Chapter D (6)

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The Gangeddulu, Erudandis, or Perumal Madukkarans, often acquire and train deformed male calves. It is a popular superstition that for a family to keep such animals in its possession is to court destruction. Consequently, when one is born, information is sent to a Gangeddu, who, on his arrival, is sumptuously fed. The calf is then washed, and a new cloth tied to its horns. A small present of money is made to the Gangeddu, and he takes the animal away. Temples sometimes dispose of their deformed calves in a similar manner. When the trained animals are exhibited in public, the deformity, which is the hall-mark of a genuine Gangeddu, is shown, usually at the commencement of the performance, or at any time at the bidding of any of the spectators. It is only after the exhibition of the deformity, which is usually concealed within the trappings of the animal, that remuneration, generally in kind, or in old rags and copper coins, is doled out to them. Villagers worship the bulls, when they happen to pass their houses, and, as soon as they enter a village, the females wash the feet of the animals with milk and water. They then adorn their foreheads with kunkumam (aniline powder) and turmeric paste, and burn incense and camphor before them. Cocoanuts, plantains, betel leaves and areca nuts, and money are also offered in a plate, and are the perquisite of the Gangeddu. The bulls are thus venerated, as they represent Basavanna, the sacred bull which is the vehicle of Siva.

The language of the Gangeddulu is Telugu, but those who have migrated to the Tamil country also speak the language of the south. They profess the Vaishnavite religion, and are of the Tengalai persuasion. They have Brahman gurus (religious preceptors), who reside at Srirangam, Tirupati, and other places. By them the Gangeddulu are branded on the shoulder with the emblems of the chank and chakram, and initiated into the mysteries of the Dasari priesthood. But, though they call themselves Dasaris, the Gangeddulu have no marital or other connection with the Dasaris. In addition to training and exhibiting the performing bulls and cultivating land, the Gangeddulu officiate as Dasaris in the month of Peratasi (September-October). Their principal insignia of office are the chank shell, which is blown to announce their arrival, and the iron lamp (called Garudasthambha), which is kept burning, and is said to represent Venkatesa, the presiding deity at Tirupati. As Dasaris, little is expected of them, except offering fruits to the god, and assisting at funerals. Several proverbs, of which the following are examples, are current concerning this aspect of their life:--

The mistake of a Dasari is excused with an apology.

The songs of a Dasari are known only to the god, i.e., they are unintelligible and unreal.

For the song of a Dasari alms are the payment, i.e., that is all the song is worth.

Sing again what you have sung, oh! Dasari with dirty teeth.

When a beggar was asked whether he was a Dasari or a Jangam, he replied that it depends on the next village. This in reference to his being a time-server.

A Gangeddu mendicant is, like his bulls, picturesquely attired. He is very punctilious about having his sect-mark on the forehead, invariably wears a turban, and his body is clothed in a long white cloth robe. When going about with the performing bulls, the Gangeddulu generally travel in pairs, one carrying a drum, and the other a bell-metal gong. One of them holds in one hand the nose-rope of the bull, and in the other the whip. The bulls are dressed up in a patch work quilt with two eye-holes in it. Of names which are given to the animals, Rama and Lakshmana are very popular. The tameness of the bulls is referred to in the proverb "As mild as a Gangeddu."

The Perumal Madukkarans, or Perumal Erudukkarans, both of which names indicate those who lead bulls about, are found chiefly in the Chingleput, North and South Arcot districts. "Every now and then," Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri writes, [134] "throughout Madras, a man dressed up as a buffoon is to be seen leading about a bull, as fantastically got up as himself with cowries (Cypræa arabica shells) and rags of many colours, from door to door. The bull is called in Tamil Perumal erudu, and in Telugu Ganga eddu, the former meaning Vishnu's bull and the latter Ganga's bull. The origin of the first is given in a legend, but that of the last is not clear. The conductors of these bulls are neatherds of high caste, called Pu Idaiyan, i.e., flower neatherds (see Idaiyan), and come from villages in the North and South Arcot districts. They are a simple and ignorant set, who firmly believe that their occupation arises out of a command from the great god Venkatachalapati, the lord of the Venkatachala near Tirupaddi (Tirupati) in the North Arcot district. Their legend is as follows. Among the habitual gifts to the Venkatachala temple at Tirupaddi were all the freaks of nature of the neighbourhood as exhibited in cattle, such as two-tailed cows, five-legged bulls, four-horned calves, and so on. The Pu Idaiyans, whose original duty was to string flowers for the temple, were set to graze these abortions. Now to graze cows is an honour, but to tend such creatures as these the Pu Idaiyans regarded as a sin. So they prayed to Venkatachalapati to show them how they could purge it away. On this, the god gave them a bull called after himself the Perumal bull and said: 'My sons, if you take as much care of this bull as you would of your own children, and lead it from house to house, begging its food, your sin will be washed away.' Ever since then they have been purging themselves of their original sin. The process is this. The bull leader takes it from house to house, and puts it questions, and the animal shakes its head in reply. This is proof positive that it can reason. The fact is the animal is bought when young for a small sum, and brought up to its profession. Long practice has made its purchasers experts in selecting the animals that will suit them. After purchase the training commences, which consists in pinching the animal's ears whenever it is given bran, and it soon learns to shake its head at the sight of bran. I need hardly say that a handful of bran is ready in its conductor's hands when the questions are put to it. It is also taught to butt at any person that speaks angrily to it. As regards the offerings made to these people, one-sixth goes to feeding the bulls, and the remaining five-sixths to the conductors. They look upon it as 'good work', but the village boys and girls think it the greatest fun in the world to watch its performances, and the advent of a Vishnu's bull is hailed by the youngsters with the greatest delight."

Gangimakkalu.--Gangimakkalu, or Gangaputra, meaning children or sons of Ganga, the goddess of water, is the name of a sub-division of Kabbera. The allied Gangavamsamu, or people of Ganga, is a name for Jalaris.

Ganiga or Gandla.--The name Ganiga is derived from the Telugu ganuga, meaning an oil-mill. The Ganigas are said [135] to be "the oil pressers of the Canarese people, corresponding to the Telugu Gandla and the Tamil Vaniyan. This caste is sub-divided into three sections, none of whom eat together or intermarry. These sections are the Hegganigas, who yoke two oxen to a stone oil-mill; Kirganigas, who make oil in wooden mills; and Ontiyeddu Ganigas, who yoke only one animal to the mill. They are collectively known as Jotipans or Jotinagarams (people of the city of light). In addition to pressing oil, they also make palm-leaf umbrellas, cultivate land, and work as labourers. They employ Brahmans to perform their ceremonies. Their guru is the head of the Vyasaraya mutt at Anegundi. Early marriage is practiced. Widow remarriage is not allowed. They eat fish, mutton, and fowls, but do not drink liquor. Chetti is their title." In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is stated that the guru of the Ganigas is the head of the mutt at Sringeri, and that they employ Havig Brahmans for their ceremonies. Sringeri is the name of a Smarta (Saivite) mutt or religious institution at several places, such as Tanjore and Kumbakonam; and there is a town of this name in Mysore, from which the mutt derives its name.

Concerning the Ganigas of the Mysore Province, Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar writes as follows. [136] "The account locally obtained connects this caste with the Nagartas, as forming the leading communities of the left-hand faction, in opposition to the Lingayats and other castes composing the right-hand faction. Caste supremacy is ever associated in India with preternatural mythology. If the average Brahman traces his nobility literally to the face of Brahma, according to the Vedic Purusha Sukta, every other castelet claims a patent of superiority in a similar miraculous origin. The Ganigas allege that they immigrated from the north at a time beyond living memory. A Mysore noble, named Mallaraje Ars, established and first peopled the pete (market town) of Bangalore, when the Ganigas first came there, followed by the Nagartas, who are said to have been co-emigrants with the Ganigas. Mallaraj made Sattis and Yajamans (headmen) of the principal members of the two castes, and exempted them from the house-tax. The Ganigas are both Vaishnavites and Saivites. Their guru is known as Dharmasivacharsvami in the Madras Presidency, and certain gotras (family names) are said to be common to the Ganigas and Nagartas, but they never eat together or intermarry. The Ganigas claim the peculiar privilege of following the Vishnu image or car processions, throughout the province, with flags exhibiting the figures of Hanuman and Garuda, and torches. These insignia are alleged to have been aboriginally given to an ancestor, named Siriyala Satti, by Rama, as a reward for a valuable gem presented by him. The Ganigas call themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas like the Nagartas, and the feud between them used often to culminate in much bitter unpleasantness. The order includes a small division of the linga-wearing oilmongers, known as Sajjana (good men), whose population is a small fraction of the community. The Sajjanas, however, hold no social intercourse of any kind with the other sub-divisions."

The Ganigas of Sandur, in the little Maratha State of that name, returned Yenne (oil) and Kallu (stone) as sub-divisions. The average cephalic index of these Ganigas was very high, being 80.5 as against 77.6 for the Ganigas of Mysore city.

"The oil-mill of the Ganigas is," Mr. W. Francis writes, [137] "a sort of large wooden mortar, usually formed out of the heart of a tamarind tree, and firmly imbedded in the ground. A wooden cylinder, shod with iron, fits roughly into the cavity. A cross beam is lashed to this in such a way that one end is close to the ground, and to this a pair of bullocks or buffaloes are fastened. By an arrangement of pullies, the pressure of the cylinder can be increased at pleasure. As the bullocks go round the trough, the seeds are crushed by the action of the cylinder, so that the expressed oil falls to the bottom, while the residuum, as oil-cake, adheres to the side of the mortar."

The following note refers to the Onteddu (single bullock) Ganigas, who claim superiority over those who employ two bullocks in working their oil-mills. The former belong to the right-hand, and the latter to the left-hand faction. Among them are various sub-divisions, of which the Deva and Onteddu may intermarry, while the Kasi, Teli (gingelly: Sesamum), and Chandanapu are endogamous. Like other Telugu castes they have gotras, some of which are interesting, as there are certain prohibitions connected with them. For example, members of the Badranollu and Balanollu gotras may not cut the tree Erythroxylon monogynum. In like manner, members of the Viranollu and Viththanollu gotras are forbidden to cut Feronia elephantum, and those of the Vedanollu gotra to cut Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Members of certain other gotras do not cultivate turmeric, sugarcane, or the millet (Panicum miliare).

The Onteddu Ganigas are Saivites, and disciples of Lingayat Brahmans (Aradhyas). Some, however, wear the sacred thread, and others bear on the forehead the red streak of the Vaishnavites. In some places, their special deity is Chaudeswara, who is the god of some of the weaving classes. In the Kistna district they claim Mallikarjunasvami as their deity.

Their primary occupation is oil-pressing, but some are traders in cotton, oil-seeds, etc., or cultivators. In some localities, the animal which works the oil-mill is not blindfolded, while it is in others, because, it is said, it would otherwise fall down after a few revolutions. Crushing gingelly oil is, according to the Shastras, a sinful act, but condoned inasmuch as Devatas use this oil for lamps, and men in temples. For the removal of the oil-cake, or turning the seeds in the mill, the left hand only is used. Burning the tongue with a piece of gold, as a means of purification after some offence has been committed, is a common practice.

The marriage rites conform, for the most part, to the Telugu type. But, while the wrist thread is being tied on, common salt is held in the hand. A dagger (baku) is then given to the bridegroom, who keeps it with him till the conclusion of the ceremonies. On the wedding day, the bridegroom wears the sacred thread. The tali is not an ordinary bottu, but a thread composed of 101 thin strings, which is removed on the last day, and replaced by a bottu. On the third day, the bride and bridegroom worship a jammi tree (Prosopis spicigera), and the latter, removing his sacred thread, throws it on the tree. Five young men, called Bala Dasulu, also worship the tree, and, if they are wearing the sacred thread, throw it thereon. The dead are as a rule buried, in a sitting posture if the deceased was an orthodox Saivite. If a young man dies a bachelor, the corpse is married to an arka plant (Calotropis gigantea), and decorated with a wreath made of the flowers thereof. The final death ceremonies are performed on the eleventh day. Food is offered to crows and the soul of the dead person, who is represented by a wooden post dressed with his clothes. The bangles of a widow are broken near the post, which is finally thrown into a tank or stream.

Ganiga further occurs as an occupational name for Lingayat oil-vendors, and for Mogers who are employed as oil-pressers.

Ganta.--Ganta or Gantla, meaning a bell, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kamma and Balija. Gantelavaru, or men of the bell, is given by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri [138] as the family name of one section of the Donga (thieving) Dasaris, and of the Kabberas, who are said to join the ranks of this criminal class. Gantugazula occurs, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Koracha. In the Vizagapatam Manual, the Tiragati Gantlavallu are described as repairing hand-mills, catching antelopes, and selling their skins.

Ganti (a hole pierced in the ear-lobe).--An exogamous sept of Gudala.

Garadi.--Garadi or Garadiga is the name of a class of mendicants in the Telugu country and Mysore who are snake-charmers, practice sleight of hand, and perform various juggling and mountebank tricks.

Garappa (dry land).--A synonym of Challa Yanadi.

Gatti.--A small caste of cultivators, found chiefly near Kumbla and Someswara in the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara. Other names for the caste are Poladava and Holadava, both signifying men of the field. Like the Bants, they follow the aliya santana law of inheritance (in the female line), have exogamous septs or balis, and, on the day of the final death ceremonies, construct car-like structures, if the deceased was an important personage in the community. The Bants and Gattis interdine, but do not intermarry. The headman of the Gattis is called Gurikara. The God of the Someswara temple is regarded as the caste deity, and every family has to pay an annual fee of four annas to this temple. Failure to do so would entail excommunication.

Gattu (bank or mound).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Gaud.--A title of Sadar.

Gauda.--The Gaudas or Gaudos are a large caste of Canarese cultivators and cattle-breeders. "Gauda and Gaudo," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [139] "are really two distinct castes, the former being Canarese and the latter Uriya. Each name is, however, spelt both ways. The two names are, I presume, etymologically the same. The ordinary derivation is from the Sanskrit go, a cow, but Dr. Gustav Oppert contends [140] that the root of Gauda is a Dravidian word meaning a mountain. Among the Canarese, and to a less extent among the Uriyas also, the word is used in an honorific sense, a custom which is difficult to account for if Dr. Oppert's philology is correct." "Gaudas," Mr. Stuart writes further, [141] "also called Halvaklumakkalu (children of the milk class), are very numerously represented in the South Canara district. They have a somewhat elaborate system of caste government. In every village there are two headmen, the Grama Gauda and the Vattu or Gattu Gauda. For every group of eight or nine villages there is another head called the Magane Gauda, and for every nine Maganes there is a yet higher authority called the Kattemaneyava. The caste is divided into eighteen baris or balis, which are of the usual exogamous character. The names of some of these are as follows: Bangara (gold), Nandara, Malara (a bundle of glass bangles, as carried about for sale), Salu, Hemmana (pride or conceit), Kabru, Goli (Portulaca oleracea, a pot-herb), Basruvogaru (basru, belly), Balasanna, and Karmannaya. Marriage is usually adult, and sexual license before marriage with a member of the caste is tolerated, though nominally condemned. The dhare form of marriage (see Bant) is used, but the bridal pair hold in their joined hands five betel leaves, one areca nut and four annas, and, after the water has been poured, the bridegroom ties a tali to the neck of the bride. Divorce is permitted freely, and divorced wives and widows can marry again. A widow with children, however, should marry only her late husband's elder brother. If she marries any one else, the members of her former husband's family will not even drink water that has been touched by her. They burn their dead. On the third day, the ashes are made into the form of a man, which is cut in two, buried, and a mound made over it. In the house two planks are placed on the ground, and covered with a cloth. On one of these, a vessel containing milk is placed, and on the other a lamp, rice, cocoanut, pumpkin, etc., are deposited. The agnates and some boys go round the plank three times, and afterwards go to the mound, taking with them the various articles in a cloth. Three plantain leaves are spread in front of the mound, and cooked food, etc., placed thereon. Four posts are set up round the mound, and cloths stretched over them, and placed round the sides. On the sixteenth day, sixteen plantain leaves are placed in a row, and one leaf is laid apart. Cakes, cooked fowl's flesh, toddy and arrack (liquor) are placed on the leaves in small leaf-cups. The assembled agnates then say "We have done everything as we should do, and so our ancestors who have died must take the man who is now dead to their regions. I put the leaf which is apart in the same row with the sixteen leaves."

"Once a year, in the month of Mituna (June-July), the Gaudas perform a ceremony for the propitiation of all deceased ancestors. They have a special preference for Venkataramaswami, to whom they make money offerings once a year in September. They employ Brahmins to give them sacred water when they are under pollution, but they do not seek their services for ordinary ceremonies. They are, for the most part, farmers, but some few are labourers. The latter receive three or four seers of paddy a day as wages. Their house language is Tulu in some places, and Canarese in others, but all follow the ordinary system of inheritance, and not the custom of descent through females. Their title is Gauda."

As bearing on the superstitious beliefs of the people of South Canara, the following case, which was tried before the Sessions Judge in 1908, may be cited. A young Gauda girl became pregnant by her brother-in-law. After three days' labour, the child was born. The accused, who was the mother of the girl, was the midwife. Finding the delivery very difficult, she sent for a person named Korapulu to come and help her. The child was, as they thought, still-born. On its head was a red protuberance like a ball; round each of its forearms were two or three red bands; the eyes and ears were fixed very high in the head; and the eyes, nose, and mouth were abnormally large. Korapulu and the girl's younger sister at once carried the mother out of the out-house lest the devil child should do her harm or kill her. The accused called for a man named Isuf Saiba, who was standing in the yard outside. He came in, and she asked him to call some of the neighbours, to decide what to do. The child, she said, was a devil child, and must be cut and killed, lest it should devour its mother. While they were looking at the child, it began to move and roll its eyes about, and turn on the ground. It is a belief of the villagers that such a devil child, when born and brought in contact with the air, rapidly grows, and causes great trouble, usually killing the mother, and sometimes killing all the inmates of the house. The accused told Isuf Saiba to cover the child with a vessel, which he did. Then there was a sound from inside the vessel, either of the child moving or making some sound with its mouth. The accused then put her hand under the vessel, dragged the child half way out, and then, while Isuf Saiba pressed the edge of the earthenware vessel on the abdomen of the child, the accused took a knife, and cut the body in half. When the body was cut in two, there was no blood, but a mossy green liquid, or a black liquid, oozed out. The accused got two areca leaves, and put one piece of the child on one, and one on the other, and told Isuf Saiba to get a spade, and come and bury them. So they went out into the jungle close to the house, and Isuf Saiba dug two holes about half a yard deep, one on one hillock, and one on another. In these two holes the two pieces of the child were separately buried. The object of this was to prevent the two pieces joining together again, in which case the united devil child would have come out of the grave, and gone to kill its mother. The birth and death of this devil child were not kept secret, but were known throughout the village.

Gauda or Gaudu further occurs as a title of Idiga, Kuruba, and Vakkaliga, an exogamous sept and gotra of Kuruba and Kurni, and a sub-division of Golla.

Gaudi.--It is recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that a Maleru (temple servant) woman, who cohabits with one of a lower class than her own, is degraded into a Gaudi.

Gaudo.--The Gaudos are described, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as "the great pastoral caste of the Ganjam Oriyas. Like those of all the cowherd classes, its members say that they are descended from the Yadava tribe, in which Krishna was born (cf. Idaiyan). The majority of the Gaudos in the northern districts are now cultivators, but there is evidence that the keeping and breeding of cattle is their traditional occupation. The most important sub-division is Sollokhondia; many of them are herdsmen and milk-sellers. Fourteen sub-divisions have been reported. They are Apoto, Behara, Bolodiya, Dongayato, Dumalo, Gopopuriya, Kolata, Komiriya, Kusilya, Ladia, Madhurapurya, Mogotho, Pattilia, and Sollokhondia." In the Census Report, 1871, it is noted that "there are many Gowdus of high social standing, who have gotten unto themselves much wealth in cattle. These men own, in many instances, large herds of buffaloes, which, being reared in the boundless pastures of the hills, are much prized by the cartmen of the low country for draught purposes."

Of the sub-division noted above, Behara is apparently a title only. Bolodiya is the name of a section of the Tellis, who use pack-bullocks (bolodi, a bull) for carrying grain about the country. Pattilia must be a mistake for Pachilia. The sections among the Gaudos which are recognised by all castes in the Ganjam district are Sollokhondia, Bhatta, Gopopuriya, Madhurapuriya, Mogotho, Apoto, and Pachilia. These, with the exception of Gopopuriya and Madhurapuriya, seem to be endogamous sub-divisions. The Bhatta Gaudos go by the name of Gopopuriya in some places and Madhurapuriya in others, both these names being connected with the legendary history of the origin of the caste. The Apoto and Bhatta Gaudos are sometimes employed as palanquin-bearers. The Mogotho Gaudos, who live on the hills, are regarded as an inferior section, because they do not abstain from eating fowls. The Sollokhondia section is regarded as superior, and consequently all Oriya castes, Brahman and non-Brahman, will accept water at the hands of members thereof. An orthodox Oriya non-Brahman, and all Oriya Brahmans, will not receive water from Telugu or Tamil Brahmans, whom they call Komma Brahmans, Komma being a corrupt form of karma, i.e., Brahmans who are strict in the observance of the various karmas (ceremonial rites).

The Sollokhondia Gaudos are agriculturists, rear cattle and sheep, and sometimes earn a living by driving carts. They have gotras, among which the most common are Moiro (peacock), Nagasiro (cobra), and Kochimo (tortoise). Their caste council is presided over by a hereditary headman called Mahankudo, who is assisted by a Bhollobaya, Desiya, and Khorsodha or Dhondia. The Khorsodha is the caste servant, and the Desiya eats with a delinquent who is received back into the fold after he has been tried by the council. The Sollokhondias are for the most part Paramarthos, i.e., followers of the Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism. They show a partiality for the worship of Jagannathaswami, and various Takuranis (village deities) are also reverenced. Bairagis are the caste priests.

The marriage prohibitions among the Sollokhondias are those which hold good among many Oriya castes, but marriage with the maternal uncle's daughter (menarikam) is sometimes practiced. On the evening preceding the marriage day (bibha), after a feast, the bride and bridegroom's parties go to a temple, taking with them all the articles which are to be used in connection with the marriage ceremonial. On their way back, seven married girls, carrying seven vessels, go to seven houses, and beg water, which is used by the bridal couple for their baths on the following day. Either on the day before the wedding day, or on the bibha day, the bridegroom is shaved, and the bride's nails are pared. Sometimes a little of the hair of her forehead is also cut off. The marriage rites do not materially differ from those of the Bhondaris (q.v.).

The dead, excepting young children, are burnt. The eldest son carries a pot of fire to the burning ground. On the day following cremation, the mourners revisit the spot, and, after the fire has been extinguished, make an image of a man with the ashes on the spot where the corpse was burnt. To this image food is offered. Seven small flags, made of cloths dyed with turmeric, are stuck into the shoulders, abdomen, legs, and head of the image. A fragment of calcined bone is carried away, put into a lump of cow-dung, and kept near the house of the deceased, or near a tank (pond). On the ninth day after death, towards evening, a bamboo, split or spliced into four at one end, is set up in the ground outside the house beneath the projecting roof, and on it a pot filled with water is placed. On the spot where the deceased breathed his last, a lamp is kept. A hole is made in the bottom of the pot, and, after food has been offered to the dead man, the pot is thrown into a tank. On the tenth day, a ceremony is performed on a tank bund (embankment). The piece of bone, which has been preserved, is removed from its cow-dung case, and food, fruits, etc., are offered to it, and thrown into the tank. The bone is taken home, and buried near the house, food being offered to it until the twelfth day. On the eleventh day, all the agnates bathe, and are touched with ghi (clarified butter) as a sign of purification. Sradh (memorial service) is performed once a year on Sankaranthi (Pongal) day. Food, in the form of balls, is placed on leaves in the backyard, and offered to the ancestors. Some food is also thrown up into the air.

All sections of the Gaudos have adopted infant marriage. If a girl fails to secure a husband before she attains puberty, she has to go through a form of marriage called dharma bibha, in which the bridegroom is, among the Sollokhondias, represented by an old man, preferably the girl's grandfather, and among the other sections by a sahada or shadi tree (Streblus asper) or an arrow (khando).

Like various other Oriya castes, the Gaudos worship the goddess Lakshmi on Thursdays in the month of November, which are called Lakshmi varam, or Lakshmi's day. The goddess is represented by a basket filled with grain, whereon some place a hair ball, which has been vomited by a cow. The ball is called gaya panghula, and is usually one or two inches in diameter. The owner of a cow which has vomited such a ball regards it as a propitious augury for the prosperity of his family. A feast is held on the day on which the ball is vomited, and, after the ball has been worshipped, it is carefully wrapped up, and kept in a box, in which it remains till it is required for further worship. Some people believe that the ball continues to grow year by year, and regard this as a very good sign. Bulls are said not to vomit the balls, and only very few cows do so.

Gauliar.--A synonym for Lingayat Gollas, or Kannadiyans.

Gaundala.--A synonym of Gamalla.

Gauri.--A division of Okkiliyan, named after Gauri, Siva's consort. The equivalent Gaura occurs among the Komatis, and Gauriga among the Medaras. One division of the Kabberas is called Gaurimakkalu, or sons of Gauri.

Gautama.--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Bhatrazus, Khatris, and Kondaiyamkottai Maravans. Gautama was a sage, and the husband of Ahalya, who was seduced by Indra.

Gavala (cowry shell: Cypræa arabica).--An exogamous sept of Madiga. A cotton thread string, with cowries strung on it, is one of the insignia of a Madiga Matangi.

Gavalla.--A synonym for Gamalla.

Gavara.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "this caste is practically confined to the Vizagapatam district, and they have been classed as cultivators on the strength of a statement to that effect in the District Manual. Gavara is, however, an important sub-division of Komatis (traders), and these Gavaras are probably in reality Gavara Komatis. These are so called after Gauri, the patron deity of this caste."

For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. A tradition is current that the Gavaras originally lived at Vengi, the ancient capital of the Eastern Chalukyan kings, the ruins of which are near Ellore in the Godavari district. The king was desirous of seeing one of their women, who was gosha (in seclusion), but to this they would not consent. Under orders from the king, their houses were set on fire. Some of them bolted themselves in, and perished bravely, while others locked up their women in big boxes, and escaped with them to the coast. They immediately set sail, and landed at Pudimadaka in the Anakapalli taluk. Thence they marched as far as Kondakirla, near which they founded the village of Wadapalli or Wodapalli, meaning the village of the people who came in boats. They then built another village called Gavarla Anakapalli. They received an invitation from king Payaka Rao, the founder of Anakapalli, and, moving northwards, established themselves at what is now known as Gavarapeta in the town of Anakapalli. They began the foundation of the village auspiciously by consecrating and planting the sandra karra (Acacia sundra), which is not affected by 'white-ants,' instead of the pala karra (Mimusops hexandra), which is generally used for this purpose. Consequently, Anakapalli has always flourished.

The Gavaras speak Telugu, and, like other Telugu castes, have various exogamous septs or intiperulu.

Girls are married either before or after puberty. The custom of menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter, is in force, and it is said that he may also marry his sister's daughter. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a woman who has had seven husbands is known as Beththamma, and is much respected.

Some Gavaras are Vaishnavites, and others Saivites, but difference in religion is no bar to intermarriage. Both sections worship the village deities, to whom animal sacrifices are offered. The Vaishnavites show special reverence to Jagganathaswami of Orissa, whose shrine is visited by some, while others take vows in the name of this god. On the day on which the car festival is celebrated at Puri, local car festivals are held in Gavara villages, and women carry out the performance of their vows. A woman, for example, who is under a vow, in order that she may be cured of illness or bear children, takes a big pot of water, and, placing it on her head, dances frantically before the god, through whose influence the water, which rises out of the pot, falls back into it, instead of being spilt.

The Vaishnavites are burnt, and the Saivites buried in a sitting posture. The usual chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies are performed.

Men wear a gold bangle on the left wrist, and another on the right arm. Women wear a silver bangle on the right wrist, and a bracelet of real or imitation coral, which is first worn at the time of marriage, on the left wrist. They throw the end of their body-cloth over the left shoulder. They do not, like women of other non-Brahman castes in the Vizagapatam district, smoke cigars.

The original occupation of the caste is said to have been trading, and this may account for the number of exogamous septs which are named after Settis (traders). At the present day, the Gavaras are agriculturists, and they have the reputation of being very hard-working, and among the best agriculturists in the Vizagapatam district. The women travel long distances in order to sell vegetables, milk, curds, and other produce.

The caste titles are Anna, Ayya, and occasionally Nayudu.

Gaya (cow).--An exogamous sept of Kondra.

Gayinta.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small caste of hill cultivators, speaking Oriya and Telugu. The name is said to be derived from gayinti, an iron digging implement. Gayinta is reported to be the same as Gaintia, a name of Enetis or Entamaras.

Gazula.--Gazula or Gazul (glass bangle) has been recorded as a sub-division of Balija, Kapu, and Toreya. The Gazula Balijas make glass bangles. The Toreyas have a tradition that they originated from the bangles of Machyagandhi, the daughter of a fisherman on the Jumna, who was married to king Shantanu of Hastinapur.

Gedala (buffaloes).--A sept of Bonthuk Savara.

Geddam (beard).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Padma Sale.

Gejjala (bells tied to the legs while dancing).--An exogamous sept of Balija and Korava.

Gejjegara.--A sub-caste of the Canarese Panchalas. They are described, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, as makers of small round bells (gungru), which are used for decorating the head or neck of bullocks, and tied by dancing-girls round their ankles when dancing.

Genneru (sweet-scented oleander).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Gentoo.--Gentoo or Jentu, as returned at times of census, is stated to be a general term applied to Balijas and Telugu speaking Sudras generally. The word is said by Yule and Burnell [142] to be "a corruption of the Portuguese Gentio, a gentile or heathen, which they applied to the Hindus in contradistinction to the Moros or Moors, i.e., Mahomedans. The reason why the term became specifically applied to the Telugu people is probably because, when the Portuguese arrived, the Telugu monarchy of Vijayanagar was dominant over a great part of the peninsula." In a letter written from prison to Sir Philip Francis, Rajah Nuncomar referred to the fact that "among the English gentry, Armenians, Moores and Gentoos, few there is who is not against me." Gentoo still survives as a caste name in the Madras Quarterly Civil List (1906).

Ghair-i-Mahdi.--The name, meaning without Mahdi, of a sect of Muhammadans, who affirm that the Imam Mahdi has come and gone, while orthodox Muhammadans hold that he is yet to come.

Ghasi.--See Haddi.

Ghontoro.--A small caste of Oriyas, who manufacture brass and bell-metal rings and bangles for the hill people. The name is derived from ghonto, a bell-metal plate.

Gidda (vulture).--A sept of Poroja.

Gikkili (rattle).--A gotra of Kurni.

Giri Razu.--A contraction of Puragiri Razu or Puragiri Kshatriya, by which names some Perikes style themselves.

Goa.--A sub-division of Kudubis, who are said to have emigrated from Goa to South Canara.

Go Brahman.--A name given to Brahmans by Kammalans, who style themselves Visva Brahmans.

Godagula.--The Godagulas are recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being the same as the Gudalas, who are a Telugu caste of basket-makers. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am indebted for the following note, they are a distinct caste, speaking Oriya, and sometimes calling themselves Odde (Oriya) Medara. Like the Medaras, they work in split bamboo, and make sundry articles which are not made by other castes who work in this medium. Unlike the Gudalas, they are a polluting class, and have the following legend to account for their social degradation. God told them to make winnows and other articles for divine worship. This, they did, and, after they had delivered them, they attended a marriage feast, at which they eat flesh and drank liquor. On their return, God called on them to vomit the food which they had partaken of, and they accordingly brought up the meat and drink, whereon God cursed them, saying "Begone, you have eaten forbidden food." They craved for forgiveness, but were told in future to earn their living as bamboo-workers. The custom of menarikam, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is so rigidly enforced that, if the uncle refuses to give his daughter in marriage, the man has a right to carry her off, and then pay a fine, the amount of which is fixed by the caste council. A portion thereof is given to the girl's parents, and the remainder spent on a caste feast. If the maternal uncle has no daughter, a man may, according to the eduru (or reversed) menarikam custom, marry his paternal aunt's daughter. Six months before the marriage ceremony takes place, the pasupu (turmeric) ceremony is performed. The bridegroom's family pay six rupees to the bride's family, to provide the girl with turmeric, wherewith she adorns herself. On the day fixed for the wedding, the parents of the bridegroom go with a few of the elders to the bride's house, and couple the request to take away the girl with payment of nine rupees and a new cloth. Of the money thus given, eight rupees go to the bride's parents, and the remainder to the caste. The bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, who meets her at the pandal (booth) erected in front of his house. They are bathed with turmeric water, and sacred threads are put on their shoulders by the Kula Maistri who officiates as priest. The couple then play with seven cowry (Cyproea arabica) shells, and, if the shells fall with the slit downwards, the bride is said to have won; otherwise the bridegroom is the winner. This is followed by the mudu akula homam, or sacrifice of three leaves. A new pot, containing a lighted wick, is placed before the couple. On it are thrown leaves of the rayi aku (Ficus religiosa), marri aku (Ficus Bengalensis), and juvvi aku (Ficus Tsiela). The Kula Maistri of the bridegroom's party spreads out his right hand over the mouth of the pot. On it the bride places her hand. The bridegroom then places his hand on hers, and the Kula Maistri of the bride's village puts his hand on that of the bridegroom. The elders then call out in a loud voice "Know, caste people of Vaddadi Madugula; know, caste people of Kimedi; know, caste people of Gunupuram and Godairi; know, caste people of all the twelve countries, that this man and woman have become husband and wife, and that the elders have ratified the ceremony." The contracting couple then throw rice over each other. On the morning of the following day, the saragatha ceremony is performed. The bridegroom's party repair to the bank of the local stream, where they are met by the caste people, who are presented with betel, a cheroot, and a pot of jaggery (crude sugar) water as cool drink. The sacred threads worn by the bride and bridegroom are removed at the conclusion of the marriage ceremonies. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of an elder brother, or vice versâ. Divorce is also allowed, and a divorcée may remarry. Her new husband has to pay a sum of money, a portion of which goes to the first husband, while the remainder is devoted to a caste feast. The dead are burnt, and the chinna rozu (little day) death ceremony is observed.

Goda-jati (wall people).--A sub-division of Kammas. The name has reference to a deadly struggle at Gandikota, in which some escaped by hiding behind a wall.

Goda-poose (wall polishing).--An exogamous sept of Tsakala.

Godari.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu leather-workers in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. They are stated, in the Vizagapatam Manual, to make and sell slippers in that district. Godari is, I gather, a synonym of Madiga, and not a separate caste.

Goddali (spade or axe).--An exogamous sept of Odde and Panta Reddi.

Godomalia (belonging to, or a group of forts).--A sub-division of Bhondari, the members of which act as barbers to Rajahs who reside in forts.

Golaka.--Recorded in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a name meaning bastard, and clubbed with the Moilis, or temple servants in South Canara descended from dancing-girls. In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, it is defined as a term applied to the children of Brahmans by Malerus, or temple servants.

Goli (Portulaca oleracea: a pot-herb).--An exogamous sept of Gauda.

Golkonda.--A sub-division of Tsakala.

Golla.--"The Gollas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [143] "are the great pastoral caste of the Telugu people. The traditions of the caste give a descent from the god Krishna, whose sportings with the milk maids play a prominent part in Hindu mythology. The hereditary occupation of the Gollas is tending sheep and cattle, and selling milk, but many of them have now acquired lands and are engaged in farming, and some are in Government service. They are quiet, inoffensive, and comparatively honest. In the time of the Nabobs, this last characteristic secured to them the privilege of guarding and carrying treasure, and one sub-division, Bokhasa Gollas, owes its origin to this service. Even now those who are employed in packing and lifting bags of money in the district treasuries are called Gollas, though they belong to other castes. As a fact they do hold a respectable position, and, though poor, are not looked down upon, for they tend the sacred cow. Sometimes they assert a claim to be regarded as representatives of the Go-Vaisya division. Their title is Mandadi, but it is not commonly used." Mr. Stuart writes further [144] that "the social status of the Gollas is fairly high, for they are allowed to mix freely with the Kapu, Kamma, and Balija castes, and the Brahmans will take buttermilk from their hands. They employ Satanis as their priests. In their ceremonies there is not much difference between them and the Kapus. The name Golla is generally supposed to be a shortened form of Sanskrit Gopala" (protector of cows). The Gollas also call themselves Konanulu, or Konarlu, and, like the Tamil Idaiyans, sometimes have the title Konar. Other titles in common use are Anna, Ayya, and occasionally Nayudu.

In the Manual of the Kurnool district, it is stated that the Gollas "keep sheep, and sell milk and ghi (clarified butter). They eat and mess with the Balijas, and other high caste Sudras; but, unlike their brethren of the south, in the matter of street processions, they are classed with goldsmiths, or the left-hand section. When any one is reduced to poverty, the others give him each a sheep, and restore his flock. They occasionally dedicate their girls to Venkatesa as Basavis" (prostitutes).

It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that "in the country round Madgole, legends are still recounted of a line of local Golla chieftains, who gave their name to Golgonda, and built the forts, of which traces still survive in those parts". Each Telugu New Year's day, it is stated, Gollas come across from Godavari, and go round the Golla villages, reciting the names of the progenitors of the fallen line, and exhibiting paintings illustrative of their overthrow.

"At Vajragada (diamond fort) are the ruins of a very large fortress, and local tradition gives the names of seven forts, by which it was once defended. These are said to have been constructed by the Golla kings. A tale is told of their having kidnapped a daughter of the ruler of Madgole, and held out here against his attacks for months, until they were betrayed by a woman of their own caste, who showed the enemy how to cut off their water-supply. They then slew their womenkind, says the story, dashed out against the besiegers, and fell to a man, fighting to the last."

Concerning the Gollas of Mysore, I gather [145] that "there are two main divisions in this caste, viz., Uru (village) and Kadu (forest). The two neither intermarry, nor eat together. A section of the Gollas, by guarding treasure while on transit, have earned the name of Dhanapala. In fact, one of the menial offices in Government treasuries at the present day is that of Golla. The caste worships Krishna, who was born in this caste. The Kadu Gollas are said to have originally immigrated from Northern India, and are still a nomadic tribe, living in thatched huts outside the villages. Some of their social customs are akin to those of the Kadu Kurubas. It is said that, on the occurrence of a childbirth, the mother with the babe remains unattended in a small shed outside the village from seven to thirty days, when she is taken back to her home. In the event of her illness, none of the caste will attend on her, but a Nayak (Beda) woman is engaged to do so. Marriages among them are likewise performed in a temporary shed erected outside the village, and the attendant festivities continue for five days, when the marriage couple are brought into the village. The Golla is allowed to marry as many wives as he likes, and puberty is no bar to marriage. They eat flesh, and drink spirituous liquors. The wife cannot be divorced except for adultery. Their females do not wear the bodice (ravike) usually put on by the women of the country. Nor do they, in their widowhood, remove or break the glass bangles worn at the wrists, as is done in other castes. But widows are not allowed to remarry. Only 98 persons have returned gotras, the chief being Yadava, Karadi, Atreya, and Amswasa. The first two are really sub-sects, while Atreya is the name of a Brahmin Rishi." Yadava, or descendant of King Yadu, from whom Krishna was descended, also occurs as a synonym for Idaiyan, the great Tamil shepherd class.

Concerning the Adivi, or forest Gollas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes as follows. [146] "The people of every house in the village let loose a sheep, to wander whither it will, as a sort of perpetual scapegoat. When a woman feels the first pains of labour, she is turned out of the village into a little leaf or mat hut about two hundred yards away. In this hut she must bring forth her offspring unaided, unless a midwife can be called in to be with her before the child is born. For ninety days the woman lives in the hut by herself. If any one touches her, he or she is, like the woman, outcasted, and turned out of the village for three months. The woman's husband generally makes a little hut about fifty yards from her, and watches over her; but he may not go near her on pain of being outcasted for three months. Food is placed on the ground near the woman's hut, and she takes it. On the fourth day after parturition, a woman of the village goes to her, and pours water on her, but she must not come in contact with her. On the fifth day, the village people clear of stones and thorny bushes a little bit of ground about ten yards on the village side of the hut, and to this place the woman removes her hut. No one can do it for her, or help her. On the ninth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days, she removes the hut in the same way nearer to the village, and, again, once in each of the two following months. On the ninetieth day, the headman of the village calls the woman to come out of the hut. The dhobi (washerman) then washes her clothes. She puts on clean clothes, and the headman takes her to the temple of their tutelary deity Junjappa, where the caste pujari breaks cocoanuts, and then accompanies her to her house, where a purificatory ceremony is performed. Junjappa, it is said, takes good care of the mother and child, so that death is said to be unknown."

It is stated [147] that, in the Chitaldrug district of Mysore, "the wife of the eldest son in every family is not permitted to clean herself with water after obeying the calls of nature. It is an article of their belief that their flocks will otherwise not prosper."

Writing in the early part of the last century about the Gollas, Buchanan informs us that "this caste has a particular duty, the transporting of money, both belonging to the public and to individuals. It is said that they may be safely intrusted with any sum; for, each man carrying a certain value, they travel in bodies numerous in proportion to the sum put under their charge; and they consider themselves bound in honour to die in defence of their trust. Of course, they defend themselves vigorously, and are all armed; so that robbers never venture to attack them. They have hereditary chiefs called Gotugaru, who with the usual council settle all disputes, and punish all transgressions against the rules of caste. The most flagrant is the embezzlement of money entrusted to their care. On this crime being proved against any of the caste, the Gotugaru applies to Amildar, or civil magistrate, and having obtained his leave, immediately causes the delinquent to be shot. Smaller offences are atoned for by the guilty person giving an entertainment."

The Golla caste has many sub-divisions, of which the following are examples:--

Erra or Yerra (red). Said to be the descendants of a Brahman by
a Golla woman.

Ala or Mekala, who tend sheep and goats.

Puja or Puni.

Gangeddu, who exhibit performing bulls.

Gauda, who, in Vizagapatam, visit the western part of the district
during the summer months, and settle outside the villages. They
tend their herds, and sell milk and curds to the villagers.

Karna.

Pakanati.

Racha (royal).

Peddeti. Mostly beggars, and considered low in the social scale,
though when questioned concerning themselves they say they are
Yerra Gollas.

At the census, 1901, the following were returned as sub-castes of the Gollas:--