Chapter D (7)

Dayyalakulam (wrestlers), Perike Muggalu or Mushti Golla (beggars and exorcists), Podapotula (who beg from Gollas), Gavadi, and Vadugayan, a Tamil synonym for Gollas in Tinnevelly. Another Tamil synonym for Golla is Bokhisha Vadugar (treasury northerners). Golla has been given as a sub-division of Dasaris and Chakkiliyans, and Golla Woddar (Odde) as a synonym of a thief class in the Telugu country. In a village near Dummagudem in the Godavari district, the Rev. J. Cain writes, [148] are "a few families of Basava Gollalu. I find they are really Kois, whose grandfathers had a quarrel with, and separated from, their neighbours. Some of the present members of the families are anxious to be re-admitted to the society and privileges of the neighbouring Kois. The word Basava is commonly said to be derived from bhasha, a language, and the Gollas of this class are said to have been so called in consequence of their speaking a different language from the rest of the Gollas."

Like many other Telugu castes, the Gollas have exogamous septs or intiperu, and gotras. As examples of the former, the following may be quoted:--

Agni, fire.
Avula, cows.
Chinthala, tamarind.
Chevvula, ears.
Gundala, stones.
Gurram, horse.
Gorrela, sheep.
Gorantla, henna (Lawsonia alba).
Kokala, woman's cloth.
Katari, dagger.
Mugi, dumb.
Nakkala, jackal.
Saddikudu, cold rice or food.
Sevala, service.
Ullipoyala, onions.
Vankayala, brinjal (Solanum melongena).

Some of these sept names occur among other classes, as follows:--

Avula, Balijas, Kapus, and Yerukalas.
Chinthala, Devangas, Komatis, Malas, and Madigas.
Gorantla, Padma Sales.
Gorrela, Kammas, Kapus.
Gurram, Malas, Padma Sales, and Togatas.
Nakkala, Kattu Marathis, and Yanadis.

Those who belong to the Raghindala (Ficus religiosa) gotra are not allowed to use the leaves of the sacred fig or pipal tree as plates for their food. Members of the Palavili gotra never construct palavili, or small booths, inside the house for the purpose of worship. Those who belong to the Akshathayya gotra are said to avoid rice coloured with turmeric or other powder (akshantalu). Members of the Kommi, Jammi, and Mushti gotras avoid using the kommi tree, Prosopis spicigera, and Strychnos Nux-vomica respectively.

Of the various sub-divisions, the Puja Gollas claim superiority over the others. Their origin is traced to Simhadri Raju, who is supposed to have been a descendant of Yayathi Raja of the Mahabaratha. Yayathi had six sons, the last of whom had a son named Kariyavala, whose descendants were as follows:--

Penubothi (his son),
|
Avula Amurthammayya,
|
Kalugothi Ganganna,
|
Oli Raju,
|
Simhadri Raju.
|
+------------+-------+------+-------------+
| | | |
Peddi Erunuka Noranoka Poli
Raju. Raju. Raju. Raju.

The Gollas are believed to be descended from the four last kings.

According to another legend, there were five brothers, named Poli Raju, Erranoku Raju, Katama Raju, Peddi Raju, and Errayya Raju, who lived at Yellamanchili, which, as well as Sarvasiddhi, they built. The Rajas of Nellore advanced against them, and killed them, with all their sheep, in battle. On this, Janagamayya, the son of Peddi Raju, who escaped the general slaughter, made up his mind to go to Kasi (Benares), and offer oblations to his dead father and uncles. This he did, and the gods were so pleased with him that they transported him in the air to his native place. He was followed by three persons, viz., (1) Kulagentadu, whose descendants now recite the names of the progenitors of the caste; (2) Podapottu (or juggler), whose descendants carry metal bells, sing, and produce snakes by magic; (3) Thevasiyadu, whose descendants paint the events which led to the destruction of the Golla royalty on large cloths, and exhibit them to the Gollas once a year. At the time when Janagamayya was translated to heaven, they asked him how they were to earn their living, and he advised them to perform the duties indicated, and beg from the caste. Even at the present day, their descendants go round the country once a year, after the Telugu New Year's day, and collect their dues from Golla villages.

By religion the Gollas are both Vallamulu (Vaishnavites) and Striramanthulu (Saivites), between whom marriage is permissible. They belong to the group of castes who take part in the worship of Ankamma. A special feature of their worship is that they place in a bamboo or rattan box three or four long whip-like ropes made of cotton or Agave fibre, along with swords, sandals and idols. The ropes are called Virathadlu, or heroes' ropes. The contents of the box are set beneath a booth made of split bamboo (palavili), and decorated with mango leaves, and flowers. There also is placed a pot containing several smaller pots, cowry shells, metal and earthenware sandals, and the image of a bull called bolli-avu (bull idol). When not required for the purpose of worship, the idols are hung up in a room, which may not be entered by any one under pollution.

Some Karna Gollas earn their living by selling poultry, or by going about the country carrying on their head a small box containing idols and Virathadlu. Placing this at the end of a street, they do puja (worship) before it, and walk up and down with a rope, with which they flagellate themselves. As they carry the gods (Devarlu) about, these people are called Devara vallu.

As the Gollas belong to the left-hand section, the Pedda Golla, or headman, has only a Madiga as his assistant.

At the marriages of Mutrachas, Madigas, and some other classes, a form of worship called Virala puja is performed with the object of propitiating heroes or ancestors (viralu). A kindred ceremony, called Ganga puja, is carried out by the Gollas, the expenses of which amount to about a hundred rupees. This Ganga worship lasts over three days, during which nine patterns, called muggu, are drawn on the floor in five colours, and represent dhamarapadmam (lotus flower), palavili (booth), sulalu (tridents), sesha panpu (serpent's play?), alugula simhasanam (throne of Sakti), Viradu perantalu (hero and his wife), Ranivasam (Rani's palace), bonala (food), and Ganga. The last is a female figure, and probably represents Ganga, the goddess of water, though one of the Golla ancestors was named Gangi Raju. The patterns must be drawn by Madigas or Malas. Three Pambalas, or Madigas skilled in this work, and in reciting the stories of various gods and goddesses, commence their work on the afternoon of the third day, and use white powder (rice flour), and powders coloured yellow (turmeric), red (turmeric and chunam), green (leaves of Cassia auriculata), and black (charred rice husk). On an occasion when my assistant was present, the designs were drawn on the floor of the courtyard of the house, which was roofed over. During the preparation of the designs, people were excluded from the yard, as some ill-luck, especially an attack of fever, would befall more particularly boys and those of feeble mind, if they caught sight of the muggu before the drishti thiyadam, or ceremony for removing the evil eye has been performed. Near the head of the figure of Ganga, when completed, was placed an old bamboo box, regarded as a god, containing idols, ropes, betel, flowers, and small swords. Close to the box, and on the right side of the figure, an earthen tray, containing a lighted wick fed with ghi (clarified butter) was set. On the left side were deposited a kalasam (brass vessel) representing Siva, a row of chembus (vessels) called bonalu (food vessels), and a small empty box tied up in a cloth dyed with turmeric, and called Brammayya. Between these articles and the figure, a sword was laid. Several heaps of food were piled up on the figure, and masses of rice placed near the head and feet. In addition, a conical mass of food was heaped up on the right side of the figure, and cakes were stuck into it. All round this were placed smaller conical piles of food, into which broomsticks decorated with betel leaves were thrust. Masses of food, scooped out and converted into lamps, were arranged in various places, and betel leaves and nuts scattered all over the figure. Towards the feet were set a chembu filled with water, a lump of food coloured red, and incense. The preparations concluded, three Gollas stood near the feet of the figure, and took hold of the red food, over which water had been sprinkled, the incense and a fowl. The food and incense were then waved in front of the figure, and the fowl, after it had been smoked by the incense, and waved over the figure, had its neck wrung. This was followed by the breaking of a cocoanut, and offering fruits and other things. The three men then fell prostrate on the ground before the figure, and saluted the goddess. One of them, an old man, tied little bells round his legs, and stood mute for a time. Gradually he began to perspire, and those present exclaimed that he was about to be possessed by the spirit of an ancestor. Taking up a sword, he began to cut himself with it, especially in the back, and then kept striking himself with the blunt edge. The sword was wrested from him, and placed on the figure. The old man then went several times round the muggu, shaking and twisting his body into various grotesque attitudes. While this was going on, the bridegroom appeared on the scene, and seated himself near the feet of the figure. Throwing off his turban and upper cloth, he fell on the floor, and proceeded to kick his legs about, and eventually, becoming calmer, commenced to cry. Being asked his name, he replied that he was Kariyavala Raju. Further questions were put to him, to which he made no response, but continued crying. Incense and lights were then carried round the image, and the old man announced that the marriage would be auspicious, and blessed the bride and bridegroom and the assembled Gollas. The ceremony concluded with the burning of camphor. The big mass of food was eaten by Puni Gollas.

It is stated in the Manual of the Nellore district that, when a Golla bridegroom sets out for the house of his mother-in-law, he is seized on the way by his companions, who will not release him until he has paid a piece of gold.

The custom of illatom, or application of a son-in-law, obtains among the Gollas, as among the Kapus and some other Telugu-classes. [149]

In connection with the death ceremonies, it may be noted that the corpse, when it is being washed, is made to rest on a mortar, and two pestles are placed by its side, and a lighted lamp near the head.

There is a proverb to the effect that a Golla will not scruple to water the milk which he sells to his own father. Another proverb refers to the corrupt manner in which he speaks his mother-tongue.

The insigne of the caste at Conjeeveram is a silver churning stick. [150]

Gollari (monkey).--An exogamous sept of Gadaba.

Gomma.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain as the name for Koyis who live near the banks of the Godavari river. Villages on the banks thereof are called gommu ullu.

Gonapala (old plough).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Gondaliga.--The Gondaligas are described, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as being mendicants "of Mahratta origin like the Budabudikes, and may perhaps be a sub-division of them. They are worshippers of Durgi. Their occupation, as the name indicates, is to perform gondala, or a kind of torch-light dance, usually performed in honour of Amba Bhavani, especially after marriages in Desastha Brahman's houses, or at other times in fulfilment of any vow."

Gone (a sack).--An exogamous sept of Maala. The Gone Perikes have been summed up as being a Telugu caste of gunny-bag weavers, corresponding to the Janappans of the Tamil country. Gunny-bag is the popular and trading name for the coarse sacking and sacks made from jute fibre, which are extensively used in Indian trade. [151] Gone is further an occupational sub-division of Komati.

The Gonigas of Mysore are described, in the Census Report, 1901, as sack-weavers and makers of gunny-bags, agriculturists, and grain porters at Bangalore; and it is noted that the abnormal fall of 66 per cent. in the number of the caste was due to their being confounded with Ganigas.

Gonjakari.--A title of Haddi.

Gonji (Glycosmis penlaphylla).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Gopalam (alms given to beggars).--An exogamous sept of Togata.

Gopalan (those who tend cattle).--A synonym of Idaiyan.

Gopopuriya.--A sub-division of Gaudo.

Gorantla (Lawsonia alba: henna).--An exogamous sept of Golla and Padma Sale. The leaves of this plant are widely used by Natives as an article of toilet for staining the nails, and by Muhammadans for dyeing the hair red.

Gorava.--A synonym of Kuruba.

Goravaru.--A class of Canarese mendicants.

Gore.--Recorded, at times of census, as a synonym of Lambadi. Gora means trader or shop-keeper, and trading Lambadis may have assumed the name.

Gorige (Cyamopsis psoralioides).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Gorrela (sheep).--An exogamous sept of Golla, Kamma, and Kapu. Konda gorri (hill sheep) occurs as an exogamous sept of Jatapu.

Gosangi.--A synonym for Madiga, recorded as Kosangi, in the Madras Census Report, 1901. The Gosangulu are described in the Vizagapatam Manual (1869), as "beggars who style themselves descendants of Jambavanta, the bear into which Brahma transformed himself, to assist Rama in destroying Ravana. The Gosangis are considered to be illegitimate descendants of Madigas, and a curious thing about them is that their women dress up like men, and sing songs when begging. As mendicants they are attached to the Madigas."

Gosayi or Goswami.--The Gosayis are immigrant religious mendicants from Northern and Western India. I gather from the Mysore Census Reports that "they mostly belong to the Dandi sub-division. The Gosayi is no caste; commonly any devotee is called a Gosayi, whether he lives a life of celibacy or not; whether he roams about the country collecting alms, or resides in a house like the rest of the people; whether he leads an idle existence, or employs himself in trade. The mark, however, that distinguishes all who bear this name is that they are devoted to a religious life. Some besmear their bodies with ashes, wear their hair dishevelled and uncombed, and in some instances coiled round the head like a snake or rope. They roam about the country in every direction, visiting especially spots of reputed sanctity, and as a class are the pests of society and incorrigible rogues. Some of them can read, and a few may be learned; but for the most part they are stolidly ignorant. Most of them wear a yellowish cloth, by which they make themselves conspicuous. The Gosayis, although by profession belonging to the religious class, apply themselves nevertheless to commerce and trade. As merchants, bankers and tradesmen, they hold a very respectable position. They never marry. One of the chief peculiarities of this caste is that Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, the two former especially, may, if they choose, become Gosayis; but if they do so, and unite with the members of this fraternity in eating and drinking, holding full and free intercourse with them, they are cut off for ever from their own tribes. It is this circumstance which constitutes Gosayis a distinct and legitimate caste, and not merely a religious order. At death a horrible custom is observed. A cocoanut is broken on the head of the deceased by a person specially appointed for the purpose, until it is smashed to pieces. The body is then wrapped in a reddish cloth, and thrown into the Ganges. A partial explanation of this practice is furnished in Southern India. The final aim of Hindu religious life is Nirvana or Moksham in the next life, and this can only be attained by those holy men, whose life escapes, after smashing the skull, through the sushumna nadi, a nerve so called, and supposed to pervade the crown of the head. The dying or dead Sanyasi is considered to have led such a holy life as to have expired in the orthodox manner, and the fiction is kept up by breaking the skull post mortem, in mimicry of the guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Accordingly, the dead body of a Brahman Sanyasi in Southern India undergoes the same process and is buried, but never burned or thrown into the river."

A few Gosayis, at the Mysore census, returned gotras, of which the chief were Achuta and Daridra (poverty-stricken). In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Mandula (medicine man) and Bavaji are returned as a sub-division and synonym of Gosayi. The name Guse or Gusei is applied to Oriya Brahmans owing to their right of acting as gurus or family priests.

Gosu (pride).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Goundan.--It is noted, in the Salem Manual, that "some of the agricultural classes habitually append the title Goundan as a sort of caste nomenclature after their names, but the word applies, par excellence, to the head of the village, or Ur Goundan as he is called." As examples of castes which take Goundan as their title, the Pallis, Okkiliyans, and Vellalas may be cited. A planter, or other, when hailing a Malayali of the Shevaroy hills, always calls him Goundan.

Goyi (lizard: Varanus).--An exogamous sept of Bottada.

Gramani.--The title of some Shanans, and of the headman of the Khatris. In Malabar, the name gramam (a village) is applied to a Brahmanical colony, or collection of houses, as the equivalent of the agraharam of the Tamil country. [152]

Gudala.--The Gudalas are a Telugu caste of basket-makers in Vizagapatam and Ganjam. The name is derived from guda, a basket for baling water. For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The original occupation of the caste is said to have been the collection of medicinal herbs and roots for native doctors and sick persons, which is still carried on by some Gudalas at Saluru town. The principal occupations, however, are the manufacture of bamboo baskets, and fishing in fresh water.

Like other Telugu castes, the Gudalas have exogamous septs or intiperulu, e.g., korra (Setaria italica), paththi (cotton), nakka (jackal) and ganti (hole pierced in the ear-lobe). The custom of menarikam, whereby a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is practiced. Marriage generally takes place before a girl reaches puberty. A Brahman officiates at weddings. The bride-price (voli) consists of a new cloth for the bride, and seven rupees for her parents, which are taken by the bridegroom's party to the bride's house, together with some oil and turmeric for the bridal bath, and the sathamanam (marriage badge). A feast is held, and the sathamanam is tied on the bride's neck. The newly married pair are conducted to the house of the bridegroom, where a further feast takes place, after which they return to the bride's home, where they remain for three days. Widows are permitted to remarry thrice, and the voli on each successive occasion is Rs. 3, Rs. 2, and Rs. 2-8-0. When a widow is remarried, the sathamanam is tied on her neck near a mortar.

The members of the caste reverence a deity called Ekkaladevata, who is said to have been left behind at their original home. The dead are cremated, and the chinna rozu (little day) death ceremony is observed. On the third day, cooked rice is thrown over the spot where the corpse was burnt.

Gudavandlu.--Recorded, in the Nellore Manual, as Vaishnavites, who earn their livelihood by begging. The name means basket people, and probably refers to Satanis, who carry a basket (guda) when begging.

Gudi (temple).--A sub-division of Okkiliyan, an exogamous sept of Jogi, and a name for temple Dasaris, to distinguish them from the Donga or thieving Dasaris.

Gudigara.--In the South Canara Manual, the Gudigaras are summed up as follows. "They are a Canarese caste of wood-carvers and painters. They are Hindus of the Saivite sect, and wear the sacred thread. Shivalli Brahmans officiate as their priests. Some follow the aliya santana mode of inheritance (in the female line), others the ordinary law. They must marry within the caste, but not within the same gotra or family. Infant marriage is not compulsory, and they have the dhare form of marriage. Among those who follow the aliya santana law, both widows and divorced women may marry again, but this is not permitted among the other sections. The dead are either cremated or buried, the former being the preferential mode. The use of alcoholic liquor, and fish and flesh is permitted. Their ordinary title is Setti."

"The Gudigars, or sandal-wood carvers," Mr. D'Cruz writes, [153] "are reported to have come originally from Goa, their migration to Mysore and Canara having been occasioned by the attempts of the early Portuguese invaders to convert them to Christianity. The fact that their original language is Konkani corroborates their reputed Konkanese origin. They say that the derivation of the word Gudigara is from gudi, a temple, and that they were so called because they were, in their own country, employed as carvers and painters in the ornamentation of temples. Another derivation is from the Sanskrit kuttaka (a carver). They assert that their fellow castemen are still employed in turning, painting, and other decorative arts at Goa. Like the Chitrakaras (ornamenters or decorative artists), they claim to be Kshatriyas, and tradition has it that, to escape the wrath of Parasu Rama in the sixth incarnation of Vishnu, who vowed to destroy all Kshatriyas, they adopted the profession of carvers and car-builders. They are also expert ivory-carvers, and it has been suggested that they may be distantly connected with the Kondikars, or ivory-carvers of Bengal. The art of sandalwood carving is confined to a few families in the Sorab and Sagar taluks of the Shimoga district, in the north-west corner of the province. There are two or three families in Sagar, and about six in Sorab, which contribute in all about thirty-five artisans employed in the craft. The art is also practiced by their relations, who found a domicile in Hanavar, Kumpta, Sirsi, Siddapur, Biligi, and Banavasi in the North Canara district. But the work of the latter is said to be by no means so fine as that executed by the artisans of Sorab and Sagar. The artisans of North Canara, however, excel in pith-work of the most exquisite beauty. They usually make basingas, i.e., special forehead ornaments, richly inlaid with pearls, and worn on the occasion of marriage. The delicate tools used by the wood-carvers are made from European umbrella spokes, ramrods, and country steel. The main stimulus, which the art receives from time to time at the present day, is from orders from the Government, corporate public bodies, or Maharajas, for address boxes, cabinets, and other articles specially ordered for presentations, or for the various fine-art exhibition, for which high prices are paid." In conversation with the workmen from Sorab and Sagar for work in the palace which is being built for H. H. the Maharaja of Mysore, it was elicited that there are some Gudigars, who, from want of a due taste for the art, never acquire it, but are engaged in carpentry and turning. Others, having acquired land, are engaged in cultivation, and fast losing all touch with the art. At Udipi in South Canara, some Gudigars make for sale large wooden buffaloes and human figures, which are presented as votive offerings at the Iswara temple at Hiriadkap. They also make wooden dolls and painted clay figures.

The following extracts from Mr. L. Rice's 'Mysore Gazetteer' may be appropriately quoted. "The designs with which the Gudigars entirely cover the boxes, desks, and other articles made, are of an extremely involved and elaborate pattern, consisting for the most part of intricate interlacing foliage and scroll-work, completely enveloping medallions containing the representation of some Hindu deity or subject of mythology, and here and there relieved by the introduction of animal forms. The details, though in themselves often highly incongruous, are grouped and blended with a skill that seems to be instinctive in the East, and form an exceedingly rich and appropriate ornamentation, decidedly oriental in style, which leaves not the smallest portion of the surface of the wood untouched. The material is hard, and the minuteness of the work demands the utmost care and patience. Hence the carving of a desk or cabinet involves a labour of many months, and the artists are said to lose their eyesight at a comparatively early age. European designs they imitate to perfection." And again: "The articles of the Gudigar's manufacture chiefly in demand are boxes, caskets and cabinets. These are completely covered with minute and delicate scroll-work, interspersed with figures from the Hindu Pantheon, the general effect of the profuse detail being extremely rich. The carving of Sorab is considered superior to that of Bombay or Canton, and, being a very tedious process requiring great care, is expensive. The Gudigars will imitate admirably any designs that may be furnished them. Boards for album-covers, plates from Jorrock's hunt, and cabinets surrounded with figures, have thus been produced for European gentlemen with great success." A gold medal was awarded to the Gudigars at the Delhi Durbar Exhibition, 1903, for a magnificent sandal-wood casket (now in the Madras Museum), ornamented with panels representing hunting scenes.

When a marriage is contemplated, the parents of the couple, in the absence of horoscopes, go to a temple, and receive from the priest some flowers which have been used for worship. These are counted, and, if their number is even, the match is arranged, and an exchange of betel leaves and nuts takes place. On the wedding day, the bridegroom goes, accompanied by his party, to the house of the bride, taking with him a new cloth, a female jacket, and a string of black beads with a small gold ornament. They are met en route by the bride's party. Each party has a tray containing rice, a cocoanut, and a looking-glass. The females of one party place kunkuma (red powder) on the foreheads of those of the other party, and sprinkle rice over each other. At the entrance to the marriage pandal (booth), the bride's brother pours water at the feet of the bridegroom, and her father leads him into the pandal. The new cloth, and other articles, are taken inside the house, and the mother or sister of the bridegroom, with the permission of the headman, ties the necklet of black beads on the bride's neck. Her maternal uncle takes her up in his arms, and carries her to the pandal. Thither the bridegroom is conducted by the bride's brother. A cloth is held as a screen between the contracting couple, who place garlands of flowers round each other's necks. The screen is then removed. A small vessel, containing milk and water, and decorated with mango leaves, is placed in front of them, and the bride's mother, taking hold of the right hand of the bride, places it in the right hand of the bridegroom. The officiating Brahman places a betel leaf and cocoanut on the bride's hand, and her parents pour water from a vessel thereon. The Brahman then ties the kankanams (wrist-threads) on the wrists of the contracting couple, and kindles the sacred fire (homam). The guests present them with money, and lights are waved before them by elderly females. The bridegroom, taking the bride by hand, leads her into the house, where they sit on a mat, and drink milk out of the same vessel. A bed is made ready, and they sit on it, while the bride gives betel to the bridegroom. On the second day, lights are waved, in the morning and evening, in front of them. On the third day, some red-coloured water is placed in a vessel, into which a ring, an areca nut, and rice are dropped. The couple search for the ring, and, when it has been found, the bridegroom puts it on the finger of the bride. They then bathe, and try to catch fish in a cloth. After the bath, the wrist-threads are removed.

Gudisa (hut).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Kapu.

Gudiya.--The Gudiyas are the sweet-meat sellers of the Oriya country. They rank high in the social scale, and some sections of Oriya Brahmans will accept drinking water at their hands. Sweet-meats prepared by them are purchased for marriage feasts by all castes, including Brahmans. The caste name is derived from gudo (jaggery). The caste is divided into two sections, one of which is engaged in selling sweet-meats and crude sugar, and the other in agriculture. The former are called Gudiyas, and the latter Kolata, Holodia, or Bolasi Gudiyas in different localities. The headman of the caste is called Sasumallo, under whom are assistant officers, called Behara and Bhollobaya. In their ceremonial observances on the occasion of marriage, death, etc., the Gudiyas closely follow the Gaudos. They profess the Paramartho or Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, and also worship Takuranis (village deities).

The Gudiyas are as particular as Brahmans in connection with the wearing of sect marks, and ceremonial ablution. Cloths worn during the act of attending to the calls of nature are considered to be polluted, so they carry about with them a special cloth, which is donned for the moment, and then removed. Like the Gudiyas, Oriya Brahmans always carry with them a small cloth for this purpose.

The titles of the Gudiyas are Behara, Sahu, and Sasumallo. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the caste name is given as Godiya.

Gudugudupandi.--A Tamil synonym for Budubudukala.

Guha Vellala.--The name assumed by some Sembadavans with a view to connecting themselves with Guha (or Kuha), who rowed the boat of Rama to Ceylon, and, as Vellalas, gaining a rise in the social scale. Maravans also claim descent from Guha.

Gujarati.--A territorial name, meaning people from Gujarat, some of whom have settled in the south where they carry on business as prosperous traders. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Gujjar is returned as a synonym. At a public meeting held in Madras, in 1906, to concert measures for establishing a pinjrapole (hospital for animals) it was resolved that early steps should be taken to collect public subscriptions from the Hindu community generally, and in particular from the Nattukottai Chettis, Gujaratis, and other mercantile classes. The mover of the resolution observed that Gujaratis were most anxious, on religious grounds, to save all animals from pain, and it was a religious belief with them that it was sinful to live in a town where there was no pinjrapole. A pinjrapole is properly a cage (pinjra) for the sacred bull (pola) released in the name of Siva. [154] It is noted by Mr. Drummond [155] that every marriage and mercantile transaction among the Gujaratis is taxed with a contribution ostensibly for the pinjrapole. In 1901, a proposal was set on foot to establish a Gujarati library and reading-room in Madras, to commemorate the silver jubilee of the administration of the Gaekwar of Baroda.

Gulimi (pickaxe).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Gullu (Solanum ferox).--A gotra of Kurni.

Gulti.--A section of Boya, members of which are to be found in Choolay, Madras City.

Gummadi (Cucurbita maxima).--An exogamous sept of Tsakalas, who will not cultivate the plant, or eat the pumpkin thereof.

Guna.--Guna or Guni is a sub-division of Velama. The name is derived from the large pot (guna), which dyers use.

Guna Tsakala (hunchbacked washerman).--Said to be a derisive name given to Velamas by Balijas.

Gundala (stones).--An exogamous sept of Golla.

Gundam (pit).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu.

Gundu (cannon-ball).--A gotra of Kurni.

Guni.--Guni is the name of Oriya dancing-girls and prostitutes. It is derived from the Sanskrit guna, meaning qualifications or skill, in reference to their possession of qualification for, and skill acquired by training when young in enchanting by music, dancing, etc.

Gunta (well).--A sub-division of Boyas, found in the Anantapur district, the members of which are employed in digging wells.

Guntaka (harrow).--An exogamous sept of Kapu.

Guntala (pond).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Gupta.--A Vaisya title assumed by some Muttans (trading caste) of Malabar, and Tamil Pallis.

Guri.--Recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as a caste of Paiks or fighting men. Gurikala (marksman) occurs, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Patra.

Gurram (horse).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu, Golla, Mala, Padma Sale, and Togata. The Gurram Togatas will not ride on horseback. Kudire, also meaning horse, occurs as a gotra or exogamous sept of Kurni and Vakkaliga.

Gurukkal.--For the following note on the Gurukkals or Kurukkals of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The Kurukkals are priests of castes, whose religious rites are not presided over by Ilayatus. They are probably of Tamil origin. Males are often called Nainar and females Nachchiyar, which are the usual titles of the Tamil Kurukkals also. In the Keralolpatti the caste men are described as Chilampantis, who are the adiyars or hereditary servants of Padmanabhaswami in Trivandrum. They seem to have been once known also as Madamutalis or headmen of matts, and Tevara Pandarams, or Pandarams who assisted the Brahman priest in the performance of religious rites in the Maharaja's palace. It is said that the Kurukkals originally belonged to the great Vaisya branch of Manu's fourfold system of caste, and migrated from the Pandyan country, and became the dependants of the Kupakkara family of Pottis in Trivandrum, whose influence, both religious and secular, was of no mean order in mediæval times. These Pottis gave them permission to perform all the priestly services of the Ambalavasi families, who lived to the south of Quilon. It would appear from the Keralolpatti and other records that they had the kazhakam or sweeping and other services at the inner entrance of Sri Padmanabha's temple till the time of Umayamma Rani in the eighth century of the Malabar era. As, however, during her reign, a Kurukkal in league with the Kupakkara Potti handed over the letter of invitation, entrusted to him as messenger, for the annual utsavam to the Tarnallur Nambudiripad, the chief ecclesiastical functionary of the temple, much later than was required, the Kurukkal was dismissed from the temple service, and ever afterwards the Kurukkals had no kazhakam right there. There are some temples, where Kurukkals are the recognised priests, and they are freely admitted for kazhakam service in most South Travancore temples. To the north of Quilon, however, the Variyars and Pushpakans enjoy this right in preference to others. Some Kurukkals kept gymnasia in former times, and trained young men in military exercises. At the present day, a few are agriculturists.

The Kurukkals are generally not so fair in complexion as other sections of the Ambalavasis. Their houses are known as bhavanams or vidus. They are strict vegetarians, and prohibited from drinking spirituous liquor. The females (Kurukkattis) try to imitate Nambutiri Brahmans in their dress and ornaments. The arasilattali, which closely resembles the cherutali, is worn round the neck, and the chuttu in the ears. The mukkutti, but not the gnattu, is worn in the nose. The minnu or marriage ornament is worn after the tali-kettu until the death of the tali-tier. The females are tattooed on the forehead and hands, but this practice is going out of fashion. The sect marks of women are the same as those of the Nambutiris. The Kurukkals are Smartas. The Tiruvonam asterism in the month of Avani (August-September) furnishes an important festive occasion.

The Kurukkals are under the spiritual control of certain men in their own caste called Vadhyars. They are believed to have been originally appointed by the Kuppakkara Pottis, of whom they still take counsel.

The Kurukkals observe both the tali-kettu kalyanam and sambandham. The male members of the caste contract alliances either within the caste, or with Marans, or the Vatti class of Nayars. Women receive cloths either from Brahmans or men of their own caste. The maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter is regarded as the most proper wife for a man. The tali-kettu ceremony is celebrated when a girl is seven, nine or eleven years old. The date for its celebration is fixed by her father and maternal uncle in consultation with the astrologer. As many youths are then selected from among the families of the inangans or relations as there are girls to be married, the choice being decided by the agreement of the horoscopes of the couple. The erection of the first pillar of the marriage pandal (booth) is, as among other Hindu castes, an occasion for festivity. The ceremony generally lasts over few days, but may be curtailed. On the wedding day, the bridegroom wears a sword and palmyra leaf, and goes in procession to the house of the bride. After the tali has been tied, the couple are looked on as being impure, and the pollution is removed by bathing, and the pouring of water, consecrated by the hymns of Vadhyars, over their heads. For the sambandham, which invariably takes place after a girl has reached puberty, the relations of the future husband visit her home, and, if they are satisfied as to the desirability of the match, inform her guardians of the date on which they will demand the horoscope. When it is received on the appointed day, the astrologer is consulted, and, if he is favourably inclined, a day is fixed for the sambandham ceremony. The girl is led forward by her maternal aunt, who sits among those who have assembled, and formally receives cloths. Cloths are also presented to the maternal uncle. Divorce is common, and effected with the consent of the Vadhyar. Inheritance is in the female line (marumakkathayam). It is believed that, at the time of their migration to Travancore, the Kurukkals wore their tuft of hair (kudumi) behind, and followed the makkathayam system of inheritance (in the male line). A change is said to have been effected in both these customs by the Kupakkara Potti in the years 1752 and 1777 of the Malabar era.

The Kurukkals observe most of the religious ceremonies of the Brahmans. No recitation of hymns accompanies the rites of namakarana and annaprasana. The chaula and upanayana are performed between the ninth and twelfth years of age. On the previous day, the family priest celebrates the purificatory rite, and ties a consecrated thread round the right wrist of the boy. The tonsure takes place on the second day, and on the third day the boy is invested with the sacred thread, and the Gayatri hymn recited. On the fourth day, the Brahmacharya rite is closed with a ceremony corresponding to the Samavartana. When a girl reaches puberty, some near female relation invites the women of the village, who visit the house, bringing sweetmeats with them. The girl bathes, and reappears in public on the fifth day. Only the pulikudi or drinking tamarind juice, is celebrated, as among the Nayars, during the first pregnancy. The sanchayana, or collection of bones after the cremation of a corpse, is observed on the third, fifth, or seventh day after death. Death pollution lasts for eleven days. Tekketus are built in memory of deceased ancestors. These are small masonry structures built over graves, in which a lighted lamp is placed, and at which worship is performed on anniversary and other important occasions (See Brahman.)

Gutob.--A sub-division of Gadaba.

Gutta Koyi.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain as a name for hill Koyis.

Guvvala (doves).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Mutracha.

H

Haddi.--The Haddis are a low class of Oriyas, corresponding to the Telugu Malas and Madigas, and the Tamil Paraiyans. It has been suggested that the name is derived from haddi, a latrine, or hada, bones, as members of the caste collect all sorts of bones, and trade in them. The Haddis play on drums for all Oriya castes, except Khondras, Tiyoros, Tulabinas, and Sanis. They consider the Khondras as a very low class, and will not purchase boiled rice sold in the bazaar, if it has been touched by them. Castes lower than the Haddis are the Khondras and Jaggalis of whom the latter are Telugu Madigas, who have settled in the southern part of Ganjam, and learnt the Oriya language.

The Haddis may be divided into Haddis proper, Rellis, and Chachadis, which are endogamous divisions. The Haddis proper never do sweeping or scavenging work, which are, in some places, done by Rellis. The Relli scavengers are often called Bhatta or Karuva Haddis. The Haddis proper go by various names, e.g., Sudha Haddi, Godomalia Haddi, etc., in different localities. The Haddis work as coolies and field labourers, and the selling of fruits, such as mango, tamarind, Zizyphus Jujuba, etc., is a favourite occupation. In some places, the selling of dried fish is a monopoly of the Rellis. Sometimes Haddis, especially the Karuva Haddis, sell human or yak hair for the purpose of female toilette. The Haddis have numerous septs or bamsams, one of which, hathi (elephant) is of special interest, because members of this sept, when they see the foot-prints of an elephant, take some dust from the spot, and make a mark on the forehead with it. They also draw the figure of an elephant, and worship it when they perform sradh (memorial service for the dead) and other ceremonies.

There are, among the Haddi communities, two caste officers entitled Behara and Nayako, and difficult questions which arise are settled at a meeting of the officers of several villages. It is said that sometimes, if a member of the caste is known to have committed an offence, the officers select some members of the caste from his village to attend the meeting, and borrow money from them. This is spent on drink, and, after the meeting, the amount is recovered from the offender. If he does not plead guilty at once, a quarrel ensues, and more money is borrowed, so as to increase the debt. In addition to the Behara and Nayako, there are, in some places, other officials called Adhikari or Chowdri, or Bodoporicha and Bhollobhaya. The caste title is Nayako. Members of higher castes are sometimes, especially if they have committed adultery with Haddi women, received into the caste.

Girls are married after puberty. Though contrary to the usual Oriya custom, the practice of menarikam, or marriage with the maternal uncle's daughter, is permitted. When the marriage of a young man is contemplated, his father, accompanied by members of his caste, proceeds to the home of the intended bride. If her parents are in favour of the match, a small space is cleared in front of the house, and cow-dung water smeared over it. On this spot the young man's party deposit a pot of toddy, over which women throw Zizyphus Jujuba leaves and rice, crying at the same time Ulu-ula. The village officials, and a few respected members of the caste, assemble in the house, and, after the engagement has been announced, indulge in a drink. On an auspicious day, the bridegroom's party go to the home of the bride, and place, on a new cloth spread on the floor, the bride-price (usually twenty rupees), and seven betel leaves, myrabolams (Terminalia fruits), areca nuts, and cakes. Two or three of the nuts are then removed from the cloth, cut up, and distributed among the leading men. After the wedding day has been fixed, an adjournment is made to the toddy shop. In some cases, the marriage ceremony is very simple, the bride being conducted to the home of the bridegroom, where a feast is held. In the more elaborate form of ceremonial, the contracting couple are seated on a dais, and the Behara or Nayako, who officiates as priest, makes fire (homam) before them, which he feeds with twigs of Zizyphus Jujuba and Eugenia Jambolana. Mokuttos (forehead chaplets) and wrist-threads are tied on the couple, and their hands are connected by the priest by means of a turmeric-dyed thread, and then disconnected by an unmarried girl. The bride's brother arrives on the scene, dressed up as a woman, and strikes the bridegroom. This is called solabidha, and is practiced by many Oriya castes. The ends of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom are tied together, and they are conducted inside the house, the mother-in-law throwing Zizyphus leaves and rice over them.

Like other Oriya castes, the Haddis observe pollution for seven days on the occasion of the first menstrual period. On the first day, the girl is seated, and, after she has been smeared with oil and turmeric paste, seven women throw Zizyphus leaves and rice over her. She is kept either in a corner of the house, or in a separate hut, and has by her a piece of iron and a grinding-stone wrapped up in a cloth. If available, twigs of Strychnos Nux-vomica are placed in a corner. Within the room or hut, a small framework, made of broom-sticks and pieces of palmyra palm leaf, or a bow, is placed, and worshipped daily. If the girl is engaged to be married, her future father-in-law is expected to give her a new cloth on the seventh day.

The Haddis are worshippers of various Takuranis (village deities), e.g., Kalumuki, Sathabavuni, and Baidaro. Cremation of the dead is more common than burial. Food is offered to the deceased on the day after death, and also on the tenth and eleventh days. Some Haddis proceed, on the tenth day, to the spot where the corpse was cremated or buried, and, after making an effigy on the ground, offer food. Towards night, they proceed to some distance from the house, and place food and fruits on a cloth spread on the ground. They then call the dead man by his name, and eagerly wait till some insect settles on the cloth. As soon as this happens, the cloth is folded up, carried home, and shaken over the floor close to the spot where the household gods are kept, so that the insect falls on sand spread on the floor. A light is then placed on the sanded floor, and covered with a new pot. After some time, the pot is removed, and the sand examined for any marks which may be left on it. This ceremony seems to correspond to the jola jola handi (pierced pot) ceremony of other castes (see Bhondari).

"The Rellis," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [156] "are a caste of gardeners and labourers, found chiefly in the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. In Telugu the word relli or rellis means grass, but whether there is any connection between this and the caste name I cannot say. They generally live at the foot of the hills, and sell vegetables, mostly of hill production."

For the following note on the Rellis of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The Rellis are also known as Sachchari, and they further call themselves Sapiri. The caste recognises the custom of menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter. A girl is usually married after puberty. The bride-price is paid sometime before the day fixed for the marriage. On that day, the bride goes, with her parents, to the house of the bridegroom. The caste deities Odda Polamma (commonly known as Sapiri Daivam) and Kanaka Durgalamma are invoked by the elders, and a pig and sheep are sacrificed to them. A string of black beads is tied by the bridegroom round the bride's neck, and a feast is held, at which the sacrificed animals are eaten, and much liquor is imbibed. On the following morning, a new cloth, kunkumam (red powder), and a few pieces of turmeric are placed in a small basket or winnow, and carried in procession, to the accompaniment of music, through the streets by the bride, with whom is the bridegroom. The ceremony is repeated on the third day, when the marriage festivities come to an end. In a note on the Rellis of Ganjam, Mr. S. P. Rice writes [157] that "the bridegroom, with the permission of the Village Magistrate, marches straight into the bride's house, and ties a wedding necklace round her neck. A gift of seven and a half rupees and a pig to the castemen, and of five rupees to the bride's father, completes this very primitive ceremony." Widows are allowed to remarry, but the string of beads is not tied round the neck. The caste deities are usually represented by crude wooden dolls, and an annual festival in their honour, with the sacrifice of pigs and sheep, is held in March. The dead are usually buried, and, as a rule, pollution is not observed. Some Rellis have, however, begun to observe the chinnarozu (little day) death ceremony, which corresponds to the chinnadinamu ceremony of the Telugus. The main occupation of the caste is gardening, and selling fruits and vegetables. The famine of 1875-76 reduced a large number of Rellis to the verge of starvation, and they took to scavenging as a means of earning a living. At the present day, the gardeners look down on the scavengers, but a prosperous scavenger can be admitted into their society by paying a sum of money, or giving a feast. Pollution attaches only to the scavengers, and not to the gardening section. In the Census Report, 1901, the Pakais or sweepers in the Godavari district, who have, it is said, gone thither from Vizagapatam, are returned as a sub-caste of Relli. The usual title of the Rellis is Gadu.

The Haddis who inhabit the southern part of Ganjam are known as Ghasis by other castes, especially Telugu people, though they call themselves Haddis. The name Ghasi has reference to the occupation of cutting grass, especially for horses. The occupational title of grass-cutter is said by Yule and Burnell [158] to be "probably a corruption representing the Hindustani ghaskoda or ghaskata, the digger or cutter of grass, the title of a servant employed to collect grass for horses, one such being usually attached to each horse, besides the syce or horsekeeper (groom). In the north, the grass-cutter is a man; in the south the office is filled by the horsekeeper's wife." It is noted in 'Letters from Madras' [159] that "every horse has a man and a maid to himself; the maid cuts grass for him; and every dog has a boy. I inquired whether the cat had any servants, but I found he was allowed to wait upon himself." In addition to collecting and selling grass, the Ghasis are employed at scavenging work. Outsiders, even Jaggalis (Madigas), Paidis, and Panos, are admitted into the Ghasi community.

The headman of the Ghasis is called Bissoyi, and he is assisted by a Behara and Gonjari. The Gonjari is the caste servant, one of whose duties is said to be the application of a tamarind switch to the back of delinquents.

Various exogamous septs or bamsams occur among the Ghasis, of which naga (cobra), asvo (horse), chintala (tamarind), and liari (parched rice) may be noted. Adult marriage is the rule. The betrothal ceremony, at which the kanyo mulo, or bride-price, is paid, is the occasion of a feast, at which pork must be served, and the Bissoyi of the future bride's village ties a konti (gold or silver bead) on her neck. The marriage ceremonial corresponds in the main with that of the Haddis elsewhere, but has been to some extent modified by the Telugu environment. The custom, referred to by Mr. S. P. Rice, of suspending an earthen pot filled with water from the marriage booth is a very general one, and not peculiar to the Ghasis. It is an imitation of a custom observed by the higher Oriya castes. The striking of the bridegroom on the back by the bride's brother is the solabidha of other castes, and the mock anger (rusyano) in which the latter goes away corresponds to the alagi povadam of Telugu castes.

At the first menstrual ceremony of a Ghasi girl, she sits in a space enclosed by four arrows, round which a thread is passed seven times.

The name Odiya Toti (Oriya scavenger) occurs as a Tamil synonym for Haddis employed as scavengers in Municipalities in the Tamil country.

Hajam.--The Hindustani name for a barber, and used as a general professional title by barbers of various classes. It is noted, in the Census Reports, that only fifteen out of more than two thousand individuals returned as Hajam were Muhammadans, and that, in South Canara, Hajams are Konkani Kelasis, and of Marathi descent.

Halaba.--See Pentiya.

Halavakki.--A Canarese synonym for Budubudukala.

Halepaik.--The Halepaiks are Canarese toddy-drawers, who are found in the northern taluks of the South Canara district. The name is commonly derived from hale, old, and paika, a soldier, and it is said that they were formerly employed as soldiers. There is a legend that one of their ancestors became commander of the Vijayanagar army, was made ruler of a State, and given a village named Halepaikas as a jaghir (hereditary assignment of land). Some Halepaiks say that they belong to the Tengina (cocoanut palm) section, because they are engaged in tapping that palm for toddy.

There is intermarriage between the Canarese-speaking Halepaiks and the Tulu-speaking Billava toddy-drawers, and, in some places, the Billavas also call themselves Halepaiks. The Halepaiks have exogamous septs or balis, which run in the female line. As examples of these, the following may be noted:--