Chapter VI: Preface (6)

No nest is made, but the two white eggs, boldly blotched and mottled with brown and lilac, are laid on the bare ground without any attempt at concealment. The bird sits very closely, and her dull greyish plumage so assimilates with her surroundings that it is almost impossible to see her until she rises and circles round, uttering a harsh "chuck, chuck."

The young, when first hatched, are covered with an ashy grey down, and have, even at this tender age, the large mouth with enormous gape, characteristic of this family. They do not remain in the nest till fledged, but crawl about on the ground. They do not, however, attempt to feed themselves, and are carefully tended by their parents till they are well able to fly, when they at once quit this country to winter in tropical Africa.

The plumage of both sexes is nearly alike, and is ashy grey, streaked and spotted irregularly with brown. The male has a white spot near the centre of each of the three outer primaries, and the two outermost pairs of tail feathers are tipped with white. These white markings are absent in the female. The young practically resemble the female Length 10·5 in.; wing 7·55.

One example each of two other species of this family, the Red-necked Nightjar (_Caprimulgus ruficollis_) and the Egyptian Nightjar (_Caprimulgus ægyptius_) have been taken in England. The first named is a native of Southern Spain and North Africa as far east as Tunisia; the breeding-quarters of the other are in South-east Europe, Egypt, Nubia, and Tunisia. In general appearance they both closely resemble our common species; the Red-throated may, however, be recognised by the tawny collar encircling the head, and the Egyptian by the inner webs of the primaries being pure white.

THE WRYNECK
Iynx torquilla, Linnæus

Under the name of the "Cuckoo's Mate" this species is well known in our southern and south-eastern counties. Elsewhere in England it is rare or local, and in Scotland and Ireland it is of very irregular occurrence. The name "Cuckoo's Mate" is derived from the fact that its arrival usually coincides pretty closely with that of the Cuckoo, namely during the first week in April, but in other respects it has no connection in habits or distribution with the better-known species. Owing to its dull and unobtrusive plumage, and more especially from its custom of inhabiting gardens and woods, it is not easy to see, though to those who know its note, which is a sharp "qui, qui, qui," its presence will be frequently made known. It feeds chiefly on ants, which it searches for on the ground or on tree-trunks. These are rapidly conveyed to its mouth by a quick motion of its long extensile tongue, which is coated with a sticky mucus, and the rate at which this organ is shot forwards and backwards is almost incredible, and reminds one rather of the tongue in the chameleons and some other lizards. It breeds in the hole of a tree, and the six round white eggs are laid on the wood itself without any attempt at a nest. If the hole be visited during incubation the sitting bird will utter a peculiar hissing noise, and at the same time twist her neck in a most surprising manner. This habit, which is well calculated to make the observer believe the hole to be tenanted by a snake, has given rise to the name of "Snake-bird" as well as the better-known one of Wryneck. The sexes are alike in plumage, the general colour being greyish with dark streaks of brownish black on the nape and scapulars. Throat, upper breast, and flanks yellowish, becoming paler on the belly, with narrow black bars and arrow markings. The young are greyer, and have no yellow or arrow-shaped markings on the under parts. Length 7 in.; wing 3·4 in.

Towards the end of September it takes its departure, but some individuals frequently remain much later, and probably occasionally spend the winter with us.

THE GREEN WOODPECKER
Gecinus viridis (Linnæus)

The cheery "pleu, pleu, pleu" of the Yaffle as it flies from one tree to another may be heard in most parts of England and Wales, though in Scotland and Ireland it is almost unknown. It is a moderate-sized and somewhat ungainly bird in its actions, spending its life among trees, though it by no means restricts itself to woods, especially in autumn, when it may frequently be seen ascending some hedgerow tree, with its characteristic jerking motion, the stiff and pointed tail feathers aiding it to cling to the trunk. Its food consists of insects, more especially beetles and ants, which it finds in crevices of the bark, but it often descends to the ground in search of food.

Its flight is direct and undulating, and it proceeds by a series of rapid wing-beats followed by a short falling period, when the wings are half closed. On the ground it progresses by short hops, and when searching a tree for food, it ascends spirally from the base in short jerks, flying off when near the top to recommence its search at the base of another. Early in April it begins to excavate a nesting-hole, choosing for preference a tree destitute of lower branches. A neat circular hole is chiselled out, which is carried in horizontally for some distance, and then turns downwards. No special nest is made, the glossy white eggs, about five in number, being laid on the bare wood.

The young remain in the nest till they are full fledged, and then scatter to earn their own living.

The general colour of the male is olive green, shading into yellow on the rump and becoming greyer on the under parts. The crown and nape are crimson, and there is a malar stripe of the same colour edged with black. The female has less crimson on the head and the malar stripes are black. The young are mottled on the back and spotted on the under parts with blackish. Length 12·5 in.; wing 6·4 in.

THE GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKER
Dendrocopus major (Linnæus)

Although it can nowhere be called abundant, this species is widely distributed in well-wooded districts as far north as Durham, but in Scotland it is a scarce bird, only nesting very sparingly in the south, and in Ireland it is almost unknown. A quiet and shy bird, it is rarely seen, keeping as it does to the higher branches of tall trees, and when possible keeping the trunk between it and any would-be observer. In its food and habits it resembles the Green Woodpecker, though it is comparatively seldom seen on the ground. The call-note is a sharp, short "chik," but it makes also a peculiar rattling sound by rapping its beak against a bough. This sound, which is more often heard in early spring, has been supposed to be made only at that season, but it may also be heard, though less frequently, at other times of the year.

In winter this species is much given to wandering, and every autumn our local birds receive further additions from Scandinavia. It can hardly, however, be considered a regular winter visitor, as such immigrations are largely dependent on the season, and it is only at irregular periods that really large numbers arrive.

The upper parts of the male are chiefly black; the forehead, cheeks, ear coverts, and scapulars are white; nape crimson; wing feathers black, barred with white on the outer webs; under parts whitish; vent crimson. The female lacks the red on the head, but the young of _both_ sexes have the crown red. Length 9·4 in.; wing 5·5 in.

LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER
Dendrocopus minor (Linnæus)

In many well-wooded localities in the south, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker may be almost considered common, though from its small size and partiality to the topmost branches of tall trees, it is but seldom seen. In Wales and north of the Midlands it becomes extremely local, and in Scotland and Ireland it has only been obtained as a rare straggler on a few isolated occasions. In food and habits it hardly differs from its larger congener, but the nest is generally hewn out in some _dead_ tree. It has not occurred on migration. The male has the upper parts chiefly black, barred with white; the forehead buff; crown of the head crimson; nape and malar stripe black; cheeks white. The under parts are buffish white with black streaks on the flanks. The female has only got a little red on the fore part of the head. Length 6 in.; wing 3·7 in.

THE KINGFISHER
Alcedo ispida, Linnæus

In spite of the ease with which he may be caught, and the demand for his skin brought about by his fatal beauty, we are still able to reckon the Kingfisher as a generally distributed species.

Representative of a family which is essentially associated with tropical climes, he still wears his brilliant dress in these northern latitudes, and resembles, as he darts with rapid flight down our rivers and streams, some huge turquoise.

Having fixed on a favourite piece of water, he seldom wanders far afield, but may be seen at all times of the year, sitting on an overhanging bough, ever and anon dropping into the water to seize some passing fish. His prey being captured, he returns to his perch and kills the struggling fish by knocking it against his stand; it is then swallowed head first, and he resumes his motionless watch. If sport be slow, and he be hungry, he will wend his way with rapid flight down the river to try his luck in another place, and it is at such times that we shall probably get a momentary glimpse of his brilliancy, till a curve in the stream hides him from sight.

Mere cold does not seem to affect him in the least, but when the streams are frozen he suffers greatly from hunger, and after a day or two of frosty weather he reluctantly leaves his accustomed home for the milder reaches of the sea-shore, where the restless tide brings him in a continual supply of food. The sea-shore, however, is not to his taste, and at the first break-up of the frost he returns again to his inhospitable home. Early in April he turns his attention to housekeeping. Like most bright-plumaged birds, he has no song with which to woo his mate, but at such times they may often be seen chasing each other about up and down the stream, uttering their shrill and sharp call-note. A perpendicular wall in the bank of the river is chosen, and near the top of this they excavate a long low tunnel with the end slightly widened out to form a chamber. The nest is peculiar, being formed of a mass of small regurgitated bones, and on this the six pure white and highly glossed eggs are laid. As soon as the young are fledged and thoroughly able to earn their own living, they are driven away from their home and forced to seek winter-quarters elsewhere. Many, especially in the northern portions of its range, go to the sea-shore and migrate, while others seek out some quiet stream where they may fish in undisputed possession, till the return of spring impels them to seek a mate and form a home for themselves. The sexes are practically alike in plumage. The top of the head, wings, and malar stripe are dark greenish blue, mottled with lighter; back and rump brilliant cobalt blue; tail dark blue. The under parts, lores, and ear coverts are chestnut; throat whitish; bill black, orange at the base; legs deep red. The young bird is duller and shows traces of greenish on the breast. Length 7·5 in.; wing 3 in.

THE ROLLER
Coracias garrulus, Linnæus

Although stragglers of this beautiful and brilliant species have frequently visited this country in both the spring and autumn migrations, it can by no means be considered as a regular visitor to our shores. It is very numerous in Southern Europe and breeds as far north as St. Petersburg and certain parts of Sweden; in the countries bordering the North Sea, however, it is decidedly rare. In winter it inhabits the southern portion of Africa, being numerous in Cape Colony and Natal.

The sexes are alike. The head, neck, and under parts are of a brilliant greenish blue, the mantle is brown, and there is a patch of gorgeous ultramarine blue on the lesser wing coverts. Length 12 in.; wing 7·7 in.

THE BEE-EATER
Merops apiaster, Linnæus

A good many stragglers of this southern species have occurred from time to time, chiefly in the southern half of England, but a few have also been taken in Scotland and Ireland. In Southern Europe it is extremely abundant throughout the summer, wintering in Africa. The sexes are alike. The head, neck, upper back, and a bar across the secondaries are chestnut brown; forehead white, turning to green; lores and ear coverts black; tail green, two central feathers elongated and tipped with black. Throat yellow; a black band across the lower neck; under parts greenish blue. Length 11·25 in.; wing 6 in.

HOOPOE
Upupa epops, Linnæus

In the spring of every year, with unfailing regularity, a few misguided individuals of this interesting bird seek the hospitality of our shores, and, were they unmolested, would eventually settle as one of our permanent summer visitors in the southern counties. Unfortunately, apart from its striking plumage, which cannot fail to arrest attention, it is of a very confiding nature, stalking about lawns and grass fields with its peculiar walk, while it prods the ground with its long bill in search of grubs and insects. Such a sight is too much for the so-called collector or ignorant loafer, whose only idea on seeing a strange bird is to kill it, and thus it happens that our would-be guest either reposes as a fearful caricature in a glass case till moth and rust have done their work, or is frightened off to some other country where his appearance excites less curiosity and murder. From time to time, however, protected by some enlightened farmer or landowner, this species has been spared to pass the summer unmolested, and, choosing a hollow tree, preferably in an orchard or near some open grass fields, has reared a young brood to maturity and finally departed in peace to spend the winter in Southern Europe or Africa.

The nest is placed in a hole in some tree, and the eggs, seven in number, are of a uniform pale greenish blue.

General colour of the head, mantle, and under parts pale cinnamon; wings and tail black, broadly barred with white. Lower back broadly barred with black, white, and buff. The sexes and young resemble each other in plumage. Length 12·2 in.; bill 2·5 in.; wing 6 in.

THE CUCKOO
Cuculus canorus, Linnæus

The arrival of the Cuckoo, as heralded by his well-known note, is eagerly awaited by every one who lives in the country, ornithologist or otherwise, and so anxious are some to record his arrival, that they persuade themselves that they have heard him before the March winds have abated. There is little doubt, however, that this species rarely, if ever, arrives in March, and not before mid-April can his pleasing note be generally heard. Throughout the whole of our islands this bird is common and well known, inhabiting equally the wild open country, the enclosed arable land, or thickly-wooded estates. It feeds entirely on insects, especially caterpillars, those of the common Tiger-moth being an especially favourite delicacy. Its flight is direct and fairly rapid, the short wings and long tail giving it very much the appearance of a Sparrow-Hawk, for which it is frequently mistaken by the smaller birds, and mobbed accordingly.

This bird solves housekeeping difficulties in the simplest way by leaving its eggs to the tender mercies of other species. It apparently usually watches other birds when building, and as soon as the chosen nest contains a few eggs, it lays its own egg on the ground, and picking it up in its beak deposits it in the nest, throwing out at the same time a few of the rightful eggs. The eggs are, as a rule, deposited one by one in a different nest of the same species, and when two Cuckoo's eggs are found in the same nest, they are almost assuredly the produce of two different birds. Having deposited its eggs, the mother Cuckoo takes no further interest in her progeny, but continues to lead a life of leisure, till early in August both sexes leave us for their southern winter-quarters. The eggs of this species are extremely variable, but as a rule are of a pale bluish or greenish ground colour, with reddish spots and mottlings; sometimes they agree so closely with the eggs of their foster-parents as to be almost indistinguishable, but such cases are exceptional. When the young Cuckoo has been hatched about twenty-four hours, he sets to work to eject the other nestlings by getting them on his back, in which there is a hollow, and pushing them over the side of the nest. He is most importunate in his demands for food, and continues to be a burden on the foster-parents long after he is able to feed himself. Once, however, he is fledged, he wings his way southwards and we see him no more, till he returns the following spring to gladden us with his cheering "cuckoo." Various species of insectivorous birds are made use of as foster-parents, and there is no doubt that much discrimination is exercised by the mother Cuckoo as to where and when to deposit her egg. The nests most favoured in this country are those of the Meadow Pipit, Pied Wagtail, Hedge Sparrow, Sedge and Reed Warblers, but over sixty different species of British Birds have been made use of at various times. Practically nothing is known as to whether Cuckoos pair, or if the female receives the attentions of several males, and the number of eggs laid by a single bird in the season is also doubtful, though about eight is said to be the number. Many interesting problems are thus still unsolved about one of our commonest birds, and if his character be not a very estimable one, we can but marvel at the workings of evolution which has enabled so curious and complicated a method of parasitism to be sufficiently successful to ensure the perpetuation of the race. It must be remembered that for the successful rearing of each young Cuckoo the mother has to find and recognise the nest of an insectivorous bird, and to lay her egg during the five days in which the foster-parent elect is laying her clutch. As regards the various stages of evolution that have caused the young Cuckoo to evolve as a murderer at his birth, and that have provided him with the means in the shape of a special hollow in his back, we know nothing, and can in the present state of our knowledge merely leave the problem in wonder and amazement.

The male is clear greyish ash on the back and throat; tail feathers blackish with small white spots on the margin. Under parts whitish, with dark bars on the flanks. The young vary considerably and are generally dark brown, more or less barred with rufous on the upper parts. Length 13 in.; wing 8·5 in.

THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO
Coccystes glandarius (Linnæus)

On three or four occasions this bird has been obtained in England and Ireland. It is a native of North Africa and South Spain, where it breeds, migrating in winter to South Africa. Its eggs are almost always deposited in the nest of a Magpie, but other members of the Crow family are sometimes chosen. The general colour is greyish brown, most of the feathers tipped with white; under parts white. The crown is grey, with long pointed crest. Length 15·5 in.; wing 8 in.

THE AMERICAN YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO
Coccyzus americanus (Linnæus)

Some half-dozen examples of this American species have occurred on our western shores during the autumn migration. It is about the size of our Cuckoo, olive-brown above, and buffish white below. Each of the tail feathers are tipped with white. Length 11 in.; tail 6 in.; wing 5·40 in.

THE BARN OWL
Strix flammea, Linnæus

After many years' patient preaching, the Barn Owl is at last beginning to be recognised as a friend to be encouraged, rather than as an enemy to be slain, and it is now on the increase throughout England, Wales, and Ireland. In Scotland it has always been local in the south and rare in the north.

The species is strictly nocturnal, and darkness has usually fallen before it sallies forth from its hiding-place in a barn, an old church tower, or a hollow tree.

It feeds almost entirely on rats, mice, and such small deer, and rarely takes any small birds, as they are always securely roosting by the time the Barn Owl comes out. From its habits of choosing barns and old buildings, this species more than any other is deserving of man's protection, since its favourite hunting-grounds are round the farm-yards, where it destroys those vermin that are of most immediate nuisance to the farmer.

The note is a harsh high-pitched scream, which has earned for it the name of "Screech Owl," but when in its hole it makes a heavy snoring sound, and has also a curious habit of waving its head from side to side. When seen from above down a dark hole, the motion being just dimly visible, it has a very uncanny appearance.

The eggs, oval in shape and pure white like those of all Owls, are laid without any attempt at a nest. They are generally laid in clutches of two, at intervals of some days, so that four or six young of varying ages are generally found in the nest together. Unlike most of the other Owls, the first plumage of the young is composed of true feathers, whereas in most of the other species the young are at first clothed, with the exception of the wings and tail, in a plumage of downy feathers, which after being worn for a short time is exchanged for the full plumage.

The general colour above is buffish orange, minutely speckled and vermiculated with grey. The under parts are white, sometimes slightly buffish on the chest, and with a few minute black specks. The sexes are alike, but the female is said to be more speckled on the under parts. The young resemble the adults. Length 13·5 in.; wing 11·25 in.

THE LONG-EARED OWL
Asio otus (Linnæus)

Though it is distinctly commoner in Scotland, this species is not rare in any of the wooded districts of our islands. It is very partial to fir woods or evergreen plantations, and early in the year takes possession of an old nest or squirrel's drey in which to deposit its six white eggs. The young are chiefly fed on rats and mice, but moths and beetles are also eaten with relish, while small birds are not despised. The daytime is spent among the branches of the trees, and when alarmed by any noise the bird draws itself up and leans against the trunk of the tree, in which position it may easily be overlooked. It flies out at dusk and ranges the fields near woods for its prey.

In the northern parts of Scotland it is a regular migrant, but elsewhere within these islands it is resident, though immigrations from the Continent occur every year. It is a very silent bird, but occasionally gives rise to a short mellow bark.

The sexes resemble each other and are buffish, heavily speckled and vermiculated with dark brown, ashy, and white. The markings of the young are yellowish, and warmer in tint. The name is derived from two longish tufts of feathers above the facial disc, which can be erected at will. Length 14 in.; wing 11·5 in.

THE SHORT-EARED OWL
Asio accipitrinus (Pallas)

Unlike the preceding species, this bird inhabits fens, marshes, and open moorlands. In Scotland it nests fairly commonly, but in England it is decidedly rare and local as a breeding species, while it has never been known to breed in Ireland.

The nest is placed on the ground, at the foot of a small bush in long sedge, or among heather. No real nest is made, but a few bits of grass or heather are arranged round the eggs. These are usually five in number, and, like all Owls' eggs, pure white. In some seasons these Owls become much more abundant in certain places, due generally to a great increase in their food, which consists almost entirely of field-voles. In the years when these voles increase to an enormous extent, this species will also appear nesting in considerable numbers, where it was almost unknown before, and in such seasons as many as twelve eggs have been found in a clutch. It is by no means a nocturnal bird but takes its food by day, and may thus be easily noticed on its approach in a new locality. The flight is somewhat heavy and uncertain, frequently twisting about and rolling from side to side.

In autumn, large immigrations reach this country from abroad, and during the winter it becomes quite common in suitable places throughout England and Ireland. He is frequently flushed from the turnip-fields in October, and is for this reason known in some places as the "Woodcock Owl."

In plumage it resembles the preceding species, but the markings are bolder and the delicate grey vermiculations are entirely absent. The ear tufts are much shorter. Length 14·5 in.; wing 12 in.

TAWNY OWL
Syrnium aluco (Linnæus)

The Tawny Owl is a common inhabitant of the well-wooded parts of England, Wales, and Scotland, though in the north of the last-named country it becomes decidedly scarce and local. In Ireland it has not yet been obtained. It nests early in March, the eggs being usually placed in a hollow tree, though it often makes use of deserted nests of Rooks, Crows, or Hawks, and sometimes nests on the ground at the base of a tree. The eggs are white and glossy and much rounder in shape than those of the Barn Owl. It is extremely nocturnal, never appearing till quite dark, and seldom pursuing its prey in the open, but keeping to glades and rides in the woods. Its hoot is a loud "hoo hoo," and is repeated with great frequency. This species is never met with on migration, but is one of the most resident of birds, rarely wandering far from its birthplace.

The sexes are alike, except that the female is slightly larger. The general colour is usually of a warm tawny brown, mottled and streaked with darker shades of the same colour; the under parts are pale buffish white, striped with dark brown. There are two phases of this species which are alike in markings, but in one the predominating tint is red and in the other grey. Length 15 in.; wing 10 in.

TENGMALM'S OWL
Nyctala tengmalmi (J. F. Gmelin)

This species is an inhabitant of the pine forests of Northern Europe, migrating southwards in winter. A few stragglers have occurred in these islands from time to time. The general colour above is umber brown, spotted and marked with white; the facial disk is white with a dark outer ring; under parts whitish, barred and streaked with brown. Length 9 in.; wing 6·5 in.

The plumage of this species is exceptionally thick and downy; the feathers on the legs and toes especially so.

THE LITTLE OWL
Athene noctua (Scopoli)

This bird has undoubtedly occurred on many occasions as a straggler in this country, but its claim as a British Bird now rests on introductions which have been made in Kent, Northampton, Bedford, Yorkshire, and other places where it has more or less established itself as a breeding species, and is slowly extending its range from at least one of these centres. It is a small species, living chiefly on insects and mice, and is generally found in well-wooded country, where it may be often seen sitting on a dead tree or post, sunning itself, for it is largely diurnal in its habits.

The plumage above is a warm brown spotted with white; under parts white striped with brown. The female is rather larger than the male. Length about 9 in.; wing 6 in.

In this species the feathers on the legs and toes are quite short, being little more than bristles on the latter, a point by which it may be easily distinguished from the preceding species.

THE SNOWY OWL
Nyctea scandiaca (Linnæus)

The Arctic regions both in summer and winter form the home of this large and handsome species, though many wander southwards during the winter months.

In the Shetlands and Orkneys it is a fairly regular winter visitor during severe weather, and it has frequently occurred in Scotland; to England and Ireland, however, its visits are few and far between.

The plumage is pure white, spotted and barred with dark brown, the amount of which varies greatly in individuals. Length of male 22 in.; wing 15·5 in. The female is slightly larger.

THE HAWK OWL
Surnia funerea (Linnæus)

The Hawk Owl inhabits the pine forests of Northern Europe, Siberia, and North America. It has occurred here as a straggler on several occasions, the majority of examples having been shot in the western counties of England and Scotland, and belonging curiously enough to the American race, which has the bars of the under parts more ruddy than the European form. This latter form has, however, also been obtained on at least one occasion.

The upper parts are brown, spotted with white; under parts white barred with greyish or reddish brown. Its most characteristic feature is the tail, which is long and graduated, barred and tipped with white. Length about 15 in.; tail 7·5 in.; wing 9·2 in.

THE SCOPS OWL
Scops giu (Scopoli)

A migratory species, wintering in Abyssinia and Northern Africa, and breeding in Southern Europe, the Scops Owl has occurred as a straggler to our islands a good many times. The general colour is grey, barred and vermiculated with brown; it has two conspicuous ear tufts. The female slightly exceeds the male in size. Length, male, 7·5 in.; wing 5·8 in.

THE EAGLE OWL
Bubo ignavus, T. Forster

This large and fine species has been obtained several times in England and Scotland, but though some of the instances are undoubtedly those of genuine wanderers, it is so often kept in captivity that several occurrences must be looked upon as those of escaped birds.

It is widely distributed throughout the wilder districts of Europe, both in forest and open country, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean.

The general colour is dark brown, mottled with brownish buff above, and yellowish brown streaked with darker below. The female is larger than the male. Length of male 24 in.; wing 18 in.

THE GRIFFON VULTURE
Gyps fulvus (J. F. Gmelin)

A single immature example of this species was taken in the spring of 1843, in Cork Harbour. The nearest breeding place of this species is in the Pyrenees, and thence eastwards it occurs throughout Southern Europe. The sexes are alike and their general colour is buffish brown; the head and neck are devoid of feathers but covered with buffish down, which is separated from the feathers of the neck by a broad ruff. Length 42 in.; wing 28 in.

THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE
Neophron percnopterus (Linnæus)

This is another South European species of which two examples have been obtained, one in Somersetshire and one in Essex.

The adult is white with black primaries, the head and neck being bare of feathers and yellow in colour. The young bird is dark brown and does not acquire its full plumage for three years. Length 26 in.; wing 19 in.

THE MARSH HARRIER
Circus æruginosus (Linnæus)

Formerly this species used to breed regularly in many places in England, where large stretches of marsh-land suitable to its habits were to be found. A pair or two may occasionally still try to rear a brood in East Anglia, but owing to the drainage of the fens, it is no longer known in any of its former haunts. In Ireland, where it was formerly fairly common, its breeding area is restricted to one locality. To Scotland it has always been an extremely rare visitor. On migration small numbers of this species visit England and Wales yearly. The nest is a fairly substantial structure, built of reeds and grass, and placed on the ground. The eggs, which generally number five, are pale bluish white without any other markings.

In plumage this species varies greatly according to age; the adult male is dark brown on the back, head creamy white with dark streaks, wing coverts and tail silvery grey; primaries blackish. Under parts buff streaked with brown. In the female the tail and under parts are brown. Young birds are chocolate brown; the entire crown of the head is buffish white in the males, but in the females the nape only is yellowish. Length (of males) 21 in.; wing 16 in.

THE HEN HARRIER
Circus cyaneus (Linnæus)

In England, thanks to the game-preserver, this species is now extremely scarce, and very few pairs, if any, are allowed to nest. In Scotland and Ireland, where it was formerly fairly plentiful, it is fast decreasing in numbers. On migration it is still not uncommon in the north, and the passage of stragglers through England is of yearly occurrence, but very few remain to spend the winter in any part of this country. It frequents large open moorlands, which, like all Harriers, it regularly quarters in its search for food. This consists of young birds, rats, mice, and frogs or lizards. The nest is made of roots, heather, and plant stems, and the eggs are bluish white, often faintly spotted with reddish brown.

The adult male is slate grey with white rump and white under parts, the throat and breast being bluish grey. The female and young are brown above with the exception of the rump, which is white; tail brown with five dark bars, whence the name "Ring Hawk," which is applied to the females and young of this species. Length 21 in.; wing 15 in.

MONTAGU'S HARRIER
Circus cineraceus (Montagu)

Although the commonest of our British Harriers, this species is nevertheless exceedingly scarce and local. It is a migrant, arriving towards the middle of April, and in some of the open moorlands and fenny localities in the south and south-east of England a few pairs yearly attempt to breed.

The sight of this grand bird, as it quarters the ground backwards and forwards in search of food, is an exquisite pleasure to the true naturalist, but in spite of the protection afforded by law, it is ruthlessly destroyed, either by the gamekeeper or the collector of British killed specimens, whenever seen. In habits it closely resembles the Hen Harrier. It nests on the ground, and its bluish white eggs are, as in the case of that species, often speckled with rusty red.

The upper parts, throat, and breast of the male are slaty grey; the hinder parts white, streaked with rufous on the flanks. Tail feathers greyish with five rusty red bars on all except the middle pair. The female, who is slightly larger than the male, is brown above and buff streaked with rufous below. The young resemble the female but are much darker below. Length about 18 in.; wing 15·4 in.

To Scotland and Ireland this bird is only a very rare straggler.

THE COMMON BUZZARD
Buteo vulgaris, Leach

Years ago this species might fairly have been called common in our islands, but the gamekeeper, who has much to answer for in the extirpation of many species, has not failed to wage war on this beautiful bird. If we still want to see him, as he soars round in graceful curves over his forest home, we shall have to journey to the wilder parts of Wales and Scotland, where alone he is still able to hold his own. Over the rest of our islands he is, as a breeding species, no longer extant, though every year a few migrants from abroad seek our hospitality, only to be killed by the first keeper that sees them.

The nest is placed either on a ledge of a cliff or in the fork of a tree, and is a bulky structure of sticks, lined and surrounded with fresh leaves, which are continually renewed as they wither. The eggs, four in number, are bluish white, marked with rusty red near their larger end. Both sexes incubate, and if the nest be approached, circle round and round the intruder with piteous "mewing" note. As far as game birds are concerned, this species is practically harmless, feeding almost entirely on ground game, frogs, and reptiles, so that no one can have any excuse for destroying it.

It is a very variable species; the general colour is dark brown above and below with a whitish band showing longitudinal dark stripes on the breast, but in some individuals there is very much more white. The young bird is usually paler on the upper parts. The female only differs from the male in her slightly larger size. Length about 22 in.; wing 15·5 in.

THE ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD
Buteo lagopus (J. F. Gmelin)

The Rough-legged Buzzard, which differs from the Common Buzzard in having the legs feathered to the toes, is a regular autumn migrant to this country, especially in the north and east of Scotland. In some years its numbers are much greater than in others, so that for a time it becomes common even down to the south and east of England. In Ireland it has only been noticed on a few rare occasions.

It is a common and numerous species on the Continent, breeding within the limits of the Arctic Circle, and wandering southwards in winter. In habits and appearance, except for the feathered tarsus, it resembles the preceding species. Length about 23 in.; wing 17·2 in.

THE SPOTTED EAGLE
Aquila maculata (J. F. Gmelin)

At long intervals stragglers belonging to this species have been taken in these islands, all of them during the last three months of the year.

This species is a summer migrant to Central and Southern Europe, from whence it migrates on the approach of winter to Africa, large numbers passing down the Nile Valley.

The adult is of a warm brown all over, but the young bird has the feathers of the upper parts tipped with buff, and the lower parts striped with ochreous. Length of male 19 in.; the female is slightly larger.

THE GOLDEN EAGLE
Aquila chrysaetus (Linnæus)

This magnificent bird has only been preserved to us as a breeding species owing to the strict protection afforded to the deer in the Highlands and some of the outlying islands off the west coast of Scotland. Thanks to this, it is slightly on the increase in some places, though, as it meets with a speedy death should it trespass over a grouse moor, it can never become generally common. It is a truly grand bird to watch as it soars and circles over the few miles of country to which it claims suzerain rights, and eminently worthy of protection as an object of natural beauty.

The eyrie, which is resorted to year after year, is placed on the ledge of a crag or more rarely in a tree. It is a vast accumulation of sticks, to which additions are made every year, and is lined with tufts of grass. The eggs, usually two in number, are bluish white, marked to a greater or lesser extent with reddish brown.

Its food consists chiefly of mountain hares, though it also takes birds, lambs, and occasionally the fawns of the deer; but although it does sometimes take grouse, they do not form its chief food, and certainly the numbers taken are not sufficient to warrant its destruction.

It does not chase its prey, but having marked them down, pounces on them as they lie.

In Ireland a few pairs still breed in the wilder parts of the north and west, but elsewhere in our islands it is very rarely seen, as it is not given to wandering far from its accustomed haunts. In England it is exceedingly rare, most of the reported occurrences being immature examples of the next species.

The general colour is a uniform dark brown, tawny on the nape. Except in its larger size, the female resembles the male. Young birds may be distinguished by the white bases to the outer tail feathers. Length about 23 in.; wing 24 in.

THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE
Haliaetus albicilla (Linnæus)

This species, which was never common in any part of our islands, is now only found as a breeding bird on a very limited number of stations on the west coast of Ireland and Scotland. In autumn immature birds are frequently observed round our English coasts on their southward migration.

The nest is placed usually on an inaccessible crag by the sea-shore, and is a vast accumulation of sticks and rubbish, which is yearly augmented. The eggs are two in number and dull white without any markings. The habits and food are similar to the Golden Eagle, but it occasionally takes fish, and feeds more readily on carrion.

Old birds are dark brown with nearly white head and neck and white tail. Immature birds are brown mottled with fulvous on the upper parts and with a brown tail.

This species takes about five years to become adult, and all varieties between these two plumages may be met with. Length about 34 in.; wing 25 in.

THE GOSHAWK
Astur palumbarius (Linnæus)

This species is common throughout the wooded districts of Northern and Central Europe, and has only occurred in these islands at long intervals, almost always on the east coast of Scotland or England. In Ireland it is practically unknown.

In olden times falconers (for this species was in great demand for hawking) used to liberate adults in the spring in order to procure the young when they nested, and in this manner there is no doubt that it became established for several centuries, but it is now over a hundred years since the last English-bred nestling was obtained.

It inhabits wooded districts, and seizes its prey, which consists of both mammals and birds, on the ground.

The adult is brown on the back; the under parts are white barred with dull black. The young is brown above and buff striped with dark brown below.

Length 20 in.; wing 12 in. The female is slightly larger.

THE SPARROW-HAWK
Accipiter nisus (Linnæus)

Numerous and abundant throughout our woodland districts, it must be confessed that this species, especially when rearing its young, does undoubtedly considerable damage among the pheasant coops, and there is less to be said in favour of this bird than is the case with most of the other birds destroyed by the game-preserver.

Inhabiting woods, it is not so often seen as the wind-hovering Kestrel, nor is its flight powerful. When hunting, it flies low along a hedgerow or the outskirts of a wood, pouncing suddenly upon any hapless bird that may dart out in front of it. Birds form its principal prey, but it will also take mice, moles, or any other living thing which comes under its notice.

A substantial nest of sticks is built high up in some fir or evergreen. A former nest is often used, sometimes after a lapse of several years. The eggs are extremely handsome, being pale blue with very bold mottlings and markings of deep reddish brown. The same coppice is resorted to yearly, although one of the parents may be shot on the nest and the young destroyed.

The adult male, which is much smaller than the female, is slate blue on the upper parts, with rufous on the cheeks and ear coverts. The under parts are pale buff, barred with reddish brown, some individuals being much redder than others. The female is brown on the back and the under parts are whitish, barred with brown. The young, except in size, resemble the female, but the under parts are striped instead of barred.

This species is, however, extremely variable in colour and markings. Length of male 13 in.; wing 7·7 in. Female 15·4 in.; wing 9 in.

THE KITE
Milvus ictinus, Savigny

Although once so abundant that it used, some two or three centuries ago, to feed on offal in the London streets, the remnant of our indigenous Kites are now reduced to some dozen individuals in the more remote parts of Wales. The gamekeeper, the egg-collector, and even the salmon-angler have all combined to destroy this noble species, and even now, when it is far too scarce to do any harm, a vandal has recently shot one of the remnant, and owing to a fault in the administration of the law has got off scot free. It will not be until we have public opinion aroused sufficiently to protect our natural beauties that this ruthless extermination of any rare bird will be stopped. Certain species, _e.g._ Robin, Thrush, Nightingale, House Martin, etc., are so well protected by that opinion as to become almost too numerous in certain places. The shooting of many of our rarer wanderers can do no great harm if the lust for killing rare birds must be indulged in, but our rare resident or breeding migrants should never be destroyed. We cannot replace what is thus killed, and these living bits of Nature form a heritage left us by former generations, which it becomes our duty to hand on to the future. For even in the immediate present the delight of seeing the living bird in its native haunts is not confined to ornithologists, but thousands, rich and poor, appreciate intensely the sight of one of our larger and rarer species, amidst its natural surroundings; and no censure can be too strong for the man who wilfully destroys that creature for his own selfish ends, whether for the sake of having its stuffed effigy in a glass case, or that he may bag a larger number of pheasants in due season. It is a crime as great or greater than the stealing of art treasures from our National Gallery.

The wide circling flight of the Kite is a magnificent sight, as it daily covers large tracts of country in search of its food. Offal and carrion are, or should be, the chief diet of this species, but in this country it chiefly subsists on small mammals and birds, becoming, at the nesting time, very bold and taking toll from the poultry-yard and game coverts.

The Kite was formerly common throughout England and by no means rare in Scotland, but for many years past it has been restricted to certain places, in almost all of which it is now extinct. It is only a very occasional wanderer to Ireland.

The nest is placed in a tall tree and composed of sticks, with a lining of any rubbish that can be found. The eggs, three in number, often only two, are pale blue, spotted and streaked with reddish.

The adult is brown on the back and chestnut below, with darker stripes. Tail rufous and much forked. Head and neck whitish, with darker stripes. Length 25 in.; wing 20 in.

THE BLACK KITE
Milvus migrans (Boddaert)

This species, although a regular summer visitor to the valley of the Rhine and Moselle, has only once found its way to our shores. Its home is throughout Central and Southern Europe, migrating southwards from the more northerly portions of its range in winter.

The head and throat are whitish, streaked with dark brown; rest of the plumage brown, more rufous on the breast. The female is rather darker on the head. Length 24 in.; wing 18 in.

THE HONEY BUZZARD
Pernis apivorus (Linnæus)

This migratory species, which is widely distributed throughout most of the wooded districts of Europe, visits us annually on both its spring and autumn migrations, and a few pairs generally attempt to nest in suitable localities. The greed of the egg-collector has sadly diminished the number of these summer residents, though with adequate protection moderate numbers might again be induced to spend the summer months in these islands.

The adult has the head greyish; upper parts brown; under parts white, barred and spotted on the breast. Length about 23 in.; wing 17 in.

THE GREENLAND FALCON
Falco candicans, J. F. Gmelin

This species breeds in the Far North, in Greenland, Jan Mayen, and Novaya Zemlya, migrating southwards in winter. A good many examples have from time to time been taken in Great Britain, chiefly, as would be expected, in Scotland and Ireland.

The adult is white, streaked on the upper parts with black, and sometimes slightly spotted below. Young birds are much more heavily marked. Length 21 in.; wing 14·5 in. The female is slightly larger.

This Falcon may be distinguished in all ages by the prevailing ground colour being white.

THE ICELAND FALCON
Falco islandus, J. F. Gmelin

This species is confined to Iceland, though very closely allied forms may be found in South Greenland and Labrador. Its visits to these islands have not been nearly so numerous as those of the former species.

The general colour of the upper parts is brownish grey, becoming greyer with age, with pale buff markings. Under parts whitish, the flanks barred with dark brown. Length of male 21 in.; wing 14·5 in.; the female is rather larger.

THE GYR FALCON
Falco gyrfalco, Linnæus

Two examples of this Scandinavian and North Russian species have been obtained in England.

It is very closely allied to the Iceland Falcon, but the head is darker and the under parts are very thickly barred. Length 19·5 in.; wing 14 in.

THE PEREGRINE
Falco peregrinus, Tunstall

This noble species, the king of Falcons, is still, we are glad to say, by no means uncommon round our coasts, though as a breeding bird it has been banished from most of its inland eyries. To those who still keep up the ancient sport of hawking, an amusement, which to our minds comes nearer true sport than any of its latter-day substitutes, the Peregrine is the favourite bird, and a grand sight it is to see this beautiful species "ring up" above his prey and "stoop" at him with half-closed wings and unerring aim, when pursuer and pursued come down to ground, the former to earn the reward of his prowess and the latter to a happy despatch.

Agricultural conditions have had much to do with the decline of this sport, an amusement which lacks the one-sidedness of a Pheasant or Partridge drive, and one in which the forces of nature are matched together.

The Peregrine, as its name implies, is a bird of passage, and visits on migration most parts of our islands. In the nesting season at the end of March or early in April it returns to its former eyrie, generally on some overhung ledge of a cliff on which there is a little earth, or more rarely in the old deserted nest of Rook or Crow. It adds no materials but lays its four beautiful yellowish eggs, which are thickly marked with deeper shades of orange and rufous, on the bare ground, or in the nest just as it was found. The young are covered at first with whitish down. Its food, which is always taken on the wing, consists of birds of all kinds, up to the size of a Crow, but Ducks, Sea-fowl, and Pigeons constitute, as a rule, its chief prey.

The young remain near their home for some time, till they are finally driven away by their parents, but the old birds, having once settled on a home, do not as a rule wander very far away from it. In its more northerly breeding haunts, however, both old and young migrate on the approach of winter.

The male, usually known in hawking parlance as the "tiercel," is much smaller than his mate, and has the upper parts slate grey; the under parts buffish white, barred with black. The crown and cheeks are also black. The female is browner and more thickly barred on the under parts. The young have buff margins to the feathers of the back and are striped instead of being barred below. Length of male 15 in.; wing 12·5 in. The female is larger.

THE HOBBY
Falco subbuteo, Linnæus

This species is very like a small Peregrine and comes to us yearly to rear its young. Although occurring throughout our islands, it is very local, being commonest in our southern and eastern counties. It very seldom nests north of Yorkshire, where it becomes rare. In the west of England and in Ireland it is almost unknown.

In flight and habits it closely resembles the Peregrine, its food consisting chiefly of small birds and insects.

An old Crow's or Magpie's nest is appropriated, and the eggs, usually three in number, closely resemble those of the Kestrel but are slightly smaller. Old and young leave us again in September.

The sexes are alike, and very dark slate grey on the back; chin white; under parts buffish, striped with black; thighs and vent red. Length about 13 in.; wing 10·5 in.

THE MERLIN
Falco æsalon, Tunstall