much from our well-known species.

In general colour this species is much duller, and the beak is longer and stouter than the Skylark, but its chief characteristics are the long pointed crest, the large bastard primary, and the absence of white on the tail. Length 6·75 in.; wing 4·1 in.

THE SHORT-TOED LARK
Alauda brachydactyla, Leisler

This bird is a resident, or partial migrant, throughout the whole of Southern Europe, but it has been known to occur in Northern Germany, Belgium, and the north of France. In Great Britain about half-a-dozen examples have been taken at various times in the south and east.

Very similar in appearance to other Larks, but, as its name indicates, the hind claw is short. The under parts are white and unspotted except for a few streaks on the sides of the neck. Length 5·5 in.; wing 3·4 in.

THE WHITE-WINGED LARK
Alauda sibirica, J. F. Gmelin

This species breeds across Central Russia and through the Kirghiz steppes as far as the Altai, migrating southwards in winter. Has only once occurred in England. The bill is short and stout, and this species may be at once recognised by the white inner primaries and secondaries, which form a conspicuous patch. Length 7·5 in.; wing 4·6 in.

THE BLACK LARK
Melanocorypha yeltoniensis (Forster)

This species inhabits South Russia, Transcaspia, and Western Siberia. In the winter of 1906 a small flock, consisting of both males and females, arrived in Sussex, being presumably driven westwards owing to the severity of the weather.

The male has the entire plumage jet black, but in winter this colour is largely obscured by broad sandy margins to the feathers. The female is pale sandy brown with darker markings, under parts white, spotted on the throat and breast. Length about 7·7 in.; wing 5·3 in.

SHORE LARK
Otocorys alpestris (Linnæus)

A very different bird is this from the other Larks with which we have been dealing. He is seldom seen in this country, and then only in small numbers and at irregular periods.

The wide tundras of the North form his home, and there he may be found plentifully, but as the long Arctic day gives way to the cold black night, he reluctantly retires and passes the winter in the temperate portions of the northern hemisphere. In these islands we are just on the fringe of his wanderings, and almost every year a few stragglers put in an appearance on our eastern coast in autumn; their visits are of but short duration, and as a rule they quickly pass away southwards. With very severe weather on the Continent, however, they may appear in some numbers towards midwinter, and at such times remain with us till at the first sign of coming spring they are off again to their dearly loved home in the North.

General colour above pale sandy brown, tinged with rufous on the back of the head and nape. Forehead and a superciliary stripe white; a band across the head, lores, cheeks, and a triangular band across the chest, black; rest of under parts white, inclined to rufous on the breast and flanks. The female is smaller and duller. Length about 7 in.; wing 4·4 in.

THE SWIFT
Cypselus apus (Linnæus)

The causes that govern the migratory movements of birds are still unknown. Some species are doubtless impelled by stress of weather or lack of food to seek other quarters, but what power can it be that brings the Swift thousands of miles from another continent to lay its eggs and rear its young, and then precipitately to retire again when the flies on which they feed are most abundant, and the warmest month of the year has hardly begun? It is one of the last of the summer birds to arrive, May being generally well advanced before we hear its harsh yet pleasant scream of "swee ree," as it swerves in rapid flight round the cottage or belfry which is to form its summer home.

This species is the most aerial of all our native birds, and is never seen to settle except when entering the hole under the eaves where it nests, and, in fact, owing to the length of its wing and shortness of its legs, it cannot raise itself from a level surface should it once settle.

Gregarious in its habits, it returns yearly to the same place, and, entering through a hole or crevice under the eaves, nests there in security. Swifts, as a family, differ from all other birds in using a sticky, mucous saliva, with which to bind together rough bits of straw, cobwebs, feathers, etc., which form their nest. The nests of certain foreign species are formed entirely of this saliva, and such nests are eaten with great relish and in large quantities by the Chinese. With our species, however, the amount of saliva used is comparatively small; it does not often collect material for its nest, but makes use of the accumulation of rubbish usually found under roofs, and, hollowing out a shallow depression, cements it into a permanent cup. Two or three dull, oblong, white eggs form the clutch. The young when first hatched are naked; they stay in the nest a long time, not leaving it until fully fledged. When, however, they leave their home and drop into the air for the first time, they fly off at once and appear as much at home on the wing as their parents. For a few days they return to the nest to rest, and then a week or two after they are fledged, about the beginning of August, they leave us for their tropical winter home. These birds occasionally perform curious aerial evolutions on warm summer nights. As darkness comes on they become very restless, screaming round the tower or belfry as they dash by in wide circles; gradually they rise higher and higher in the air till they become mere specks, and are finally lost in the darkness.

Here again our ignorance comes in and our story must end. Observers have sat up in vain till two or three in the morning, awaiting their return. Not one has reappeared, and yet the next day they will all be seen back again, apparently unwearied by their restless night, but rather enjoying to the full the marvellous powers of flight which they have inherited.

The sexes and young are alike in plumage and are of a uniformly dark sooty brown, the chin and throat being dull white. The tail is short and slightly forked; wings very long and narrow. The feet are extremely feeble, the four toes all directed forward and having sharp, recurved nails, which enable them to cling to perpendicular surfaces. Length 6·5 in.; wing 6·8 in. It is generally abundantly distributed throughout our islands, but becomes scarcer in the North. It winters in Africa.

THE ALPINE SWIFT
Cypselus melba, Linnæus

This is a much larger species than our common Swift and has only visited these islands on very rare occasions, almost all the examples obtained having been taken in the south of England. It breeds in the high mountain ranges of Central and Southern Europe, and winters in Africa. From our common species it may be distinguished by its larger size, browner colour, and light under parts. Length 8 in.; wing 8·45 in.

Another species, the Needle-tailed Swift (_Acanthyllis caudacuta_) has occurred on two occasions in England. It breeds in Central Asia, migrating in winter to Australia, and except for these two instances is unrecorded from Europe.

THE NIGHTJAR
Caprimulgus europæus (Linnæus)

Arriving, the latest of all our migrants, towards the middle of May, and leaving again early in September, this strange bird is but little known to the majority of people, although by no means uncommon in suitable localities.

Its favourite haunts are gorse commons, and moorlands on the edge of woods, especially where bracken grows freely, and in such situations it may be found throughout our islands. The best time to see it is at dusk, when it comes out to capture moths, beetles, and other crepuscular insects which form its chief sustenance. Its flight is silent and very bat-like, twisting and turning with great ease and agility, now and again striking its wings together with a loud clap and uttering at the same time a sharp little whistle. When resting on a branch, which it invariably does lengthways, a curious reeling note or vibrating "churr" is uttered.