Chapter D (1)

Daindla.--The name, denoting those who hid or ran away, of a sub-division of Mala.

Daivampati.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a caste included among Ambalavasis, and a sub-division of Nayar.

Dakkala.--Dakkala or Dakkali is the name of a class of mendicants who beg from Madigas only. In the Kurnool district they are said to have divided the district with the Mushtis, and not to beg except within their own limits.

The following story is told as regards the origin of the Dakkalas. A smith was asked to make a bottu (marriage badge) for Siva's wedding, and for this purpose required bellows, fire-pot, hammer, etc. Jambuvadu called his eldest son, and prepared the various implements from sundry parts of the body, except the backbone. Being highly pleased at this, the gods endowed the backbone with life, and the son went to his father Jambuvadu, who failed to recognise him, and refused to admit him. He was told that he must live as a beggar attached to the Madigas, and was called Dakkala because he was brought to life from a vertebral column (dakka).

The Dakkalas wander from place to place. They may not enter Madiga houses, outside which meals are given to them by males only, as females are not allowed to serve them. Madiga women may not tread on the footsteps of the Dakkalas.

Dakku (fear).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Dakni.--Dakni or Deccani is defined in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a territorial name meaning a Musalman of the Deccan; also a name loosely applied to converts to Islam." In the Tanjore district, Muhammadans who speak Hindustani, and claim pure Muhammadan descent, are spoken of as Daknis or Dakanis. In other Tamil districts they are called Patanigal, to distinguish them from Labbais and Marakkayars. The Daknis follow the Muhammadan ritual except in their marriages, which afford an example of a blend between Hindu and Muhammadan ceremonials. Like Hindus, they erect, at times of marriage, a milk-post of bamboo, to which are tied a two-anna piece, and a bit of sugar-candy done up in a Turkey red cloth. The post is handed to the headman, who decorates it with a garland of flowers and a roll of betel, and places it in a hole made in the court-yard of the house, wherein milk has been sprinkled. On the following day, two big pots are placed near the milk-post, and filled with water by four married couples. Around the pots, nine kinds of seed grains are sprinkled. On the third day, the bridegroom's party proceeds to the house of the bride with thirteen trays of betel, fruits, flowers, sandal paste, and a paste made of turmeric and henna (Lawsonia alba) leaves. The bride is decorated, and sits on a plank. Women smear the face and hands of the bridal couple with the pastes, and one of them, or the bridegroom's sister, ties a string of black beads round the bride's neck. While this is being done, no one should sneeze. Wrist threads (kankanam) are tied on the wrists of the bride and bridegroom. On the fourth day, the nikka rite is celebrated, and the newly-married couple sit together while the nalagu ceremony of smearing them with sandal, and waving coloured water (arati), is performed. The two pots containing water are kept for forty days, and then examined. If the water remains sweet, and does not "teem with vermin," it is regarded as a good omen. The seed grains, too, should by this time have developed into healthy seedlings.

Dammula.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small class of Telugu beggars, and priests in the temples of village goddesses.

Dandasi.--The Dandasis are summed up in the Ganjam Manual as being village watchmen, many of whom are great thieves. "It is curious," Mr. S. P. Rice writes, [45] "to find that the word Naiko [meaning leader or chief], which is corrupted into the Telugu Naidu, is the caste distinction of the lowest class, the village watcher and professional thief. This man, for all that his cognomen is so lofty, goes by the generic name of Dandasi. This word means worthy of punishment, and assuredly no appellation ever fitted its owner more completely than does this. He is the village policeman and the village thief, a curious mixture of callings." According to other versions, the name is derived from danda, a stick, and asi, sword, from dandabadi, a stout bamboo stick, or from dandapasi, stick and rope, in reference to the insignia of the Dandasi's office.

A large number of criminals, undergoing punishment in Ganjam for robbery and thieving, are Dandasis. The members of the caste, like the Tamil Kallans, believe that thieving is their traditional occupation, and, as such, regard it as justifiable. There is a legend that they adopted this occupation as their profession because their ancestors assisted the Pandavas to escape from the lac fort which was constructed by the Kurus with a view to killing them, by digging a secret subterranean passage. According to another story, the Dandasis are descended from the offspring of a clandestine amour of Krishna with Dhuuthika, Radha's handmaid. The Dandasis perform an interesting ceremony of initiation into the profession of thieving, when a child is born. When it is three or five days old, the headman (Behara) is invited to attend. A breach is made in the wall, or beneath the door sill. Through this the infant is passed by the Behara three times, and received by some members of the family. Each time the Behara repeats the words "Enter, baby enter. May you excel your father!" The Dandasis, when questioned concerning this custom, denied its existence, but some admitted that it was carried out in former days. An old woman stated that her grandchild was passed through a breach beneath the door, but was not inclined to enter into details.

A number of exogamous septs occur among the Dandasis, of which the following may be noted. Members of the Santarasi sept must avoid using mats made of the sedge which goes by this name. Kilalendias avoid touching the bamboo posts used by washermen to support the ropes on which cloths are hung to dry. They sacrifice a pig and seven fowls to their gods on the new-moon day, on which the head of a male child is first shaved. Diyasis show special reverence for the sun, and cloths, mokkutos (forehead chaplets), garlands, and other articles to be used by the bride and bridegroom at a wedding, are placed outside the house, so that they may be exposed to it. Members of the Ekopothiriya sept are regarded as low in the social scale, and the following legend is narrated to account for this. A Dandasi went, with his relations and friends, to the house of a Dandasi of the Ekopothiriya sept, to arrange a marriage. The guests were hospitably received, and the prospective bride asked her father what kind of curry was going to be served to them. He replied that barikolora (backyard Momordica) [46] was to be cooked. This aroused the curiosity of some of the guests, who went to the backyard, where, instead of Momordica, they saw several blood-suckers (lizards) running about. They jumped to the conclusion that these were what the host referred to as barikolora, and all the guests took their departure. Ekopothiriyas will not partake of food from the same plate as their grown-up children, even if a married daughter comes on a visit to them.

The Dandasis worship various Takuranis (village deities), e.g., Sankaithuni, Kulladankuni, Kombesari and Kalimuki. The gods are either represented temporarily by brass vessels, or permanently by three masses of clay, into each of which a small bit of gold is thrust. When Bassia (mahua) buds or mangoes are first eaten in their season, a sacrifice is made, and a goat and fowl are killed before the produce of the harvest is first partaken of.

The Dandasis have a headman, called Behara, who exercises authority over several groups of villages, and each group is under a Nayako, who is assisted by a Dondia. For every village there is a Bholloboya, and, in some places, there is an officer, called Boda Mundi, appointed by the Zamindar, to whom irregularities in the community have to be reported. When a woman is delivered of a still-born child, the whole family is under pollution for eleven days. The headman is then invited to attend, and presents are given to him. He sprinkles water over members of the family, and they are thereby freed from this pollution.

A certain portion of the property stolen by Dandasis is set apart for the headman, and, like the Tamil Kallans and Maravans, they seem to have a blackmailing system. If a Dandasi is engaged as a watchman, property is safe, or, if stolen, is recovered and restored to its owner.

Girls are married after puberty. A man may marry his maternal uncle's, but not his paternal aunt's daughter. The marriage ceremonies usually last three days, but are sometimes spread over seven days, in imitation of the higher castes. On the day (gondo sono) before the wedding day, seven new pots are brought from a potter's house, and placed in a room. Seven women throw Zizyphus jujuba leaves over them, and they are filled with water at a tank (pond). One of the pots must be carried by the sister-in-law of the bridegroom. A brass vessel is tied up, and worshipped. Towards evening, a fowl is sacrificed at an 'ant' hill. The bridegroom is shaved on this day by his sister's husband. Like other Oriya castes, the Dandasis collect water at seven houses, but only from those of members of castes higher than their own. The pot containing this water is hung up over the marriage dais (bedi). On the wedding (bibha) day, the bridegroom sits on the dais, with the bride, seated in her maternal uncle's lap or at his side, in front of him. The headman, or some respected elder of the community, places a betel nut cutter, on, or with some rice and betel nut between the united hands of the contracting couple, and ties them together with seven turns of a turmeric-dyed thread. He then announces that ... the granddaughter of ... and daughter of ... is united to ... the grandson of ... and son of ... The parents of the bride and bridegroom pour turmeric-water from a chank (Turbinella rapa) shell or leaf over their united hands. The nut-cutter is removed by the bride's brother, and, after striking the bridegroom, he goes away. The couple then play with cowry (Cypræ arabica) shells, and, while they are so engaged, the ends of their cloths are tied together, and the rice which is in their hands is tied in a knot. When the play is finished, this knot is untied, and the rice is measured in a small earthen pot, first on behalf of the bride, and is pronounced to be all right. It is then again measured, and said to have diminished in quantity. This gives rise to jokes at the expense of the bridegroom, who is called a thief, and other hard names. Those who imitate the ceremonial of the higher castes make the bridegroom go away in feigned anger, after he has broken the pot which is hanging over the dais. He is brought back by his brother-in-law.

On the occasion of the first menstrual period, a girl is under pollution for seven days. If she is engaged to be married, her future father-in-law makes her a present of jewels and money on the seventh day, and thereby confirms the marriage contract.

The dead are cremated. A widow accompanies the corpse of her husband to the boundary of the village, carrying a ladle and pot, which she throws down at the boundary, and returns home. On the day after the funeral, the embers are extinguished, and an effigy of the deceased is made on the spot where he was cremated, and food offered to it. Toddy is distributed among those who have assembled at the house. On the tenth day, food is offered on ten fragments of pots. On the eleventh day, if the dead man was an important personage in the community, a ceremony, corresponding to the jola jola handi of the higher castes, is performed. A cloth is spread on the ground, on the spot where the corpse was cremated, and the ground round it swept by women, whose backs are turned towards the cloth, so that they cannot see it. Two men, with swords or big knives, sit by the side of the cloth and wait till an insect settles on the cloth. They then at once put the swords or knives on the cloth, and, folding it up, place it on a new winnowing-basket. It is taken home, placed on the floor, and connected by means of a long thread with the household god (mass of clay or vessel). It is then shaken near the god, so that the insect falls out.

Dandasi further occurs as a sub-division of the Kondras, the members of which have taken to the profession of village watchmen.

Dandi (a staff).--A house name of Korava.

Dandu (army).--A sub-division of Idiga, and an exogamous sept of Boya and Kapu. It has been suggested that the name is not Dandu but Dande, meaning pole, in reference to the apparatus used by the Idigas in climbing palm trees for the extraction of toddy. Dandu Agasa, indicating army washerman, occurs as a name for some Maratha Dhobis in Mysore, whose forefathers probably accompanied armies in times of war.

Dara (stream of water).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Darabala.--Taken, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Mala. It is a common house-name among many Telugu castes.

Darala (thread).--An exogamous sept of Madiga.

Darzi.--Darzi or Darji is a Muhammadan occupational term, meaning tailor. "The east," it has been said, [47] "now sews by machinery. The name of Singer is known from the Mediterranean to the Pacific. In every bazaar in India one may see men--they are always men, not women--in turban or Mussalman cap, crouching over the needle-plate, and working the pedals." The value of the imports of sewing-machines rose, in British India, from Rs. 5,91,046 in 1901-02 to Rs. 10,06,625 in 1904-05.

Das.--The title of Jain immigrants from Northern India, most of whom are established as merchants, and also of the Mahants of the Tirumala (Tirupati) temple, e.g., Balaram Das, Bhagavan Das.

Dasari.--"Dasari or Tadan," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [48] "is a mendicant caste of Vaishnavas, the reputed descendants of a wealthy Sudra of one of the northern districts, who, being devoid of offspring, vowed that, should he be blessed with children, he would devote one to the service of his god. He subsequently had many sons, one of whom he named Dasan (servant), and placed entirely at the service of the deity. Dasan forfeited all claim to participate in his father's estate, and his offspring are therefore all beggars.

"The caste, like that of the Satanis, is reinforced by idle members of the lower Sudra classes, who, being branded by the gurus of Tirupati and other shrines, become Dasaris thereby. They usually wander about, singing hymns to a monotonous accompaniment upon a leather instrument called tappai (tabret). Some Sudra castes engage them thus to chant in front of the corpse at funerals, and many, accompanying bands of pilgrims travelling to Tirupati, stimulate their religious excitement by singing sacred songs. A few, called Yerudandis, (q.v.), take possession of young bulls that have been devoted to a swami, and teach them to perform tricks very cleverly. The bulls appear to understand what is said to them, and go through various antics at the word of command. Some Dasaris exhibit what is called the Panda Servai performance, which consists in affecting to be possessed by the spirit of the deity, and beating themselves all over the body with a flaming torch, after covering it probably with some protecting substance. In such modes do they wander about and receive alms, each wearing as a distinction a garland of beads made of tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) wood. Every Dasari is a Tengalai. They have six sub-divisions, called Balija, Janappa, Palli, Valluva, Gangeddula, and Golla Dasaris, which neither eat together nor intermarry. As these are the names of existing and distinct castes, it is probable that the Dasaris were formerly members of those classes, who, through their vagabond tastes, have taken to a mendicant life. Beyond prohibiting widow remarriage, they have no social restrictions."

Concerning the mendicants of Anantapur, Mr. W. Francis writes [49] that "the beggars who are most in evidence are the Dasaris. This community is recruited from several castes, such as the Kapus, Balijas, Kurubas, Boyas, and Malas, and members of it who belong to the last two of these (which are low in the social scale) are not allowed to dine with the others. All Dasaris are Vaishnavites, and admission to the community is obtained by being branded by some Vaishnavite guru. Thenceforward the novice becomes a Dasari, and lives by begging from door to door. The profession is almost hereditary in some families. The five insignia of a Dasari are the conch shell, which he blows to announce his arrival; the gong which he strikes as he goes his rounds; the tall iron lamp (with a cocoanut to hold the oil for replenishing it) which he keeps lighted as he begs; the brass or copper vessel (sometimes with the namam painted on it) suspended from his shoulder, in which he places the alms received; and the small metal image of Hanuman, which he hangs round his neck. Of these, the iron lamp is at once the most conspicuous and the most indispensable. It is said to represent Venkatesa, and it must be burning, as an unlighted lamp is inauspicious. Dasaris also subsist by doing puja (worship) at ceremonial and festival occasions for certain of the Hindu castes." In the Kurnool district, when a girl is dedicated as a Basavi (dedicated prostitute), she is not, as in some other parts of the country, married to an idol, but tied by means of a garland of flowers to the tall standard lamp (garudakambham) of a Dasari, and released by the man who is to receive her first favours, or by her maternal uncle.

The Dasaris in Mysore are described in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as "mendicants belonging to different classes of Sudras. They become Dasas or servants dedicated to the God at Tirupati by virtue of a peculiar vow, made either by themselves or their relatives, at some moment of anxiety or danger, and live by begging in His name. Dasaris are always Vaishnavites, as the vows are taken only by those castes which are worshippers of that deity. Dasaris are invited by Sudras on ceremonial days, and feasted. Properly speaking, Dasari is not a caste, but simply an occupational division. Among certain castes, the custom of taking a vow to become a Dasari prevails. In fulfilment of that vow the person becomes a Dasari, and his eldest son is bound to follow suit, the others taking to other walks of life. The following castes take the vow of becoming Dasari:--Telugu Banajiga, Holeya, Tigala, and Vakkaliga. The duty of a Dasari requires that he should daily bathe his head, and take care that, while eating with the profane, their victuals do not get mixed with his. Every Saturday, after bathing and praying for some hours, he must cook his own food in a clean pot. They go about the streets singing some Hari Keerthanams, with a gong and conch to relieve the dull monotony of their mumblings."

Concerning the synonym Tadan, this is stated [50] to be "a corruption of the Sanskrit dasa which, with the Tamil termination an, stands for dasan. The word is often used in this form, but often as Dasari. The word is applied to Vaishnava mendicants. They go out every morning, begging for alms of uncooked rice, and singing ballads or hymns. They play on a small drum with their fingers, and often carry a conch shell, which they blow. They are given to drinking." In the Nellore Manual, the Dasrivandlu are summed up as being "mendicants and thieves in the Telugu and Canarese countries. They usually practise what is known as scissor-theft." The mendicant Dasaris, who are dealt with in the present note, are stated by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri [51] to be called Gudi Dasari, as the gudi or temple is their home and to be a set of quiet, innocent and simple people, leading a most idle and stupid life. "Quite opposed," he adds, "to the Gudi Dasaris in every way are the Donga Dasaris or thieving Dasaris. They are the most dreaded of the criminal classes in the Bellary district. These Donga Dasaris are only Dasaris in name." (See Donga Dasari.)

Some Dasaris are servants under Vaishnava Brahmans, who act as gurus to various castes. It is their duty to act as messengers to the guru, and carry the news of his arrival to his disciples. At the time of worship, and when the guru approaches a village, the Dasari has to blow a long brass trumpet (tarai). As the Brahman may not approach or touch his Paraiyan disciples, it is the Dasari who gives them the holy water (thirtham). When a Paraiyan is to be branded, the Brahman heats the instruments bearing the devices of the chank and chakaram, and hands them to the Dasari, who performs the operation of branding. For councils, settlement of marriage, and the decision of other social matters, the Dasaris meet, at times of festivals, at well-known places such as Tirutani, Tirupati or Tiruvallur.

At the annual festival at the temple at Karamadi in the Coimbatore district, which is visited by very large numbers, belonging for the most part to the lower orders, various vows are fulfilled. These include the giving of kavalam to Dasaris. Kavalam consists of plantain fruits cut up into small slices, and mixed with sugar, jaggery (crude sugar), fried grain, or beaten rice. The Dasaris are attached to the temple, and wear short drawers, with strings of small brass bells tied to their wrists and ankles. They appear to be possessed, and move wildly about to the beating of drums. As they go about, the devotee puts some of the kavalam into their mouths. The Dasaris eat a little, and spit out the remainder into the hands of the devotees, who eat it. This is believed to cure all diseases, and to give children to those who partake of it. In addition to kavalam, some put betel leaves into the mouths of the Dasaris, who, after chewing them, spit them into the mouths of the devotees. At night the Dasaris carry large torches made of rags, on which the devotees pour ghi (clarified butter). Some say that, many years ago, barren women used to take a vow to visit the temple at the festival time, and, after offering kavalam, have sexual intercourse with the Dasaris. The temple authorities, however, profess ignorance of this practice.

When proceeding on a pilgrimage to the temple of Subramanya Swami at Palni, some devotees pierce their cheeks with a long silver skewer, which traverses the mouth cavity; pierce the tongue with a silver arrow, which is protruded vertically through the protruded organ; and place a silver shield (mouth-lock) in front of the mouth. Some Dasaris have permanent holes in their cheeks, into which they insert skewers when they go about the country in pursuit of their profession.

For the following note on Dasaris in the Vizagapatam district, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The caste is an endogamous unit, the members calling themselves Sankhu (or conch-blowing) Dasaris, and is divided into numerous exogamous septs. The menarikam custom, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is followed. The remarriage of widows is permitted, but divorce is forbidden. The dead are cremated, and the chinna (small) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies are observed. These Dasaris profess the Tengalai form of Vaishnavism, and get themselves branded. The caste is more secular, and less religious than in the southern districts. A Dasari of the North Arcot or Anantapur type, with conch-shell, metal gong, iron lamp, copper vessel, and metal image of Hanuman on his neck, is scarcely met with. The Vizagapatam Dasaris are the most popular among ballad-singers, and sing songs about heroes and heroines, of which the following are the most appreciated:--

1. Bobbilipata, which describes the siege and conquest of Bobbili by Bussy in 1757.

2. Ammi Nayudupata, which describes the tyrannical behaviour of one Ammi Nayudu, a village headman in the Palkonda taluk, who was eventually murdered, to the great relief of those subject to him, by one of his dependents.

3. Lakshmammapata, which relates the life and death of Lakshmamma, a Velama woman, who went against the menarikam custom of the caste, and was put to death by her husband.

4. Yerakammaperantala-pata, which recounts the story of one Yerakamma, who committed sati.

Yerakamma is the local goddess at Srungavarapukota in the Vizagapatam district. The ballads sung about her say that she was the child of Dasari parents, and that her birth was foretold by a Yerukala woman (whence her name), who prophesied that she would have the gift of second sight. She eventually married, and one day she begged her husband not to go to his field, as she was sure he would be killed by a tiger if he did. Her husband went notwithstanding, and was slain as she had foreseen. She committed sati on the spot where her shrine still stands, and at this there is a festival at Sivaratri.

As ballad-singers, two Dasaris generally travel about together, begging from house to house, or at the weekly market, one singing, while the other plays, and joins in the chorus.

The titles of these Dasaris are Anna and Ayya.

Dasari has been recorded as an exogamous sept of the Koravas, Malas, and Yerukalas.

Dasi (servant).--The name for a non-Brahman female attendant upon a Nambutiri Brahman woman, which should not, as sometimes happens, be confused with Deva-dasi, (q.v.), which has quite another significance.

Dayare (Muhammadan).--The Dayare, Daira, or Mahadev Muhammadans are found in the Bangalore and Mysore districts of the Mysore province. Concerning them, we are informed in the Mysore Gazetteer that "they differ from the general body of Muhammadans in a point of belief concerning the advent of Imam Mahadi. The Dayares maintain that he has visited this earth and departed, while the orthodox Muhammadans believe the Prophet (Imam) has not yet appeared, and that his coming will be a sign of the end of the world. The following account of the origin of this body of dissenters has been related. A child was born of the Sayad sect of Muhammadans at Guzrat about four hundred years ago, who was named Sayad Ahmed, and afterwards became distinguished by the title of Alam (superior to Maulvi) in consequence of his great learning. Sayad Ahmed proclaimed himself the equal of Mahomet, and superior to all other Paigambars or messengers of god. He succeeded in obtaining some followers who believed in him, and repaired to Jivanpur in the Nizam's territories, where he took the name of Imam Mahadi. From thence he, with some disciples, proceeded to Mecca, but did not visit Medina. After some time he returned to Hyderabad, still retaining the name of Imam Mahadi. Such pretensions could not be tolerated by the great mass of Muhammadans, and Sayad Ahmed, together with his disciples, being worsted in a great religious controversy, was driven out of Hyderabad, and came to Channapatna in the Bangalore district, where they settled. The descendants of these settlers believe that Sayad Ahmed was the Prophet Imam Mahadi predicted in the Koran. They offer prayers in a masjid of their own, separate from other Muhammadans, and do not intermarry with the rest. They are an enterprising body, and carry on a brisk trade in silk with the western coast." They are mostly domiciled at Channapatna, where a considerable industry in the cocoons of the mulberry silk-moth is carried on.

When an adult Hindu joins the Dayares as a convert, an interesting mock rite of circumcision is performed as a substitute for the real operation. A strip of betel leaf is wrapped round the penis, so that it projects beyond the glans, and is snipped instead of the prepuce.

Like other Muhammadan classes of Southern India, the Dayares are as a whole dolichocephalic. But the frequent occurrence of individuals with a high cephalic index would seem to point to their recruitment from the mesaticephalic or brachycephalic Canarese classes.

=================+=============+============+=============
| | | Number of
| | Number | times
Class. | Locality. | examined. | cephalic
| | | index
| | | exceeded 80.
-----------------+-------------+------------+-------------
Mappilla | Malabar | 40 | 0
Saiyad | Madras | 40 | 2
Pathan | Do. | 40 | 2
Sheik | Do. | 40 | 2
Dayare | Mysore | 40 | 8
=================+=============+============+=============

Dayyalakulam (devil's family).--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-caste of Gollas, who are wrestlers and acrobats.

Dedingi.--Recorded as a sub-division of Poroja.

Dera.--Dera, Dendra, and Devara occur as synonyms of Devanga.

Desa.--A sub-division of Balija. Desadhipati, denoting ruler of a country, is a name assumed by some Janappans, who say that they are Balijas.

Desayi.--For the following account of the Desayi institution, I am indebted to an excellent account thereof by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri. [52] "The word Desayi means of the country. For almost every taluk in the North Arcot district there is a headman, called the Desayi Chetti, who may be said in a manner to correspond to a Justice of the Peace. The headmen belong to the Kavarai or Balija caste, their family name being Dhanapala--a common name among the Kavarais--which may be interpreted as 'the protector of wealth.' The Dhanapala Desayi Chetti holds sway over eighteen castes, Kavarai, Uppara, Lambadi, Jogi, Idiga, Paraiyan, etc. All those that are called valangai, or right-hand caste, fall within his jurisdiction. He has an establishment of two peons (orderlies), who are castemen, and another menial, a sort of bugler, who blows the horn whenever the Desayi Chetti goes on circuit. When any deviation in the moral conduct of any man or woman occurs in a village under the Desayi's jurisdiction, a report of it is at once sent to the Desayi Chetti, through the Paraiya of the village, by the Desayi's representative in that village. He has his local agent in every village within his jurisdiction. On receipt of a report, he starts on circuit to the village, with all the quaint-looking paraphernalia attached to his office. He moves about from place to place in his bullock coach, the inside of which is upholstered with a soft cushion bed, with a profusion of pillows on all sides. The Paraiya horn-blower runs in front of the carriage blowing the horn (bhamka), which he carries suspended from his shoulder when it is not in use. On the Desayi Chetti arriving at a village, the horn is blown to announce his visit on professional matters. While he camps at a village, people from the surrounding country within his jurisdiction usually go to him with any representations they may have to make to him as the head of their caste. The Desayi generally encamps in a tope (grove) adjoining the village. At the sound of the horn, the castemen on whose account the visit is made assemble at the place of encampment, with the Desayi's local representative at their head. The personal comforts of the Desayi are first attended to, and he is liberally supplied with articles of food by the party on whose account the visit has been undertaken. A large cup-shaped spoon is the ensign of the Desayi. On the outer surface, all round its edge, are carved in relief eighteen figures, each one being typical of one of the castes of which the Desayi is the social head. Under each figure is inscribed in Tamil the name of the caste which that figure typifies. The figures are smeared with red powder and sandal, and decorated with flowers. The menial, taking up the cup, rings the bell attached to it, to summon the parties. As soon as the sound is heard, the castemen amongst whom any offence has occurred assemble, each house in the village being represented by a member, so as to make up a panchayat (council). The Desayi's emblem is then placed in front of him in the midst of the panchayat, and a regular enquiry held. Supposing a person stands charged with adultery, the accused is brought before the assembly, and the charge formally investigated with the advice of the panchayat, the Desayi declares the accused guilty or not guilty, as the case may be. In the event of a man being pronounced guilty, the panchayat directs him to pay the aggrieved husband all the expenses he had incurred in connection with his marriage. In addition to this, a fine ranging from ten to twenty rupees is imposed on the offender by the Desayi, and is collected at once. A small fraction of this fine, never exceeding four annas, is paid to every representative who sits in the panchayat, the balance going into the Desayi's pocket. If the delinquent refuses to pay the fine, a council of the same men is held, and he is excommunicated. The recalcitrant offender soon realises the horrors of excommunication, and in a short time appears before the Desayi, and falls prostrate at his feet, promising to obey him. The Desayi then accompanies him to the village, calls the panchayat again, and in their presence removes the interdict. On this occasion, the excommunicated person has to pay double the amount of the original fine. But disobedience is rare, as people are alive to the serious consequences of excommunication. The Desayi maintains a regular record of all his enquiries and judgments, and in the days of the Nawabs these decisions were, it would appear, recognised by the Courts of Justice. The same respect was, it is said, also shown to the Desayi's decisions by the early courts of John Company. [53]

"Every house belonging to the eighteen castes sends to the village representative of the Desayi, who is called Periyatanakaran, a pagoda (Rs. 3-8) in cash, besides rice, dhal (Cajanus Indicus), and other articles of food for every marriage that takes place, in the village. The representative reserves for himself all the perishable articles, sending only the cash to the Desayi. Thus, for every marriage within his jurisdiction, the Desayi gets one pagoda. Of late, in the case of those Desayis who have purchased their rights as such from the old Desayis, instead of a pagoda, a fee of two annas and a half is levied on each marriage. Every death which occurs in a village is equally a source of income to the Desayi, who receives articles of food, and four annas or more, according to the circumstances of the parties in whose house the death has occurred. As in the case of marriage, the local representative appropriates to himself the articles of food, and transmits the money to the Desayi. The local agent keeps a list of all domestic occurrences that take place in the village, and this list is most carefully scrutinised and checked by the Desayi during his tours, and any amount left unpaid is then collected. Whenever a marriage takes place in his own house, all the houses within his jurisdiction are bound to send him rice, dhal, and other articles, and any money they can afford to pay. Sometimes rich people send large sums to the Desayi, to enable him to purchase the clothes, jewels, etc., required for the marriage. When a Desayi finds his work too heavy for him to attend to single-handed, he sells a portion of his jurisdiction for some hundreds or thousands of rupees, according to its extent, to some relation. A regular sale deed is executed and registered." (See also Samaya.)

Desikar.--A sub-division and title of Pandaram.

Desur.--The name of a sub-division of Kapu, which is either territorial, or possibly derived from deha, body, and sura, valour.

Deva.--Deva or Devara, meaning God, has been recorded as a synonym of Devanga and Ganiga or Gandla and a sept of Moger, and Deva Telikulakali as a name for those who express and sell oils in the Vizagapatam district. Devara occurs further as a title of the Jangams. At the Madras Census, 1901, Devar was returned as the name of Telugu merchants from Pondicherry trading in glassware. Devar is also the title of Occhans, who are priests at temples of village deities. The title of Maravans is Devan or Tevan. In South Canara, the Halepaiks (toddy-drawers) are known as Devaru Makkalu (God's children), which, it has been suggested, [54] is possibly a corruption of Tivaru or Divaru Makkalu, meaning children of the islanders, in reference to their supposed descent from early immigrants from the island of Ceylon.

Deva-dasi.--In old Hindu works, seven classes of Dasis are mentioned, viz., (1) Datta, or one who gives herself as a gift to a temple; (2) Vikrita, or one who sells herself for the same purpose; (3) Bhritya, or one who offers herself as a temple servant for the prosperity of her family; (4) Bhakta, or one who joins a temple out of devotion; (5) Hrita, or one who is enticed away, and presented to a temple; (6) Alankara, or one who, being well trained in her profession, and profusely decked, is presented to a temple by kings and noblemen; (7) Rudraganika or Gopika, who receive regular wages from a temple, and are employed to sing and dance. For the following general account I am indebted to the Madras Census Report, 1901:--

"Dasis or Deva-dasis (handmaidens of the gods) are dancing-girls attached to the Tamil temples, who subsist by dancing and music, and the practice of 'the oldest profession in the world.' The Dasis were probably in the beginning the result of left-handed unions between members of two different castes, but they are now partly recruited by admissions, and even purchases, from other classes. The profession is not now held in the consideration it once enjoyed. Formerly they enjoyed a considerable social position. It is one of the many inconsistencies of the Hindu religion that, though their profession is repeatedly and vehemently condemned by the Shastras, it has always received the countenance of the church. The rise of the caste, and its euphemistic name, seem both of them to date from about the ninth and tenth centuries A.D., during which much activity prevailed in Southern India in the matter of building temples, and elaborating the services held in them. The dancing-girls' duties, then as now, were to fan the idol with chamaras (Tibetan ox tails), to carry the sacred light called kumbarti, and to sing and dance before the god when he was carried in procession. Inscriptions [55] show that, in A.D. 1004, the great temple of the Chola king Rajaraja at Tanjore had attached to it four hundred talic' cheri pendugal, or women of the temple, who lived in free quarters in the four streets round about it, and were allowed tax-free land out of the endowment. Other temples had similar arrangements. At the beginning of the last century there were a hundred dancing-girls attached to the temple at Conjeeveram, who were, Buchanan tells us, [56] 'kept for the honour of the deities and the amusement of their votaries; and any familiarity between these girls and an infidel would occasion scandal.' At Madura, Conjeeveram, and Tanjore there are still numbers of them, who receive allowances from the endowments of the big temples at these places. In former days, the profession was countenanced not only by the church, but also by the State. Abdur Razaak, a Turkish ambassador at the court of Vijayanagar in the fifteenth century, describes [57] women of this class as living in State-controlled institutions, the revenue of which went towards the upkeep of the police.

"At the present day they form a regular caste, having its own laws of inheritance, its own customs and rules of etiquette, and its own panchayats (councils) to see that all these are followed, and thus hold a position, which is perhaps without a parallel in any other country. Dancing-girls, dedicated to the usual profession of the caste, are formally married in a temple to a sword or a god, the tali (marriage badge) being tied round their necks by some men of their caste. It was a standing puzzle to the census enumerators whether such women should be entered as married in the column referring to civil condition.

"Among the Dasis, sons and daughters inherit equally, contrary to ordinary Hindu usage. Some of the sons remain in the caste, and live by playing music for the women to dance to, and accompaniments to their songs, or by teaching singing and dancing to the younger girls, and music to the boys. These are called Nattuvans. Others marry some girl of the caste, who is too plain to be likely to be a success in the profession, and drift out of the community. Some of these affix to their names the terms Pillai and Mudali, which are the usual titles of the two castes (Vellala and Kaikola) from which most of the Dasis are recruited, and try to live down the stigma attaching to their birth. Others join the Melakkarans or professional musicians. Cases have occurred, in which wealthy sons of dancing-women have been allowed to marry girls of respectable parentage of other castes, but they are very rare. The daughters of the caste, who are brought up to follow the caste profession, are carefully taught dancing, singing, the art of dressing well, and the ars amoris, and their success in keeping up their clientele is largely due to the contrast which they thus present to the ordinary Hindu housewife, whose ideas are bounded by the day's dinner and the babies. The dancing-girl castes, and their allies the Melakkarans, are now practically the sole repository of Indian music, the system of which is probably one of the oldest in the world. Besides them and the Brahmans, few study the subject. The barbers' bands of the villages usually display more energy than science. A notable exception, however, exists in Madras city, which has been known to attempt the Dead March in Saul at funerals in the Pariah quarters.

"There are two divisions among the Dasis, called Valangai (right-hand) and Idangai (left-hand). The chief distinction between them is that the former will have nothing to do with the Kammalans (artisans) or any other of the left-hand castes, or play or sing in their houses. The latter division is not so particular, and its members are consequently sometimes known as the Kammala Dasis. Neither division, however, is allowed to have any dealings with men of the lowest castes, and violation of this rule of etiquette is tried by a panchayat of the caste, and visited with excommunication.

"In the Telugu districts, the dancing-girls are called Bogams and Sanis. They are supposed to be dedicated to the gods, just as the Dasis are, but there is only one temple in the northern part of the Presidency which maintains a corps of these women in the manner in vogue further south. This exception is the shrine of Sri Kurmam in Vizagapatam, the dancing-girls attached to which are known as Kurmapus. In Vizagapatam most of the Bogams and Sanis belong to the Nagavasulu and Palli castes, and their male children often call themselves Nagavasulus, but in Nellore, Kurnool and Bellary they are often Balijas and Yerukalas. In Nellore the Bogams are said to decline to sing in the houses of Komatis. The men of the Sanis do not act as accompanists to their women at nautch parties, as Bogam and Dasi men do.

"In the Oriya country the dancing-girl caste is called Guni, but there they have even less connection with the temples than the Bogams and Sanis, not being even dedicated to the god.

"In the Canarese (or western) taluks of Bellary, and in the adjoining parts of Dharwar and Mysore, a curious custom obtains among the Boyas, Bedarus, and certain other castes, under which a family which has no male issue must dedicate one of its daughters as a Basavi. The girl is taken to a temple, and married there to the god, a tali and toe-rings being put on her, and thenceforward she becomes a public woman, except that she does not consort with any one of lower caste than herself. She is not, however, despised on this account, and indeed at weddings she prepares the tali (perhaps because she can never be a widow). Contrary to all Hindu Law, she shares in the family property as though she was a son, but her right to do so has not yet been confirmed by the Civil Courts. If she has a son, he takes her father's name, but if only a daughter, that daughter again becomes a Basavi. The children of Basavis marry within their own caste, without restrictions of any kind.

"In Malabar there is no regular community of dancing-girls; nor is there among the Mussalmans of any part of the Presidency."

"No doubt," Monier Williams writes, [58] "Dasis drive a profitable trade under the sanction of religion, and some courtesans have been known to amass enormous fortunes. Nor do they think it inconsistent with their method of making money to spend it in works of piety. Here and there Indian bridges and other useful public works owe their existence to the liberality of the frail sisterhood." The large tank (lake) at Channarayapatna in Mysore was built by two dancing-girls.

In the Travancore Census Report, 1901, the Dasis of the Coromandel coast are compared, in the words of a Sanskrit poet, to walking flesh-trees bearing golden fruits. The observant Abbé Dubois noticed that, of all the women in India, it is especially the courtesans who are the most decently clothed, as experience has taught them that for a woman to display her charms damps sensual ardour instead of exciting it, and that the imagination is more easily captivated than the eye.

It was noticed by Lord Dufferin, on the occasion of a Viceregal visit to Madura, that the front part of the dress of the dancing-girls hangs in petticoats, but the back is only trousers.

The Rev. A. Margöschis writes in connection with the practice of dilating the lobes of the ears in Tinnevelly, that, as it was once the fashion and a mark of respectability to have long ears, so now the converse is true. Until a few years ago, if a woman had short ears, she was asked if she was a Deva-dasi, because that class kept their ears natural. Now, with the change of customs all round, even dancing-girls are found with long ears. "The dancing-girls are," the Rev. M. Phillips writes, [59] "the most accomplished women among the Hindus. They read, write, sing and play as well as dance. Hence one of the great objections urged at first against the education of girls was 'We don't want our daughters to become dancing-girls'."

It is on record [60] that, in 1791, the Nabob of the Carnatic dined with the Governor of Madras, and that, after dinner, they were diverted with the dancing wenches, and the Nabob was presented with cordial waters, French brandy and embroidered China quilts. The story is told of a Governor of Madras in more recent times, who, ignorant of the inverse method of beckoning to a person to advance or retreat in the East, was scandalised when a nautch girl advanced rapidly, till he thought she was going to sit in his lap. At a nautch in the fort of the Mandasa Zemindar in honour of Sir M. E. Grant Duff, [61] the dancing-girls danced to the air of Malbrook se va t'en guerre. Bussy taught it to the dancing-girls, and they to their neighbours. In the Vizagapatam and Godavari jungles, natives apostrophise tigers as Bussy. Whether the name is connected with Bussy I know not.

Of Deva-dasis at the Court of Tippoo Sultan, the following account was published in 1801. [62] "Comme Souverain d'une partie du Visapour, Tippoo-Saïb jouissoit de la facilité d'avoir parmi ses bayadères celles qui étoient les plus renommées par leurs talens, leurs graces, leur beauté, etc. Ces bayadères sont des danseuses supérieures dans leur genre; tout danse et tout joue en même-tems chez elles; leur tête, leurs yeux, leurs bras, leurs pieds, tout leur corps, semblent ne se mouvoir que from enchanter; elles sont d'une incroyable légèreté, et ont le jarret aussi fort que souple; leur taille est des plus sveltes et des plus élégantes, et elles n'ont pas un mouvement qui ne soit une grace. La plus âgée de ces femmes n'avoit pas plus de seize à dix-sept ans. Aussi tot qu'elles atteignoient cet âge, on les réformoit, et alors elles alloient courir les provinces, on s'attachoient à des pagodes, dans lesqueles elles étoient entretenues, et ou leurs charmes étoient un des meilleurs revenus des brames."

General Burton narrates [63] how a civilian of the old school built a house at Bhavani, and established a corps de ballet, i.e., a set of nautch girls, whose accomplishments actually extended to singing God save the King, and this was kept up by their descendants, so that, when he visited the place in 1852, he was "greeted by the whole party, bedizened in all their finery, and squalling the national anthem as if they understood it, which they did not." With this may be contrasted a circular from a modern European official, which states that "during my jamabandy (land revenue settlement) tour, people have sometimes been kind enough to arrange singing or dancing parties, and, as it would have been discourteous to decline to attend what had cost money to arrange, I have accepted the compliment in the spirit in which it was offered. I should, however, be glad if you would let it be generally known that I am entirely in accord with what is known as the anti-nautch movement in regard to such performances."

It was unanimously decided, in 1905, by the Executive Committee of the Prince and Princess of Wales' reception fund, that there should be no performance by nautch girls at the entertainment to be given to Their Royal Highnesses at Madras.

In a note on Basavis, the Collector of the Bellary district writes that "it is usual among Hindus to dedicate a bull for public use on the death of a member of their family. These are the breeding bulls of the village flock. Similarly, cows are dedicated, and are called Basavis. No stigma attaches to Basavis or their children, and they are received on terms of equality by other members of their caste. The origin of the institution, it has been suggested, may probably be traced to the time when the Boyas, and other castes which dedicate Basavis, were soldiers, and the Basavis acted as camp-followers and nurses of the wounded in battle. According to Hindu custom, the wives of the men could not be taken from their homes, and, other women of the caste being required to attend to their comforts, the institution of Basavis might have been started; or, if they existed before then as religious devotees attached to temples, they might have been pressed into their service, and the number added to as occasion required. In Narayandevarkeri there are many Boyas and many Basavis. On the car-festival day, the Boyas cannot take meals until the car is taken back to its original place after the procession. Sometimes, owing to some accident, this cannot be done the same day, and the car-drawing Boyas sleep near the car, and do not go to their houses. Then it is their Basavis who bring them food, and not their wives." At Adoni I have seen a Basavi, who was working at a cotton press for a daily wage of three annas, in full dress on a holiday in honour of a local deity, wearing an elaborately chased silver waist belt and abundant silver jewelry. The following are examples of petitions presented to a European Magistrate and Superintendent of Police by girls who are about to become Basavis:--

Petition of __________ aged about 17 or 18.

I have agreed to become a Basavi, and get myself stamped by my guru
(priest) according to the custom of my caste. I request that my
proper age, which entitles me to be stamped, may be personally
ascertained, and permission granted to be stamped.

The stamping refers to branding with the emblems of the chank
and chakram.

Petition of _____ wife of _____.

I have got two daughters, aged 15 and 12 respectively. As I have
no male issues, I have got to necessarily celebrate the ceremony
in the temple in connection with the tying of the goddess's tali
to my two daughters under the orders of the guru, in accordance
with the customs of my caste. I, therefore, submit this petition
for fear that the authorities may raise any objection (under the
Age of Consent Act). I, therefore, request that the Honourable
Court may be pleased to give permission to the tying of the tali
to my daughters.

Petition of two girls, aged 17 to 19.