Chapter XVI: Front Matter (16)

The CORMORANTS PROPER (_Phalacrocorax_) differ from the Snake Birds principally in their more bulky shape and in the construction of their bill. Their beak, which is of moderate length, is compressed at the sides, rounded above, furrowed at the sides of the upper mandible, bent downwards and strongly hooked at its tip. The legs are strong, and wings short, with the third quill longer than the rest. The tail consists of twelve feathers, and is shorter than that of the Darters. The Cormorants are met with from the middle of Norway to the south of Europe, and during the winter resort in countless multitudes to Africa. They are also very abundant in Central Asia and North America, whence they wander as far as the West Indies. The habitat of these birds is either the sea or fresh water, according to circumstances. They frequently resort to large rivers or lakes thickly skirted with trees, and sometimes make their appearance in inhabited districts, from which it is difficult to drive them away. An instance is even recorded in which they took up their quarters in the centre of a town, selecting the church tower for their citadel. They visit the sea in great numbers, and there seem to prefer certain localities, generally selecting a situation where the coast is but little accessible or where there are long reefs and ridges of rock. They are very abundant on the coast of Scandinavia, as also in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Hebrides, Orkneys, and other similar localities where they are little disturbed by mankind. During the winter season they are met with in equal abundance in more southern districts. In Greece they may be seen in great numbers from one year's end to another, both upon the large lakes and in the sea. In Egypt, they cover the lakes near the shore, as far as the eye can reach, whence they every morning fly out to sea in countless multitudes, returning in the evening. In Southern China and in India they are equally numerous. Indeed, it may be said that they are met with in every locality where water and fishes are to be had. In their habits and mode of life the Cormorants present many peculiarities. They are very sociable, and generally keep together in flights that are more or less numerous. It is a rare occurrence to see one of them alone. During the morning they are always indefatigably employed in fishing; about noon they betake themselves to repose, and digest their food; towards evening they are again busy fishing, and afterwards they resort to the places where they sleep. These are generally lofty trees, growing at some little distance inland upon islands in rivers or lakes, the same upon which they subsequently build their nests; they are generally such as afford them an extensive prospect in every direction, and allow them to fly away and return with facility. The islands thus frequented are easily recognisable at a distance by the thick covering of nascent guano by which the ground is everywhere hidden; indeed, they would soon literally become beds of that material had it a Peruvian sun to dry, or as Scheffel says, "purify" it. Similar deposits are likewise to be seen on islands in the sea, which seldom fail to arrest the attention of the passing mariner. Their history, however, is quite intelligible, and their appearance remarkable when they are densely covered with Cormorants, sitting in close ranks like regiments of soldiers, tier above tier, all turned in the same direction with their faces towards the sea; thus presenting a strangely picturesque scene, for although they are stationary, they are by no means motionless; each of them is constantly moving its head, spreading its tail, or stretching out its wings, so as to give an appearance of animation to the whole assemblage. For a single individual among them to remove from the place where it stands without flying away altogether is an impossibility, so densely are they crowded together. It is asserted by some that these birds can only walk while propping themselves up with their tails; this, however, is not correct; their walk, it is true, is but a clumsy waddle, still it enables them to get over the ground with tolerable quickness. Upon the branches of trees the Cormorants are much more at home than on level ground; nevertheless, like the Snake-necks it is only when swimming or diving in the water that they show their real capabilities. Should a boat approach the rock upon which hundreds of them have taken their station, they first begin to show symptoms of uneasiness by stretching out their necks and moving their heads; they then begin a sort of restless shuffling backwards and forwards, and ultimately they take flight; a few of the assembled multitude rise into the air, flying at first with fluttering wings, but they soon sweep away, gliding straight forward to a considerable distance, or rise upwards in circles high into the air; the majority of them, however, spring at once into the sea, like so many frogs. Here they instantly dive, and when they come up again may be seen a considerable distance off, peering at the boat with their little green eyes and ready to dive again, in an instant, should they think such a course conducive to their safety. The Darters unquestionably swim and dive more dexterously, but it is questionable whether any other birds can excel the Cormorants in this respect. They progress so rapidly under the water, that a boat manned with strong rowers is unable to overtake them; they dive likewise not only to a great distance, but to a considerable depth, and when they come up, they simply take breath and at once dive again. When chasing their prey beneath the surface they stretch their bodies quite straight, and by powerful strokes of their feet, dart through the water with arrow-like swiftness.

That these birds possess a good deal of intelligence is proved by the fact that in China great numbers of tame Cormorants are taught to catch fish for the benefit of their owners. Fortune was informed by one of these Chinese fishermen that the birds so employed are kept in a state of captivity from the moment of their birth, and that the eggs from which they are obtained are incubated by barn-door fowls. When old enough they are taken to the water-side, and there carefully taught to obey their master's commands, and to bring to him the fishes that they procure. Upon inland waters the presence of Cormorants is a very serious matter, seeing that they destroy the fish in incredible quantities. Their voracity is almost beyond belief; a single Cormorant, when it can get them, will eat as many fishes as a Pelican. Although Cormorants generally prefer to build their nests upon trees, when these are not to be found they content themselves with cavities and projections among rocks or places of a similar description. In inland situations, or where the woods come down almost to the sea, they often make their appearance in rookeries and heronries, and after expelling the Rooks with little trouble, and the Herons after long-contested battles, proceed to take possession of their nests, to which they add a few materials of their own selection, and at once begin to lay their eggs. Should they remain in undisturbed possession of the invaded locality for a year or two, they are only to be got rid of with the greatest difficulty. In the year 1812, says Naumann, four pairs of Cormorants made their appearance in Lutzenburg, not far from the sea-coast, and built their nests in a wood upon a very high beech-tree, which had been for several years the resort of Rooks and Herons. After driving away the Herons, whose nests they took possession of, they each proceeded to rear two broods, one in May, the other in July, and when they left the place about the end of autumn, they numbered about thirty individuals. In the spring of the following year, these repeated their visit, and continued to return every year in still increasing numbers, until it was estimated that there were at least 7,000 brooding pairs assembled in the neighbourhood. Boje counted fifty of their nests in a single tree, the multitudes of them constantly flying to the sea and returning again seemed to fill the air, and the noise they made was positively deafening; the trees upon which they assembled were white with filth, and the whole place stank in consequence of the quantities of putrid fishes fallen from their nests. It was only after several years of unabated exertion that they were at length destroyed or driven away.

The Cormorants generally make their appearance in their breeding-places in April, and set about preparing their nests with great zeal. Towards the end of the month, they lay three or four narrow eggs, of a blueish green colour, but generally incrusted with calcareous deposit. The two sexes sit by turns for about four weeks, and when the young are hatched feed them with indefatigable perseverance. Being thus abundantly provided for, the nestlings grow rapidly; the old birds behave very affectionately towards their progeny, but when danger threatens will not stay to defend them, at least from their human enemies. Whenever the old birds visit their nests, they are literally full to the throat with the food that they have procured; each of them disgorges on the borders of the nest several dozens of small fishes, which are immediately appropriated by the hungry occupants. Many, however, fall upon the ground, and as no Cormorant thinks it worth while to pick them up, they are left to taint the atmosphere. Towards the end of June the young birds fly away, and the old ones begin to rear a second brood. The chase after Cormorants is a very favourite amusement with the zealous sportsman, although the birds when killed are of no use whatever. Their watchfulness and cunning when they are at large are calculated to test his utmost perseverance and caution. Near the trees where they build their nests, however, they are very much more easily destroyed, and still more readily in their eyries; their destruction, indeed, is so simple that it becomes almost a matter of necessity. But here the sport loses its charms, and the battues that are organised against them assume very much the appearance of a massacre; every one who can procure a gun hastens to the scene of action, and multitudes of the birds are annually slaughtered. In this country the flesh of the Cormorant is regarded as uneatable; the Laplanders, however, and also the Arabs, are of a very different opinion, and consider it, on account of its fatness, to be an especially dainty kind of food.

THE COMMON CORMORANT.

The COMMON CORMORANT (_Phalacrocorax carbo_) is from thirty-five to thirty-seven inches long, and from sixty to sixty-four broad. The length of wing is fourteen to fifteen inches, and of tail six and a half to seven inches. The plumage on the top of head, neck, breast, belly, and rump is of a glossy blackish green, with a slight metallic lustre. The fore part of the back and upper surface of the wings brown with a bronze shade. Owing to the dark margins of the feathers, these parts have the appearance of being imbricated: quills and tail-feathers black; a white patch commencing behind the eye surrounds the throat. The eye is sea-green; beak black, with yellowish base; the bare skin on neck and face is yellow; and foot black. During the breeding season the Cormorants, more especially the males, have delicate white feathers on the head; these, however, soon disappear. The young are more or less grey; the upper parts of the body being dark, with the imbricated appearance above alluded to; the under side is yellowish or light grey. This species is commonly found on all the rocky parts of the British coast. The nests are placed on high cliffs, many birds congregating together and living harmoniously. The nest is large, and composed of sticks and a mass of coarse grass and seaweed, sometimes a foot high. The rough oblong eggs are from four to six in number, of a chalky white and pale blue colour. In the course of a few days after hatching, the young are able to take to the water. "These birds," says Yarrell, "are frequently seen sitting on posts, rails, or leafless trees by the water-side, when, if a fish should move on the surface within their sight, it is pounced upon and caught to a certainty. An eel is a favourite morsel with him, and a Cormorant has been seen to pick up an eel from the mud, return to the rail he was previously sitting upon, strike the eel three or four hard blows against the rail, toss it up into the air, and, catching it by the head in its fall, swallow it in an instant."

"In China the bridges across the Min, at Fuhchau, may often be seen crowded with men viewing the feats of the tame fishing Cormorants. These birds look at a distance about the size of a Goose, and are of a dark dirty colour. The fisherman who has charge of them stands upon a raft, about two feet and a half wide and fifteen or twenty feet long, made out of five large bamboos of similar size and shape, firmly fastened together. It is very light, and is propelled by a paddle. A basket is placed on it to contain the fish when caught. Each raft has three or four Cormorants connected with it. When not fishing they crouch down stupidly on the raft.

"The fisherman, when he wishes to make a Cormorant fish, pushes or throws it off the raft into the water. If it is not disposed at once to dive and seek for fish, he beats the water with his paddle, or sometimes strikes the bird, so that it is glad to dive and get out of his reach. When it has caught a fish it rises to the surface, holding it in its mouth, and apparently striving to swallow it. A string tied loosely around its neck or a metallic ring effectually prevents swallowing, except perhaps in the case of very small fish. It usually swims directly for the raft. The fisherman on seeing the prize paddles towards it with all speed, lest it should escape from the bird. Sometimes the fish is a large one, and there is evidently a struggle between it and the Cormorant. The fisherman, when near enough, dexterously passes a net-like bag, fastened to the end of a pole, over the two, and draws them both on the raft. He then forces the fish from the grasp of the bird, and, as if to reward the latter for its cleverness and success, gives it a mouthful of food, which it is enabled to swallow on his raising the ring from the lower part of its neck. The bird, if apparently tired out, is allowed to rest awhile on the raft, and then it is pushed off again into the water and made to dive and hunt for fish as before. Sometimes the Cormorant, from imperfect training, swims away from the raft with the fish it has caught. In such a case the fisherman pursues and speedily overtakes the truant. Sometimes, it is reported, two or three Cormorants assist in securing a large and powerful fish, and occasionally two quarrel together for the fish one has taken, or one pursues the other for the fish in its mouth. At such times the interest of the spectators on the bridge increases to noisy shouting. The bird is provided with a sort of pouch or large throat, in which the small fish are entirely concealed, while the head or tail of the larger fish protrudes from its mouth. It is only at or near full tide that these birds are successful in catching fish under and near the bridges, as then the water is deep and comparatively still, and the fish seem to abound in the vicinity more than at low-tide. At such times there are frequently several rafts with Cormorants fishing near the bridges. The skill of the fisherman in propelling his craft, and the success of the bird in catching the fish are attested by the delighted curiosity and animated interest of the spectators."

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The PELICANS (_Pelecani_), the largest and most striking members of this order, are at once recognisable by their enormous beak, furnished underneath with a capacious bag, and strongly hooked at its extremity. The upper mandible, which is remarkably depressed from its origin to its apex, is moderately broad, and rounded at the point; the culmen forms a conspicuous keel, running along the entire length of the upper jaw, and at its termination bends down to form the strong claw-like hook at the extremity. The lower mandible is exceedingly weak and slender, consisting of two long lateral branches, only joined to each other towards the apex, and enclosing between them a very capacious bag, formed by a dilatable expansion of the throat. In comparison with the above most characteristic features, the rest of the structure of the bird is to the ornithologist of secondary importance; it is, however, very peculiar. The body is large and cylindrical, the neck long and slender; the feet are small, toes long, and connected by a broad web. In the large broad wing, the third quill exceeds the rest in length; the tail, which is short, broad, and rounded, consists of twenty or twenty-four feathers. The plumage is thick, but remarkably hard and stiff; besides the almost naked sac beneath the throat, there is a considerable space around the eye completely denuded of feathers. The two sexes resemble each other very closely, but considerable differences serve to distinguish the old birds from the young.

Pelicans inhabit the torrid regions of the earth, but are also found to a considerable distance within the limits of the temperate zone. In their habits and mode of life, the different groups nearly resemble each other, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to a description of two species met with in Europe.

None but those who have travelled in Egypt and North Africa can form any idea of the vast numbers of fish-eating birds that there crowd the shores of every lake and river. Upon all the Egyptian lakes along the course of the Nile, during the period of its inundation, and still further to the south, along the banks of the Blue and White Nile, as well as on the shores of the Red Sea, Pelicans occur in such immense flocks that the eye is unable even to estimate their extent. Over a considerable surface of country they literally cover the quarter, or the half, of every square mile. When they are swimming out upon the lakes, they look like immense beds of water-lilies. When they come out of the water to sit upon the shore, more especially if it be upon one of the islands, and sit in the sunshine preening their feathers, they look at a distance like a vast white wall, and when they retire to sleep, all the trees upon the island are so thickly covered with them that they have the appearance of blossoms without a single green leaf. To meet a small flock of about ten or a dozen is an unusual occurrence, but to see hundreds or thousands together is a very ordinary spectacle. As the spring approaches, these enormous hosts are in some measure broken up. Many which during the winter season congregated together make their way to Southern Europe, where they breed, but numbers of them are left behind. In selecting the place of their sojourn, these birds seem to make no difference between salt water and fresh; they frequent both in almost equal numbers, but the depth of the water is to them a matter of considerable importance.

Only a single American species obtains its food by diving, the others are altogether too lightly built to render such a mode of fishing practicable. They lie upon the surface of the water as if they were made of cork, and it is only in shallow water, to the bottom of which they can reach with their long neck and hooked bill, that they usually fish for food. For this purpose they assemble together in some place where water is of the proper depth, arranging themselves with considerable regularity, so as to enclose a large space, which as they advance forward is gradually diminished. In large lakes and shallows by the sea-shore they arrange themselves in a semicircle, and row themselves gradually towards the beach, or else they form a complete circle, the diameter of which diminishes as they advance towards each other. In narrow rivers or canals they divide into two parties, and arrange themselves in close ranks facing each other, thus enclosing a space in which their prey is to be procured, as the two lines swim in opposite directions until they meet. In general these birds feed only on fishes, but not unfrequently they catch other vertebrate animals. Young birds, for example, that happen to approach them too closely are seized and swallowed, and even half-grown Ducks occasionally disappear down their capacious throats in an equally unceremonious manner. When on dry land the gait of these birds is slow and waddling, nevertheless they can scarcely be said to walk badly, and notwithstanding their webbed feet, they readily perch upon trees; they swim well, and their powers of flight are excellent. The daily life of the Pelicans is conducted in a very regular manner; the early hours of morning are employed in catching food, and they may then be seen hastening from all quarters to their fishing-ground, in small or large parties, the former flying in single file, the latter in the well-known V-shape adopted by many birds of passage. Some parties may soon be seen returning from the water, satisfied with their meal, while others are making their way towards the shallow bay from which their breakfast has to be procured. Towards ten o'clock a.m. they begin to congregate upon their favourite sandbank, or an inland group of trees, and here they repose after their toil, some lazily digesting their food, and others more actively employed in oiling and preening their feathers, a proceeding in which they are occupied for a considerable length of time, their long unmanageable bill being but little adapted to the work. When this is accomplished, they take a kind of siesta, some perched on trees, others on the ground, the former generally sitting bolt upright upon the branches, with their necks thrown back, and their beak resting on their breasts, while the latter generally lie flat on their bellies, and doze away the noontide hours. Between three and four o'clock the whole assembly begins to wake up and prepare for another fishing excursion, in which they are engaged till sunset, after which they at once set off to their sleeping-places, situated on a lonely sandbank, or some island covered with trees, upon the branches of which they pass the night. As to the breeding of these birds, we have been able to collect little from personal observation; it appears, however, by no means unlikely that in the interior of Africa some of them may build their nests in the trees, to which they so frequently resort. In Southern Europe, as Von der Muhle informs us, they select morasses and lakes for their breeding-places. In some of these lakes, says our informant, floating islands are to be met with, which are only approachable with great difficulty, and upon these they build their rudely-constructed nests, as close to each as other they can well be placed. The nests themselves are constructed of reeds and sedges, trodden together into a mass, and are generally damp or even wet. The whole neighbourhood is covered with their filth, the stench of which, added to that of the putrid fishes, which are everywhere strewn about, is at this hot season of the year, absolutely unbearable. Strangely enough they do not all breed at the same time, for brooding females are often sitting in the immediate vicinity of fledged young birds; indeed, Freyberg, who has often visited these breeding-places, informs us that in the same nest he has seen a nearly-fledged young one, and another as yet only covered with down, a circumstance only to be explained by supposing that two females had laid their eggs in the same nest. The usual number of eggs, as we are told by Bädecker, is from three to five. Those that have been observed in a state of captivity have only laid two. In proportion to the bird the eggs are of small size, being not so large as those of a Swan; their shape is more or less elongated, with both ends of equal size, their colour is blueish white, but their external surface remains for some time soft and pasty, and a layer of dirt, which sticks to them after they have been sat upon, renders it impossible to clean the shell. The young present nothing particular in their appearance, save that they are disgustingly filthy, nevertheless, their parents seem affectionately attached to them, and will suffer themselves to be captured rather than desert their charge.

THE WHITE PELICAN.

The WHITE PELICAN (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_), the commonest and most widely distributed species, is one of the largest members of the natatorial order. In this bird the general colour of the body is white slightly tinged with rose-red; the primary quills being dark brown; the front of breast is yellow, upon the top of the head the feathers are much elongated, so as to form a long streaming crest. In young birds the mantle is brown mingled with grey, the under side dark grey. The eye is bright red, and the bare space around it yellow; the beak is grey speckled with red and yellow; the bag beneath the bill veined with yellowish blue; the feet are bright flesh-red. This species is from fifty-five to sixty-two inches long, and ninety to one hundred broad; the wing measures about twenty inches; and the tail about six inches and a half. The White Pelican principally inhabits the tropical climates of Africa and India, but is also found in the Mediterranean, on the extensive lakes of Hungary and Russia, and on the eastern rivers of Europe. In Southern Europe it appears about the end of April or beginning of May, returning to its winter quarters after the breeding season. Occasionally these birds miss their way and make their appearance in Germany, greatly to the astonishment of the inhabitants of the districts so visited. In Hungary they usually arrive in flocks of some four or six hundred individuals; these immediately disperse throughout the country for the purpose of breeding; after the period of incubation they again assemble in flocks previous to taking their departure. This species subsists on all kinds of fish, which it catches with facility, and with such sharp-eyed vigilance, that not even the smallest escapes its observation. It is unable to dive, and therefore only searches for food in small and shallow inlets of rivers. It occasionally ascends to some height in the air, and descrying a fish from on high, darts upon it with unerring aim.

The nest is placed on the ground, and is composed of coarse grass, lined with a softer kind. The two eggs are white. It carefully tends its young, conveying food to them in the singular pouch which, says Shaw, is one of the most remarkable appendages that is found in the structure of any animal. Though it contracts nearly into the hollow of the jaws, and the sides are not (in a quiescent state) above an inch asunder, it may be extended to an amazing capacity, and when the bird has fished with success, its size is almost incredible; it will contain a man's head with the greatest ease. In fishing, the Pelican fills this bag, and does not immediately swallow his prey, but when this is full, he returns to the shore to devour at leisure the fruits of his industry. Audubon gives the following graphic account of the movements of an American species, _P. Americanus_, which is not only very similar in appearance, but until recently bore the same specific name as the bird above described, thereby creating considerable confusion between it and the White Pelican of the eastern hemisphere. "Ranged along the margins of the sand bar in broken array, stand a hundred heavy-bodied Pelicans, pluming themselves, and awaiting the return of hunger. Should one chance to gape, all open their large and broad mandibles, yawning lazily and luxuriously. But when the red beams of the setting sun tinge the tall tops of the forest trees, the birds rise clumsily on their short legs, and hastily waddle to the water and plunge into the stream. Lightly they float as they marshal themselves and extend their lines; and now their broad, paddle-like feet propel them onwards. In yonder nook the small fry are dancing on the quiet water. Thousands are there, and the very manner of their mirth making the water to sparkle, invites their foes to advance. And now the Pelicans at once spread out their broad wings, press closely forward with powerful strokes of their feet, drive the little fishes towards the shallow shore, and then, with their enormous pouches spread like so many bag-nets, scoop them out and devour them." These birds are altogether diurnal; when gorged, they retire to the shores of small islands in bays and rivers, or sit on logs floating in shallow water at a good distance from the beach, in all which situations they lie or stand close together. The White Pelicans appear to be almost inactive during the greater part of the day, fishing only after sunrise, and again an hour before sunset, though at times the whole flock will mount high in the air, and perform extended gyrations. In the south of Europe the chase after Pelicans is a favourite sport, and by the Arabs their flesh is considered not unpalatable.

THE GREAT TUFTED OR DALMATIAN PELICAN.

The GREAT TUFTED or DALMATIAN PELICAN (_Pelecanus crispus_) is white, slightly tinged with greyish red, except upon the quills, which are black. In this species, the head-feathers are long and curly, forming a sort of helmet. The eye is silvery white, beak greyish yellow, bag beneath the throat blood-red veined with blue, and the foot black. The plumage of the young is greyish. The length of this bird is sixty-six inches, breadth one hundred and fourteen inches, the length of wing thirty inches, and tail eight inches. The habitat of the Great Tufted Pelican extends from the Black Sea over all the well-watered districts of Central and Southern Asia; a few penetrate annually into South China and North Africa, but in both these regions they are comparatively of rare occurrence.

The first example known of this bird was shot in 1828 in Dalmatia by Baron Fildegg, and it has been since found by Rüppell and Kittlitz in Abyssinia.

"It arrives," says the baron, "in spring and autumn, giving preference to the neighbourhood of Fort Opus, on the river Naronta, which is bordered with morasses. It comes through Bosnia, seldom alone, but generally in flocks. I have seen as many as twelve together hunting for fish. It is very cunning, and is extremely difficult to shoot."

No particulars are known respecting its habits, nidification, &c., which are supposed to resemble others of its family.

THE DIVERS (_Urinatores_).

THE birds belonging to this extensive order are all aquatic, and almost exclusively subsist on fishes, which they capture by diving. In conformity with this mode of life, they all present a general type of structure which is unmistakable. Their bodies are powerfully built, almost cylindrical in shape, and their legs placed far backwards. Their wings are short, feeble, and pointed, but little adapted to flight, and in many cases almost resembling fins, while their dense smooth plumage, which is impenetrable to water, admirably fits them for a residence in that element. Their beak is strong, hard, acutely pointed, and generally compressed at the sides; it is seldom much longer than the head, and its margins are usually sharp and well adapted for cutting. The foot is furnished either with three or four toes, of which the three in front are either strongly-webbed or furnished with lateral expansions of the skin, which render them efficient instruments of propulsion. The tail is often altogether wanting, or if present is always short, rounded, and generally formed of more than twelve feathers. There is much similarity in the coloration of their plumage, in which black and pure white predominate; in some species, however, variety of colour is not wanting. Generally speaking, these birds are all inhabitants of the sea; nevertheless, a few are to be met with only in inland lakes: some species have a very wide range in a great variety of climates; but the majority prefer the polar regions of the world, both north and south, from which, however, some of them migrate at stated intervals. The greater part of their lives is passed upon the surface of the water; indeed, it is only during the breeding season that they come upon dry land. Although many species fly with tolerable facility, in most instances the wings are too feeble to support the weight of their bodies, and are principally used almost like fins, to enable them to progress more rapidly when diving beneath the surface of the water, where they obtain the fishes and small crustaceans that constitute their usual food. A few diving birds build their nests solitarily; but by far the greater number congregate in innumerable hosts, and breed in company with each other upon rocks and islands that rise abruptly from the sea. The eggs are two in number.

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The GREBES (_Podicipites_) are only to be met with in fresh water, and accordingly are classed by some naturalists in the immediate vicinity of the Coots, to which, as far as relates to the structure of their feet, they certainly bear a considerable resemblance. Their true position, however, we consider to be undoubtedly among the Divers. Their body is remarkably broad and squat; their neck long and moderately slender; their head small and elongated; their beak long, conical, and compressed at the sides, with incurved, sharp cutting edges, the lower mandible being slightly overlapped by the upper one. The legs are placed so far backward, that they seem to be attached quite to the posterior extremity of the body, and moreover are of very peculiar conformation. The tarsi are of moderate height, and so much compressed at the sides that the front of the instep presents a sharp smooth edge. The structure of the foot is likewise remarkable; of the three front toes, the exterior is as long or longer than the middle toe, while the inner toe is by far the shortest of the three; the hinder toe, which is slightly elevated, is a mere rudiment. The three front toes are connected by a web as far as the first joint, but beyond this point they are separated, although each is furnished on both sides with a broad fold of skin, which is not scalloped, but smoothly rounded off in front, where it is further strengthened by the broad flattened claws. The wings are small, short, and narrow, the second and third quills being longer than the rest. The tail is altogether wanting, its place being occupied by a small bunch of fur-like feathers. The general plumage is everywhere very thick, and upon the lower part of the body so smooth and bright as almost to resemble satin, while on the head, neck, and hinder part of the body it has somewhat the appearance of hair. When in their nuptial plumage, the head of the adults is adorned with a remarkable collar or frill, developed from the sides of the face and neck, or provided with bunches of feathers, generally decorated with bright colours. Members of this family are to be found in the temperate zones of both hemispheres, beyond which they do not extend very far either to the north or south. Their usual habitat is on ponds or large sheets of stagnant water, and exceptionally on deep, slow-moving streams; but always where sedges and rushes are abundant. Occasionally, though rarely, they have been seen upon the sea. "Probably there are no birds," says Naumann, "better entitled to the name of water-fowl than the Grebes"--at least we know of no others that do not on some occasions make their appearance on dry land. It is only, however, under the most urgent circumstances--as, for example, when wounded--that these approach the shore, and even then they keep so close to the brink that on the slightest alarm they can at once plunge into their proper element. It would seem that whatever they do must be done in the water; they cannot even rise upon the wing without a preliminary rush over the surface of the lake: from dry land they cannot commence their flight. Their whole life is divided between swimming and diving; and even when other water-birds go on shore to sleep, the Grebes repose floating on their liquid bed. When thus sleeping upon the tranquil water, they float as buoyantly as if they were made of cork, their legs raised to the edges of their wings, and their head comfortably buried among the feathers between their back and shoulder. Should, however, a storm disturb their rest, and the boisterous elements drive them towards the shore, they at once turn round to face the blast, and are generally able, by the active movement of their paddle-like feet, to maintain themselves in the same place.

The conformation of their bodies, their tapering shape, small heads, sharp beak, and the very backward position of their feet, enable them to dive with wonderful facility; in fact, when under water they make their way more swiftly than even when swimming at the top. A man upon the shore would find it very difficult to keep pace with a diving Grebe, as, aided by wings and feet, it shoots onwards with the velocity of a rocket. When flying, their long neck is stretched out straight forwards and their feet backwards, while their small wings, by the rapidity of their movements, carry them very quickly through the air. In the absence of any tail, they steer their course by means of their feet, and are able not only to direct but to change the course of their flight with surprising facility; at the end of their journey they come down obliquely upon the surface of the water, into which they fall with a very audible splash. When alarmed they always instantly dive, and nothing but the utmost extremity of danger will compel them to take wing. The food of these birds consists of small fishes, insects, frogs, and tadpoles, in search of which they dive to the very bottom of the pond, but always bring them to the top before swallowing them. In their manner of breeding, the Grebes are in many respects peculiar. They live together in pairs, the male and the female exhibiting the greatest affection towards each other, keeping each other company even during their migrations, and always returning together to the same pond. When the time arrives, they construct a floating nest, which, instead of being built of dry materials, as in the case of other birds, is merely a mass of wet weeds, in which the eggs are kept not only constantly damp, but absolutely in the water. The weeds used in building the nest are procured by diving, from the bottom of the pond; these are put together in the most slovenly manner, so as to resemble a floating heap of rubbish rather than a nest, and are then fastened to some old upright reeds. The number of the eggs varies from three to six; they are of elongated shape, and at first of a greenish white colour, but they soon become dirty, and are then of a yellowish red or olive-brown tint, sometimes marbled.

The male and female sit upon the eggs alternately, but the female has the greater share in the business of incubation, the male often swimming around the place apparently for the purpose of keeping her company. Should, however, both be obliged to leave the nest at the same time, they carefully cover the eggs with a mass of half-rotten water-plants, brought up from the bottom for the purpose. In about three weeks the young are hatched, even from eggs which during a great part of the time have been lying in the water. From the first moment they are able to swim, and in the course of a few days to dive; they are, however, constantly accompanied by their parents, who often give them shelter under their wings. Having once quitted the nest, the young ones seldom return to it, a comfortable resting and sleeping place being afforded to them on the backs of their parents.

THE CRESTED GREBE.

The CRESTED GREBE (_Podiceps cristatus_), the stateliest member of the family, is a bird of considerable size, measuring from twenty-five to twenty-six inches in length, and from thirty-six to thirty-seven in breadth. The length of the wing is seven inches. During the time of its courtship this bird is furnished with a very remarkable head-dress, consisting of a large bunch of long feathers, divided above into two horn-like appendages, and also with a prominent collar or frill of hair-like plumes, on each side of the upper extremity of the neck and sides of the head. The upper parts of its body are of a shining blackish brown, a bright patch on each wing; the region of the cheeks and the throat are white; the collar around the neck rust-red, with a blackish brown margin. The under part of the body is of a glossy satiny white, speckled upon the sides with rusty red and dark grey. The eye is carmine-red, the bridles red, the beak pale red; the outer aspect of the tarsus is dark horn-colour, and the inner side yellowish grey. In its winter garb, the tufts upon the head and the collar are not developed, the brown upon the upper part of the body is mingled with deep grey, and the rust-red of the collar as well as the rust-brown of the sides is duller. The female is distinguishable from the male by her smaller size, but not by any difference in her colour. The young birds are less beautiful than are the adults in their winter dress, and are striped about the head and neck. The nestlings are at first clothed in greyish brown, streaked with black.

The Crested Grebe is to be met with wherever suitable pieces of water exist over all parts of Europe south of 60° north latitude. It is by no means scarce in Germany, and is still more abundant in lakes further to the south. In England it is principally met with in Shropshire and Lincolnshire, and is reckoned as a stationary bird even in Zetland. In the northern countries it makes its appearance early in the spring, generally in April, or shortly after the melting of the snow, and remains until October or November, when it retreats to Southern Europe and Northern Africa. In Greece and Spain it remains all through the winter; indeed, the numbers to be met with in those countries are considerably augmented by arrivals from localities further north. In North-western Africa it likewise makes its appearance at regular intervals, but in Egypt only a few solitary birds are to be met with. In Central and Northern Asia it is quite as common as it is in Europe, and there its range seems to extend from Siberia to Southern China and Japan. It is likewise abundant in North America, extending from the north of that continent to the southern provinces of the United States. In early spring these birds always make their appearance in pairs, but towards the autumn large parties of them may be seen together, consisting of fifty or sixty individuals, who keep company with each other during their migration southwards. In their migrations it is generally understood that these birds only travel by night, and that wherever large lakes or rivers are to be found, as also along the sea-coast, they make their way principally by swimming. During the summer season the Crested Grebe takes up its abode on extensive lakes, where reeds and other water-plants are abundant. Their powers of swimming and diving are quite wonderful. According to Naumann's observations, this Grebe will dive in the course of half a minute to a distance of two hundred feet. Its flight, too, when it thinks proper to take wing, is tolerably swift; it always proceeds in a straight line, and the whirring noise made by the rapid motion of its wings is audible at some distance. In its behaviour it seems to be the most circumspect and the shyest member of the family, and is not easily approached, more especially as it generally keeps in open water, where it can see to a distance. If surprised when in the vicinity of a bed of reeds, it immediately takes refuge among them, but only so long as to enable it again to plunge into deep water; if pursued it immediately dives, and when it comes up again to breathe, allows only its beak to appear above the surface, and as soon as it has taken breath dives again, until it has placed itself quite beyond the reach of danger.

The male and female are deservedly attached to each other. Should one of them accidentally stray to a distance, the other never ceases to call the wanderer back with anxious care; they generally swim about in close companionship, and often make their voice heard as they playfully caress each other. At the commencement of the breeding season each male zealously resists the intrusion of another pair within the area he has selected, so that where several pairs have taken possession of a piece of water, desperate battles are frequently fought, at the end of which the vanquished combatant has generally to have recourse to his wings in order to escape from the fury of the victor. It is only when the reeds and sedges have attained a certain height that a pair sets seriously to work upon the construction of their nest, which is always placed in the vicinity of a group of tall reeds or rushes, and frequently at a considerable distance from the shore. The nest, when constructed, is about a foot in diameter and six inches high, its cavity is extremely shallow, and it becomes gradually pressed flatter and flatter by the weight of the laying birds; even when completed, the fabric has very little the appearance of a nest, but rather resembles a heap of rotten weeds casually blown together by the winds, and left to float on the top of the water. It is wonderful that such a wet lump should bear the weight of the bird that sits upon it, and still more astonishing that it is not upset, as its occupant steps on and off a structure that possesses so little buoyancy. The normal number of eggs usually laid in this strange nest may be stated at four, sometimes there are five, sometimes only three. Out of seven nests examined by Holtz, four of them contained four eggs, one five, one three, and one two. The colour of the eggs is at first pure white, which soon, however, changes into a dirty yellow. The male and female sit upon the eggs alternately, with an unwearying assiduity, that in their case is indispensable, seeing that the eggs are actually half immersed in water; and on examining a nest from which the sitting bird has been recently driven, it will be found that not only the eggs, but the entire nest is warm throughout. Both manifest extreme attachment to their young brood; should a stranger approach, they hastily cover it up with weeds, and only retire to a little distance, returning to their charge so soon as danger has passed. It is asserted that if before incubation has commenced the eggs are abstracted one at a time, the female will lay twenty eggs or more in succession. As soon as the young are hatched, they are introduced by their parents to their proper element, and carefully defended, more especially by the male bird, who seems to take upon himself the duty of a sentinel. The nestlings are fed with insects and such small diet, at first put into their beaks, but afterwards only placed before them on the surface of the water. They soon, however, learn to dive in search of small fishes, and do not long require the supervision of their elders. The young, more especially at an early period, are elegant little creatures. "It is a treat," says Jäckel, "to watch the little family as now one, now another of the young brood, tired with the exertion of swimming or of struggling against the rippling water, mount as to a resting-place on their mother's back; to see how gently, when they have recovered their strength, she returns them to the water; to hear the anxious plaintive notes of the little wanderers when they have ventured too far from the nest; to see their food laid before them by the old birds; or to witness the tenderness with which they are taught to dive. It is only when they are eight days old that they are strong enough to enter upon this last important part of their education, which is commenced in the following manner:--The mother bird at first swims towards her little flock two or three times, holding in her beak the proffered food; but as they advance to receive it she gradually retires before them, and at last dives with it again and again, thus tempting the timid little creatures to follow her, and always at the end of the performance allowing the best swimmer to obtain the tempting prize as a reward for its exertions." The flesh of these birds is quite uneatable, but great quantities of them are destroyed annually on account of their skins.

THE LITTLE GREBE.

The LITTLE GREBE (_Podiceps minor_) is much more plentiful than the species last described. It is a beautiful bird, measuring nine or ten inches in length and seventeen or eighteen in breadth, the length of its wing being four inches. When in its nuptial dress, the plumage of the upper part of the body is brilliant black shimmering with brown, the under parts being greyish white, clouded with a darker shade; the throat and a place in the front of the eye are black; the head, sides of the neck, and throat, chestnut-brown; the eye is reddish brown; the bridles yellowish green; the beak yellow at its base and black towards its apex; the external aspect of the foot is blackish, internally it is of a clear horn-colour. In its autumnal plumage the upper parts of the body are more of a brownish grey, the under surface satiny white; the head and neck bright grey.

The range of this bird is pretty nearly the same as that of the species last described; it is not, however, so numerously met with during the winter season. It makes its appearance in Germany about the end of March, and remains in that country so long as the waters are free from ice; but during the winter it takes up its abode in the south of Europe. In Great Britain it is met with as far north as the Hebrides, and in the southern counties of England may be seen throughout the year.

It usually selects for its residence some large pond well provided with reeds and rushes, and it is also occasionally to be found in morasses and other swampy localities. It seems to avoid clear water; its food, which consists principally of insects and their larvæ, being more abundantly met with in ditches and muddy places. In its habits and mode of life it closely resembles other members of its family; it seems, however, to be more active than the larger species, and uses its feet with more facility in running.

In swimming and diving it may be said to excel even its congeners, but its powers of flying are very limited, owing to the shortness of its wings. Its flight, indeed, is said by Naumann to resemble that of a grasshopper. In summer time it is very shy, and can only be approached with difficulty, but in the winter its shyness diminishes, so that it will even come near villages, and at this season it frequently falls a victim to its own carelessness. When alarmed it immediately dives, and if further threatened with danger, secretes itself in the water under the shelter of the herbage, leaving nothing but its beak visible above the surface, and thus it will remain until all cause for apprehension is removed. Its voice is a short piping note that sounds like "bib" or "bibi," and this during the pairing season is repeated so rapidly that it sounds something like a "shake" upon some musical instrument.