Chapter IX: Part 9

In their marriage ceremonial, the Panta Reddis of the South Arcot and Salem districts appear to follow the Brahmanical form. In the Telugu country, however, it is as follows. On the pradhanam or betrothal day, the party of the bridegroom-elect go in procession under a canopy (ulladam), attended by musicians, and matrons carrying betel, cocoanuts, date and plantain fruits, and turmeric on plates. As soon as they have arrived at the courtyard of the future bride's house, she seats herself on a plank. A Brahman purohit moulds a little turmeric paste into a conical mass representing Vigneswara (the elephant god), and it is worshipped by the girl, in front of whom the trays brought by the women are placed. She is presented with a new cloth, which she puts on, and a near female relation gives her three handfuls of areca nuts, a few betel leaves, and the bride-price and jewels tied up in a turmeric-dyed cloth. All these things the girl deposits in her lap. The fathers of the contracting couple then exchange betel, with the customary formula. "The girl is yours, and the money mine" and "The money is yours, and the girl mine." Early on the wedding morning the bridegroom's party, accompanied by a purohit and washerman (Tsakala), go to fetch the bride from her house. The milk-post is set up, and is usually made of a branch of Mimusops hexandra or, in the Tamil country, Odina Wodier. On the conclusion of the marriage rites, the Odina post is planted in the backyard, and, if it takes root and flourishes, it is regarded as a happy omen for the newly married couple. A small party of Kapus, taking with them some food and gingelly (Sesamum) oil, proceed in procession beneath a canopy to the house of a washerman (Tsakala), in order to obtain from him a framework made of bamboo or sticks over which cotton threads are wound (dhornam), and the Ganga idol, which is kept in his custody. The food is presented to him, and some rice poured into his cloth. Receiving these things, he says that he cannot find the dhornam and idol without a torch-light, and demands gingelly oil. This is given to him, and the Kapus return with the washerman carrying the dhornam and idol to the marriage house. When they arrive at the entrance thereto, red coloured food, coloured water (arathi) and incense are waved before the idol, which is taken into a room, and placed on a settle of rice. The washerman is then asked to tie the dhornam to the pandal (marriage booth) or roof of the house, and he demands some paddy, which is heaped up on the ground. Standing thereon, he ties the dhornam. The people next proceed to the houses of the goldsmith and potter, and bring back the bottu (marriage badge) and thirteen marriage pots, on which threads (kankanam) are tied before they are removed. A Brahman purohit ties the thread round one pot, and the Kapus round the rest. The pots are placed in the room along with the Ganga idol. The bottu is tied round the neck of a married woman who is closely related to the bridegroom. The contracting couple are seated with the ends of their clothes tied together. A barber comes with a cup of water, and a tray containing rice dyed with turmeric is placed on the floor. A number of men and women then scatter rice over the heads of the bride and bridegroom, and, after, waving a silver or copper coin in front of them, throw it into the barber's cup. The barber then pares the finger and toe nails of the bridegroom, and touches the toe nails of the bride with his razor. They then go through the nalagu ceremony, being smeared with oil and Phaseolus Mungo paste, and bathe. After the bath the bridegroom, dressed in his wedding finery, proceeds to the temple. As he leaves the house, a Madiga hands him a pair of shoes, which he puts on. The Madiga is given food placed in a basket on eleven leaves. At the temple worship is performed, and a Bhatrazu (bard and panegyrist), who has accompanied the bridegroom, ties a bashingham (chaplet) on his forehead. From this moment the Bhatrazu must remain with the bridegroom, as his personal attendant, painting the sectarian marks on his forehead, and carrying out other functions. In like manner, a Bhogam woman (dedicated prostitute) waits on the bride. "The tradition," Mr. Stuart writes, "is that the Bhatrazus were a northern caste, which was first invited south by king Pratapa Rudra of the Kshatriya dynasty of Warrangal (1295-1323 A.D.). After the downfall of that kingdom they seem to have become court bards and panegyrists under the Reddi and Velama feudal chiefs." From the temple the bridegroom and his party come to the marriage pandal, and, after food and other things have been waved to avert the evil eye, he enters the house. On the threshold his brother-in-law washes his feet, and sits thereon till he has extracted some money or a cow as a present. The bridegroom then goes to the marriage dais, whither the bride is conducted, and stands facing him, with a screen interposed between them. Vigneswara is worshipped, and the wrist threads (kankanam) are tied on, the bridegroom placing his right foot on the left foot of the bride. The bottu is removed from the neck of the married woman, passed round to be blessed, and tied by the bridegroom on the bride's neck. The bride is lifted up by her maternal uncle, and the couple sprinkle each other with rice. The screen is removed, and they sit side by side with the ends of their cloths tied together. Rice is thrown over them by those assembled, and they are made to gaze at the pole star (Arundati). The proceedings terminate by the pair searching for a finger-ring and pap-bowl in one of the pots filled with water. On the second day there is feasting, and the nalagu ceremony is again performed. On the following day, the bridegroom and his party pretend to take offence at some thing which is done by the bride's people, who follow them with presents, and a reconciliation is speedily effected. Towards evening, a ceremony called nagavali, or sacrifice to the Devatas, is performed. The bridal pair, with the Bhatrazu and Bhogam woman, occupy the dais. The Brahman purohit places on a tray a conical mass of turmeric representing Vigneswara, to whom puja (worship) is done. He then places a brass vessel (kalasam) filled with water, and with its mouth closed by a cocoanut, on a settle of rice spread on a tray. The kalasam is worshipped as representing the Devatas. The Brahman invokes the blessing of all the Gods and Devatas, saying "Let Siva bless the pair," "Let Indra bless the pair," etc. A near relative of the bridegroom sits by the side of the purohit with plenty of betel leaves and areca nuts. After each God or Devata has been mentioned, he throws some of the nuts and leaves into a tray, and, as these are the perquisites of the purohit, he may repeat the same name three or four times. The Kapu then makes playful remarks about the greed of the purohit, and, amid much laughter, refuses to put any more leaves or nuts in the tray. This ceremonial concluded, the near relations of the bridegroom stand in front of him, and, with hands crossed, hold over his head two brass plates, into which a small quantity of milk is poured. Fruit, betel leaves and areca nuts (pan-supari) are next distributed in a recognised order of precedence. The first presentation is made to the house god, the second to the family priest, and the third to the Brahman purohit. If a Pakanati Kapu is present, he must receive his share immediately after the Brahman, and before other Kapus, Kammas, and others. Before it is presented to each person, the leaves and nuts are touched by the bridegroom, and the hand of the bride is placed on them by the Bhogam woman. At a Panta Kapu wedding, the Ganga idol, together with a goat and a kavadi (bamboo pole with baskets of rice, cakes, betel leaves and areca nuts), is carried in procession to a pond or temple. The washerman, dressed up as a woman, heads the procession, and keeps on dancing and singing till the destination is reached. The idol is placed inside a rude triangular hut made of three sheaves of straw, and the articles brought in the baskets are spread before it. On the heap of rice small lumps of flour paste are placed, and these are made into lights by scooping out cavities, and feeding the wicks with ghi (clarified butter). One of the ears of the goat is then cut, and it is brought near the food. This done, the lights are extinguished, and the assembly returns home without the least noise. The washerman takes charge of the idol, and goes his way. If the wedding is spread over five days, the Ganga idol is removed on the fourth day, and the customary mock-ploughing ceremony performed on the fifth. The marriage ceremonies close with the removal of the threads from the wrists of the newly married couple. Among the Panta Reddis of the Tamil country, the Ganga idol is taken in procession by the washerman two or three days before the marriage, and he goes to every Reddi house, and receives a present of money. The idol is then set up in the verandah, and worshipped daily till the conclusion of the marriage ceremonies. "Among the Reddis of Tinnevelly," Dr. J. Shortt writes, "a young woman of sixteen or twenty years of age is frequently married to a boy of five or six years, or even of a more tender age. After marriage she, the wife, lives with some other man, a near relative on the maternal side, frequently an uncle, and sometimes with the boy-husband's own father. The progeny so begotten are affiliated on the boy-husband. When he comes of age, he finds his wife an old woman, and perhaps past child-bearing. So he, in his turn, contracts a liaison with some other boy's wife, and procreates children." The custom has doubtless been adopted in imitation of the Maravans, Kallans, Agamudaiyans, and other castes, among whom the Reddis have settled. In an account of the Ayodhya Reddis of Tinnevelly, Mr. Stuart writes that it is stated that "the tali is peculiar, consisting of a number of cotton threads besmeared with turmeric, without any gold ornament. They have a proverb that he who went forth to procure a tali and a cloth never returned." This proverb is based on the following legend. In days of yore a Reddi chief was about to be married, and he accordingly sent for a goldsmith, and, desiring him to make a splendid tali, gave him the price of it in advance. The smith was a drunkard, and neglected his work. The day for the celebration of the marriage arrived, but there was no tali. Whereupon the old chief, plucking a few threads from his garment, twisted them into a cord, and tied it round the neck of the bride, and this became a custom. [110]

In the Census Report, 1891, Mr. Stuart states that he was informed that polyandry of the fraternal type exists among the Panta Kapus, but the statement requires verification. I am unable to discover any trace of this custom, and it appears that Reddi Yanadis are employed by Panta Reddis as domestic servants. If a Reddi Yanadi's husband dies, abandons, or divorces his wife, she may marry his brother. And, in the case of separation or divorce, the two brothers will live on friendly terms with each other.

In the Indian Law Reports [111] it is noted that the custom of illatom, [112] or affiliation of a son-in-law, obtains among the Motati Kapus in Bellary and Kurnool, and the Pedda Kapus in Nellore. He who has at the time no son, although he may have more than one daughter, and whether or not he is hopeless of having male issue, may exercise the right of taking an illatom son-in-law. For the purposes of succession this son-in-law stands in the place of a son, and, in competition with natural-born sons, takes an equal share. [113]

According to the Kurnool Manual (1886), "the Pakanadus of Pattikonda and Ramallakota taluks allow a widow to take a second husband from among the caste-men. She can wear no signs of marriage, such as the tali, glass bangles, and the like, but she as well as her husband is allowed to associate with the other caste-men on equal terms. Their progeny inherit their father's property equally with children born in regular wedlock, but they generally intermarry with persons similarly circumstanced. Their marriage with the issue of a regularly married couple is, however, not prohibited. It is matter for regret that this privilege of remarrying is much abused, as among the Linga Balijas. Not unfrequently it extends to pregnant widows also, and so widows live in adultery with a caste-man without fear of excommunication, encouraged by the hope of getting herself united to him or some other caste-man in the event of pregnancy. In many cases, caste-men are hired for the purpose of going through the forms of marriage simply to relieve such widows from the penalty of excommunication from caste. The man so hired plays the part of husband for a few days, and then goes away in accordance with his secret contract." The abuse of widow marriage here referred to is said to be uncommon, though it is sometimes practiced among Kapus and other castes in out-of-the-way villages. It is further noted in the Kurnool Manual that Pedakanti Kapu women do not wear the tali, or a bodice (ravika) to cover their breasts. And the tight-fitting bodice is said [114] to be "far less universal in Anantapur than Bellary, and, among some castes (e.g., certain sub-divisions of the Kapus and Idigas), it is not worn after the first confinement."

In the disposal of their dead, the rites among the Kapus of the Telugu country are very similar to those of the Kammas and Balijas. The Panta Reddis of the Tamil country, however, follow the ceremonial in vogue among various Tamil castes. The news of a death in the community is conveyed by a Paraiyan Toti (sweeper). The dead man's son receives a measure containing a light from a barber, and goes three times round the corpse. At the burning-ground the barber, instead of the son, goes thrice round the corpse, carrying a pot containing water, and followed by the son, who makes holes therein. The stream of water which trickles out is sprinkled over the corpse. The barber then breaks the pot into very small fragments. If the fragments were large, water might collect in them, and be drunk by birds, which would bring sickness (pakshidhosham) on children, over whose heads they might pass. On the day after the funeral, a Panisavan or barber extinguishes the fire, and collects the ashes together. A washerman brings a basket containing various articles required for worship, and, after puja has been performed, a plant of Leucas aspera is placed on the ashes. The bones are collected in a new pot, and thrown into a river, or consigned by parcel-post to an agent at Benares, and thrown into the Ganges.

By religion the Kapus are both Vaishnavites and Saivites, and they worship a variety of deities, such as Thallamma, Nagarapamma, Putlamma, Ankamma, Muneswara, Poleramma, Desamma. To Muneswara and Desamma pongal (cooked rice) is offered, and buffaloes are sacrificed to Poleramma. Even Matangi, the goddess of the Madigas, is worshipped by some Kapus. At purificatory ceremonies a Madiga Basavi woman, called Matangi, is sent for, and cleanses the house or its inmates from pollution by sprinkling and spitting out toddy.

From an interesting note [115] on agricultural ceremonies in the Bellary district, the following extract is taken. "On the first full-moon day in the month of Bhadrapada (September), the agricultural population celebrate a feast called the Jokumara feast, to appease the rain-god. The Barikas (women), who are a sub-division of the Kabbera caste belonging to the Gaurimakkalu section, go round the town or village in which they live, with a basket on their heads containing margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, flowers of various kinds, and holy ashes. They beg alms, especially of the cultivating classes (Kapus), and, in return for the alms bestowed (usually grain and food), they give some of the margosa leaves, flowers, and ashes. The Kapus take these to their fields, prepare cholam (millet: Sorghum) gruel, mix them with it, and sprinkle the kanji or gruel all round their fields. After this, the Kapu proceeds to the potter's kiln, fetches ashes from it, and makes a figure of a human being. This figure is placed prominently in some convenient spot in the field, and is called Jokumara or rain-god. It is supposed to have the power of bringing down the rain in proper time. The figure is sometimes small, and sometimes big. A second kind of Jokumara worship is called muddam, or outlining of rude representations of human figures with powdered charcoal. These representations are made in the early morning, before the bustle of the day commences, on the ground at crossroads and along thoroughfares. The Barikas who draw these figures are paid a small remuneration in money or in kind. The figure represents Jokumara, who will bring down rain when insulted by people treading on him. Another kind of Jokumara worship also prevails in this district. When rain fails, the Kapu females model a figure of a naked human being of small size. They place this figure in an open mock palanquin, and go from door to door singing indecent songs, and collecting alms. They continue this procession for three or four days, and then abandon the figure in a field adjacent to the village. The Malas then take possession of this abandoned Jokumara, and in their turn go about singing indecent songs and collecting alms for three or four days, and then throw it away in some jungle. This form of Jokumara worship is also believed to bring down plenty of rain. There is another simple superstition among these Kapu females. When rain fails, the Kapu females catch hold of a frog, and tie it alive to a new winnowing fan made of bamboo. On this fan, leaving the frog visible, they spread a few margosa leaves, and go singing from door to door 'Lady frog must have her bath. Oh! rain-god, give a little water for her at least.' This means that the drought has reached such a stage that there is not even a drop of water for the frogs. When the Kapu woman sings this song, the woman of the house brings a little water in a vessel, pours it over the frog which is left on the fan outside the door, and gives some alms. The woman of the house is satisfied that such an action will soon bring down rain in torrents."

In the Kapu community, women play an important part, except in matters connected with agriculture. This is accounted for by a story to the effect that, when they came from Ayodhya, the Kapus brought no women with them, and sought the assistance of the gods in providing them with wives. They were told to marry women who were the illegitimate issue of Pandavas, and the women consented on the understanding that they were to be given the upper hand, and that menial service, such as husking paddy (rice), cleaning vessels, and carrying water, should be done for them. They accordingly employ Gollas and Gamallas, and, in the Tamil country, Pallis as domestic servants. Malas and Madigas freely enter Kapu houses for the purpose of husking paddy, but are not allowed into the kitchen, or room in which the household gods are worshipped.

In some Kapu houses, bundles of ears of paddy may be seen hung up as food for sparrows, which are held in esteem. The hopping of sparrows is said to resemble the gait of a person confined in fetters, and there is a legend that the Kapus were once in chains, and the sparrows set them at liberty, and took the bondage on themselves.

It has been noted [116] by Mr. C. K. Subbha Rao, of the Agricultural Department, that the Reddis and others, who migrated southward from the Telugu country, "occupy the major portion of the black cotton soil of the Tamil country. There is a strange affinity between the Telugu cultivators and black cotton soil; so much so that, if a census was taken of the owners of such soil in the Tamil districts of Coimbatore, Trichinopoly, Madura, and Tinnevelly, ninety per cent, would no doubt prove to be Vadugars (northerners), or the descendants of Telugu immigrants. So great is the attachment of the Vadugan to the black cotton soil that the Tamilians mock him by saying that, when god offered paradise to the Vadugan, the latter hesitated, and enquired whether there was black cotton soil there."

In a note on the Pongala or Pokanati and Panta Reddis of the Trichinopoly district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as follows. "Both speak Telugu, but they differ from each other in their customs, live in separate parts of the country, and will neither intermarry nor interdine. The Reddis will not eat on equal terms with any other Sudra caste, and will accept separate meals only from the vegetarian section of the Vellalas. They are generally cultivators, but they had formerly rather a bad reputation for crime, and it is said that some of them are receivers of stolen property. Like various other castes, they have beggars, called Bavani Nayakkans, attached to them, who beg from no other caste, and whose presence is necessary when they worship their caste goddess. The Chakkiliyans are also attached to them, and play a prominent part in the marriages of the Panta sub-division. Formerly, a Chakkiliyan was deputed to ascertain the status of the other party before the match was arranged, and his dreams were considered as omens of its desirability. He was also honoured at the marriage by being given the first betel and nuts. Nowadays he precedes the bridegroom's party with a basket of fruit, to announce its coming. A Chakkiliyan is also often deputed to accompany a woman on a journey. The caste goddess of the Reddis is Yellamma, whose temple is at Esanai in Perambalur, and she is reverenced by both Pantas and Pongalas. The latter observe rather gruesome rites, including the drinking of a kid's blood. The Pantas also worship Rengayiamman and Polayamman with peculiar ceremonies. The women are the principal worshippers, and, on one of the nights after Pongal, they unite to do reverence to these goddesses, a part of the ritual consisting in exposing their persons. With this may be compared the Sevvaipillayar rite celebrated in honour of Ganesa by Vellala woman (see Vellala). Both divisions of Reddis wear the sacred thread at funerals. Neither of them allow divorcées or widows to marry again. The women of the two divisions can be easily distinguished by their appearance. The Panta Reddis wear a characteristic gold ear-ornament called kammal, a flat nose-ring studded with inferior rubies, and a golden wire round the neck, on which both the tali and the pottu are tied. They are of fairer complexion than the Pongala women. The Panta women are allowed a great deal of freedom, which is usually ascribed to their dancing-girl origin, and are said to rule their husbands in a manner rare in other castes. They are often called devadiya (dancing-girl) Reddis, and it is said that, though the men of the caste receive hospitality from the Reddis of the north country, their women are not invited. Their chastity is said to be frail, and their lapses easily condoned by their husbands. The Pongalas are equally lax about their wives, but are said to rigorously expel girls or widows who misconduct themselves, and their seducers as well. However, the Panta men and women treat each other with a courtesy that is probably to be found in no other caste, rising and saluting each other, whatever their respective ages, whenever they meet. The purification ceremony for a house defiled by the unchastity of a maid or widow is rather an elaborate affair. Formerly a Kolakkaran (huntsman), a Tottiyan, a priest of the village goddess, a Chakkiliyan, and a Bavani Nayakkan had to be present. The Tottiyan is now sometimes dispensed with. The Kolakkaran and the Bavani Nayakkan burn some kamacchi grass (Andropogon Schoenanthus), and put the ashes in three pots of water. The Tottiyan then worships Pillayar (Ganesa) in the form of some turmeric, and pours the turmeric into the water. The members of the polluted household then sit in a circle, while the Chakkiliyan carries a black kid round the circle. He is pursued by the Bavani Nayakkan, and both together cut off the animal's head, and bury it. The guilty parties have then to tread on the place where the head is buried, and the turmeric and ash water is poured over them. This ceremony rather resembles the one performed by the Uralis. The Pantas are said to have no caste panchayats (council), whereas the Pongalas recognise the authority of officers called Kambalakkarans and Kottukkarans who uphold the discipline."

The following are some of the proverbs relating to the Kapus:--

The Kapu protects all.

The Kapu's difficulties are known only to god.

The Kapu dies from even the want of food.

The Kapu knows not the distinction between daughter and
daughter-in-law (i.e., both must work for him).

The Karnam (village accountant) is the cause of the Kapu's death.

The Kapu goes not to the fort (i.e., into the presence of the
Raja). A modern variant is that the Kapu goes not to the court
(of law).

While the Kapu was sluggishly ploughing, thieves stole the rope
collars.

The year the Kapu came in, the famine came too.

The Reddis are those who will break open the soil to fill their
bellies.

When the unpracticed Reddi got into a palanquin, it swung from
side to side.

The Reddi who had never mounted a horse sat with his face to
the tail.

The Reddi fed his dog like a horse, and barked himself.

Karadhi.--A name sometimes given to Mari Holeyas.

Karadi (bear).--An exogamous sept of Tottiyan.

Karaikkat.--Karaikkat, Karaikkatar, or Karkatta, meaning those who waited for rain, or, according to another version, those who saved or protected the clouds, is an endogamous division of Vellala. Some Tamil Malayalis, who claim to be Vellalas who emigrated to the hills from Conjeeveram, have, at times of census, returned themselves as Karaikkaat Vellalas.

Karaiturai (sea-coast) Vellala.--A name assumed by some Pattanavans.

Karaiyalan (ruler of the coast).--A title of Maravans, also taken by some Idaiyans.

Karaiyan.--A name for Tamil sea-fishermen, who live on the coast (karai). The fishing section of the Palles is known as Palle Kariyalu. See Pattanavan.

Karalan.--In the Census Report, 1891, the Karalans (rulers of clouds) are returned as a tribe of hunters and cultivators found in the hills of Salem and South Arcot. In the Report, 1901, Karalan is given as a synonym for Vellala in Malabar, and also as a name for Malayalis. At the census, 1901, many of the Malayalis of the Shevaroy hills in the Salem district returned themselves as Vellalas and Karalans. And the divisions returned by the Karalans, e.g., Kolli, Pacchai, Periya, and Perianan, connect them with these Malayalis (q.v.).

Karepaku.--Karepaku or Karuvepilai is a name for Koravas, who hawk for sale leaves of the curry-leaf plant (Murraya Koenigii). Karichcha.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Karimbarabannaya (sugar-cane sept).--An exogamous sept of Kelasi.

Karimpalan.--The Karimpalans are a small hunting and cultivating forest tribe in Malabar. They are "punam (shifting) cultivators, hewers of wood, and collectors of wild pepper, and are found in all the foot hills north of the Camel's Hump. They wear the kudumi (hair knot), and are said to follow the marumakkatayam system of inheritance in the female line, but they do not perform the tali kettu ceremony. They are supposed to have the power of exorcising the demon Karuvilli, possession by whom takes the form of fever." [117]

Kariya.--A sub-division of Kudubi.

Karkadabannaya (scorpion sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant.

Karkatta.--A synonym of Karaikattu Vellala.

Karna.--A sub-division of Golla, and an exogamous sept of Mala.

Karnabattu.--The Karnabattus, or Karnabhatus, are a Telugu weaving caste, found chiefly in the Godavari district. The story goes that there once lived a king, who ruled over a portion of the country now included in this district, and was worried by a couple of demons, who carried off some of his subjects for their daily food. The king prayed Siva for deliverance from them, and the god, being gratified at his devotion to him, produced nine persons from his ears, and ordered them to slay the demons. This they did, and their descendants are the Karnabhatus, or ear soldiers. By religion, the Karnabattus are either ordinary Saivites or Lingayats. When a girl reaches maturity, she remains under a pollution for sixteen days. Early marriage is the rule, and a Brahman officiates at weddings. The dead, as among other Lingayats, are buried in a sitting posture. The caste is organised in the same manner as the Sales, and, at each place, there is a headman called Kulampedda or Jatipedda, corresponding to the Senapatbi of the Sales. They weave coarse cloths, which are inferior in texture to those manufactured by Patta Sales and Silevantas.

In a note on the Karnabattus, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes that "though a low caste, they forbid the remarriage of widows. But the remark in the Census Report (1901) that they abstain from meat is not true of the Karnabattus questioned, who admitted that they would eat even pork. Their special deity is Somesvara, whom they unite to worship on the new-moon day of Pushyam (January-February). The god is represented by a mud idol made for the occasion. The pujari (priest) throws flowers over it in token of adoration, and sits before it with his hands outstretched and his mouth closed until one of the flowers falls into his hands."

The Karnabattus have no regular caste titles, but sometimes the elders add Ayya or Anna as a suffix to their name.

Karna Sale.--The Karna Sales are a caste of Telugu weavers, who are called Seniyans in the Tamil country, e.g., at Madura and Tanjore. They seem to have no tradition as to their origin, but the name Karna would seem to have its origin in the legend relating to the Karnabattus. These are, in the community, both Saivites and Vaishnavites, and all members of the Illabaththini sept are Vaishnavites. They are said to have only one gotra, Kasi (Benares), and numerous exogamous septs, of which the following are examples:--

Vasthrala, cloth.
Rudrakshala, seeds of Elæocarpus Ganitrus.
Mandha, village common or herd.
Kodavili, sickle.
Thadla, rope.
Thatichettu, palmyra palm.
Dhoddi, court-yard.
Thippa, rubbish-heap.

In some places, the office of headman, who is called Setti, is hereditary. He is assisted by a Pedda Kapu, and Nela Setti, of whom the latter is selected monthly, and derives his name from the Telugu nela (month). In their marriage ceremonial, the Karna Sales closely follow the Padma Sales, but they have no upanayanam (sacred thread rite), or Kasiyathre (mock pilgrimage to Benares), have twelve pots brought for worship, and no pot-searching.

As among other Telugu castes, when a girl reaches puberty, twigs of Strychnos Nux-vomica are placed in the special hut erected for the occasion. On the third or fifth day, the girl's relations come to her house under a cloth canopy (ulladam), carrying rice soaked in jaggery (crude sugar) water. This rice is called dhadibiyam (wet rice), and is placed in a heap, and, after the waving of coloured water, distributed, with pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts), among those present.

The dead are carried to the burial-ground in a car, and buried, after the manner of Lingayats, in a sitting posture. Jangams officiate at funerals.

The caste deity is Somesvara. Some Karna Sales wear the lingam, but are not particular about keeping it on their person, leaving it in the house, and wearing it when at meals, and on important occasions. Concerning the Lingayat section of the community, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, as follows. [118] "The Lingayats resemble the Linga Balijas in all their customs, in all respects, except that they recognise sutakam, or pollution, and bathe to remove it. They freely eat in the houses of all Linga Balijas, but the latter will not eat with them. They entirely disregard the spiritual authority of the Brahmans, recognising priests among the Linga Balijas, Jangams, or Pandarams. In the exercise of their trade, they are distinguished from the Kaikolans in that they sometimes weave in silk, which the Kaikolans never do." Like the Padma Sales, the Karna Sales usually only weave coarse cotton cloths.

Karnam.--See Korono.

Karnam (accountant).--An exogamous sept of Kamma.

Karnataka.--The territorial name of a sub-division of Handichikka and Uppara. It is also the name of a sub-division of Madhva and Smarta Brahmans who speak the Kanarese language, as opposed to the Desastha Brahmans, who are immigrants into Southern India from the Maratha country.

Karo Panikkar.--A class of temple servants in Malabar. "The Karo Panikkar is said to be descended from the union of Vettakorumagan (the God of hunting) and a Kiriyattil Nayar woman. His occupation is to act as Vellichapad or oracle in temples dedicated to his divine ancestor." [119]

Karpura Chetti.--A synonym of Uppiliyans, who used to manufacture camphor (karpura).

Karta.--Karta and Kartavu, meaning agent or doer, is an honorific title of Nayars and Samantas. It is also the name for the chief mourner at funerals of Nayars and other castes on the west coast. Kartakkal, denoting, it is said, governors, has been returned, at times of census by Balijas claiming to be descendants of the Nayak kings of Madura and Tanjore.

Karukku-pattayar (those of the sharp sword).--A sub-division of Shanan. In the Census Report, 1891, the division Karukku-mattai (petiole of the palmyra leaf with serrated edges) was returned. Some Shanans are said to have assumed the name of Karukku-mattai Vellalas.

Karumala (black mountain).--An exogamous sept of Kanikar.

Karuman.--A sub-division of Kammalans, who do blacksmith's work.

Karumpuraththal.--A synonym for the caste name adopted by some Kappiliyans.

Karumpurattan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the term Karumpurattan is said to be a corruption of Karu-aruttar, which means the Annihilators, and to have been given to the caste because they are the descendants of a garrison of Chola Vellalas, who treacherously allowed an enemy to enter the Tanjore fort, and annihilate the Raja and his family. Winslow, however, says [120] that Karumpuram is a palmyra tree. [121] and Karumpurattan may thus mean a palmyra man, that is, a toddy-drawer. In the enumeration schedules, the name was often written Karumpuran. If this etymology is correct, this caste must originally have been Shanans or Iluvans. It is said to have come from the village of Tiruvadamarudur in Tanjore, and settled in the north-eastern part of Madura. The caste has seven sub-castes, called after seven nadus or villages in Madura, in which it originally settled. In its ceremonies, etc., it closely follows the Ilamagams. Its title is Pillai."

Karutta (dark-coloured).--Recorded, at the Madras census, 1891, as a sub-division of Idaiyans, who have also returned Karuttakkadu, meaning black cotton soil or regur.

Karuva Haddi.--A name for the scavenging section of Haddis.

Karuvan.--A corrupt form of Karuman.

Karuvelam.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Kasayi (butcher).--A Muhammadan occupational name.

Kasi (Benares).--A gotra of Medara and Karna Sale.

Kasi.--A name for the stone-mason section of Kamsalas.

Kasturi (musk).--An exogamous sept of Badaga, Kamma, Okkiliyan, and Vakkaliga. Indian musk is obtained from the musk glands of the Himalayan musk-deer, Moschus moschiferus.

Kasuba (workmen).--A section of Irulas of the Nilgiris, who have abandoned jungle life in favour of working on planters' estates or elsewhere.

Kasukkar.--The name, derived from kas, cash, of a sub-division of Chetti.

Kasula (copper coins).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sale.

Kasyapa.--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Bhatrazus, Khatris, and Tontis. Kasyapa was one of the seven important Rishis, and the priest of Parasu Rama.

Katakam (crab).--An exogamous sept of Komati.

Katal Arayan.--See Valan.

Katari (dagger: katar).--An exogamous sept of Golla, Mutracha, and Yerukala. The dagger or poignard, called katar, has "a solid blade of diamond section, the handle of which consists of two parallel bars with a cross-piece joining them. The hand grips the crosspiece, and the bars pass along each side of the wrist." [122]

Katasan.--Recorded [123] as "a small caste of basket-makers and lime-burners in the Tinnevelly district. It has at least two endogamous sub-divisions, namely, Pattankatti and Nittarasan. Widows are allowed to remarry. The dead are buried. The social position of the caste is above that of the Vettuvans, and they consider themselves polluted if they eat food prepared by a Shanan. But they are not allowed to enter Hindu temples, they worship devils, and they have separate washermen and barbers of their own, all of which are signs of inferiority. Their title is Pattamkatti, and Kottan is also used."

Kaththavaraya.--A synonym for Vannan, derived from Kaththavaraya, the deified son of Kali, from whom the Vannans trace their descent.

Kaththe (donkey).--An exogamous sept of Madiga.

Kaththi (knife).--An exogamous sept of Devanga and Madiga.

Kaththiri (scissors).--An exogamous sept of Devanga, and sub-division of Gadaba.

Kaththiravandlu (scissors people).--Concerning this section of the criminal classes, Mr. F. S. Mullaly writes to me as follows. "This is purely a Nellore name for this class of professional pick-pockets. The appellation seems to have been given to them from the fact that they frequent fairs and festivals, and busy railway platforms, offering knives and scissors for sale. And, when an opportunity presents itself, they are used for cutting strings of beads, ripping open bags, etc. Several of these light-fingered gentry have been found with small scissors in their mouths. Most of them wear shoes of a peculiar shape, and these form a convenient receptacle for the scissors. Bits of broken glass (to act as knives) are frequently found in their mouths. In different districts they are known by different appellations, such as Donga Dasaris in North Arcot and parts of Cuddapah; Golla Woddars, Donga Woddars, and Muheri Kalas in Cuddapah, Bellary, and Kurnool; Pachupus in Kistna and Godavari; Alagiris, Ena or Thogamalai Koravas in the southern districts. Individuals belonging to this class of thieves have been traced, since the opening of the East Coast Railway, as far as Midnapore. An important way of identifying them is the fact that everyone of them, male and female, is branded at the corners of the eyebrows and between the eyes in childhood, as a safeguard against convulsions."

For the following additional information I am indebted to an official of the Police department. "I am not aware of these people using any particular shoes. They use sandals such as are generally worn by ryots and the lower classes. These they get by stealing. They pick them up from houses during the daytime, when they go from house to house on the pretence of begging, or they steal them at nights along with other property. These sandals are made in different fashions in different districts, and so those possessed by Kathiras are generally of different kinds, being stolen from various parts of the country. They have no shoes of any peculiar make, nor do they get any made at all. Kathiras do not generally wear any shoes. They walk and run faster with bare feet. They wear shoes when walking through the jungle, and entrust them to one of their comrades when walking through the open country. They sometimes throw them off when closely pursued, and run away. In 1899, when we arrested one on the highroad, he had with him five or six pairs of shoes of different kinds and sizes, and he did not account satisfactorily for being in possession of so many. I subsequently learnt that some supernumeraries were hiding in the jungle close to the place where he was arrested.

"About marks of branding on the face, it is not only Kathiras, but almost all nomadic tribes who have these marks. As the gangs move on exposed to changes of weather, the children sometimes get a disease called sandukatlu or palakurkura. They generally get this disease from the latter part of the first year up to the fifth year. The symptoms are similar to those which children sometimes have at the time of teething. It is when children get this disease that they are branded on the face between the eyebrows, on the outer corners of the eyes, and sometimes on the belly. The brand-marks on the face and corners of the eyes are circular, and those on the belly generally horizontal. The circular brand-marks are made with a long piece of turmeric, one end of which is burnt for the purpose, or with an indigo-coloured cloth rolled like a pencil and burnt at one end. The horizontal marks are made with a hot needle. Similar brand-marks are made by some caste Hindus on their children."

To Mr. P. B. Thomas I am indebted for specimens of the chaplet, made of strips of rolled pith, worn by Kaththira women when begging, and of the cotton bags, full of false pockets, regularly carried by both men and women, in which they secrete the little sharp knife and other articles constituting their usual equipment.

In his "History of Railway thieves," Mr. M. Paupa Rao Naidu, writing about the pick-pockets or Thetakars, says that "most of them wear shoes called chadavs, and, if the articles stolen are very small, they put them at once into their shoes, which form very convenient receptacles from their peculiar shape; and, therefore, when a pick-pocket with such a shoe on is suspected of having stolen a jewel, the shoes must be searched first, then the mouth and the other parts of the body."

Kaththula (sword).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi.

Katige (collyrium).--A gotra of Kurni.

Katikala (collyrium).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Katike.--The Katike or Katikilu are butchers in the Telugu country, concerning whom it is noted, in the Kurnool Manual, that "some are called Sultani butchers, or Hindus forcibly circumcised by the late Nabob of Kurnool. They observe both Mussalman and Hindu customs." A correspondent in the Kurnool district informs me that the butchers of Kurnool belong to three classes, one selling beef, and the others mutton. Of these, the first are Muhammadans, and are called Gayi Khasayi, as they deal in beef. The other two are called respectively Sultanis and Surasus, i.e., the circumcised and uncircumcised. Both claim to be the descendants of two brothers, and have the following tradition concerning their origin. Tipu Sultan is said not to have relished the idea of taking mutton at the hands of Hindus, as they would not perform Bismallah at the time of slaughtering the sheep. He accordingly ordered both the brothers to appear before him. Being the manager of the family, the elder went, and was forcibly circumcised. On hearing the news, the younger brother absconded. The descendants of the former are Muhammadans, and of the latter Hindus. As he was made a Muhammadan by force, the elder brother and his descendants did not adopt all the Muhammadan manners and customs. Till recently they did not even allow their beards to grow. At the present day, they go to mosques, dress like Muhammadans, shave their heads, and grow beards, but do not intermarry with the true Muhammadans. The descendants of the younger brother still call themselves Ari-katikelu, or Maratha butchers, profess the Hindu religion, and follow Hindu manners and customs. Though they do not eat with Muhammadans or Sultanis, their Hindu brethren shun them because of their profession, and their intimacy with Sultanis. I am informed that, at Nandyal in the Kurnool district, some Maratha butchers, who observe purely Hindu customs, are called by Muhammadan names. The Tahsildar of the Sirvel taluk in the same district states that, prior to the reign of the father of Ghulam Rasul Khan, the dethroned Nawab of Kurnool, the butcher's profession was solely in the hands of the Marathas, some of whom were, as stated in the Manual, forcibly circumcised, and became a separate butcher caste, called Sultani. There are two sections among these Sultani butchers, viz., Bakra (mutton) and Gai Kasai (beef butcher). Similar stories of forcible conversion to the Muhammadan religion are prevalent in the Bellary district, where the Kasayis are mostly converted Hindus, who dress in the Hindu style, but possess Muhammadan names with Hindu terminations, e.g., Hussainappa.

In connection with butchers, I may quote the following extract from a petition to the Governor of Madras on the subject of a strike among the Madras butchers in 1907. "We, the residents of Madras, beg respectfully to bring to your Excellency's notice the inconvenience and hardship we are suffering owing to the strike of the butchers in the city. The total failure of the supply of mutton, which is an important item in the diet of non-Brahmin Hindus, Muhammadans, Indian Christians, Parsis, Eurasians and Europeans, causes a deprivation not merely of something to which people have become accustomed, but of an article of food by which the health of many is sustained, and the want of which is calculated to impair their health, and expose them to diseases, against which they have hitherto successfully contended."

Katorauto.--A name for the offspring of maid servants in the harems of Oriya Zamindars, who are said to claim to be Kshatriyas.

Katta.--Katta or Katte, meaning a bund, dam, or embankment, has been recorded as an exogamous sept or gotra of Devanga and Kurni.

Kattelu (sticks or faggots).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Kattira.--A sub-division of Gadaba.

Kattu.--See Kadu.

Kattukudugirajati.--The name, meaning the caste which allows living together after marriage of an informal kind, recorded [124] as the caste name of Turuvalars (Vedars) of Salem, derived from a custom among them, which authorises temporary matrimonial arrangements.

Kattu Kapari (dweller in the forest).--Said to be a name for Irulas or Villiyans. The equivalent Kattu Kapu is, in like manner, said to be a name for Jogis.

Kattu Marathi.--A synonym of Kuruvikaran.

Kaudikiaru.--Kaudikiaru or Gaudikiaru is a title of Kurubas.

Kavadi.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Kabadi is returned as the name of a class of Telugu wood-cutters. Kavadi is the name of a division of Koravas, who carry offerings to Perumalswami at Tirupati on a pole (kavadi). Kavadi or Kavadiga is further the name given to Kannadiyan curd-sellers in Madras, who carry the curds in pots as head-loads.

Kavalgar (watchman).--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Ambalakaran, and title of Nattaman, Malaiman, and Sudarman. The equivalent Kavali is recorded as a sub-division of the Kammas. The Kavalis, or watchers, in the Telugu country, are said to be generally Lingayat Boyas. [125] The Telugu Mutrachas are also called Kavalgar. The village kaval system in the southern districts is discussed in the note on Maravans.

Kavandan.--At the census, 1901, more than nine thousand people returned themselves as Kavandan or Kaundan, which is a title of Konga Vellalas, and many other castes, such as Anappan, Kappiliyan, Palli, Sembadavan, Urali, and Vettuvan. The name corresponds to the Canarese Gauda or Gaunda.

Kaundinya (a sage).--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Razus and Bhatrazus.

Kavane (sling).--An exogamous sept of Gangadikara Holeyas.

Kavarai.--Kavarai is the name for Balijas (Telugu trading caste), who have settled in the Tamil country. The name is said to be a corrupt form of Kauravar or Gauravar, descendants of Kuroo of the Mahabaratha, or to be the equivalent of Gauravalu, sons of Gauri, the wife of Siva. Other suggested derivatives are: (a) a corrupt form of the Sanskrit Kvaryku, badness or reproach, and Arya, i.e., deteriorated Aryans; (b) Sanskrit Kavara, mixed, or Kavaraha, a braid of hair, i.e., a mixed class, as many of the Telugu professional prostitutes belong to this caste; (c) Kavarai or Gavaras, buyers or dealers in cattle.

The Kavarais call themselves Balijas, and derive the name from bali, fire, jaha sprung, i.e., men sprung from fire. Like other Telugu castes, they have exogamous septs, e.g., tupaki (gun), jetti (wrestler), pagadala (coral), bandi (cart), simaneli, etc.

The Kavarais of Srivilliputtur, in the Tinnevelly district, are believed to be the descendants of a few families, which emigrated thither from Manjakuppam (Cuddalore) along with one Dora Krishnamma Nayudu. About the time of Tirumal Nayak, one Ramaswami Raju, who had five sons, of whom the youngest was Dora Krishnamma, was reigning near Manjakuppam. Dora Krishnamma, who was of wandering habits, having received some money from his mother, went to Trichinopoly, and, when he was seated in the main bazar, an elephant rushed into the street. The beast was stopped in its career, and tamed by Dora Krishnamma, to escort whom to his palace Vijayaranga Chokkappa sent his retinue and ministers. While they were engaged in conversation, news arrived that some chiefs in the Tinnevelly district refused to pay their taxes, and Dora Krishnamma volunteered to go and subdue them. Near Srivilliputtur he passed a ruined temple dedicated to Krishna, which he thought of rebuilding if he should succeed in subduing the chiefs. When he reached Tinnevelly, they, without raising any objection, paid their dues, and Dora Krishnamma returned to Srivilliputtur, and settled there.

Their marriage ceremonies are based on the type common to many Telugu castes, but those who belong to the Simaneli sept, and believe themselves to be direct descendants of Krishnamma, have two special forms of ceremonial, viz., Krishnamma perantalu, and the carrying of pots (gurigelu) on the heads of the bride and bridegroom when they go to the temple before the Kasiyatra ceremony. The Krishnamma perantalu is performed on the day prior to the muhurtam (tali-tying), and consists in the worship of the soul of Krishnamma, a married woman. A new cloth is purchased and presented to a married woman, together with money, betel, etc., and she is fed before the rest. It is practically a form of sradh ceremony, and all the formalities of the sradh, except the homam (sacred fire) and repeating of mantras from the Vedas, are gone through. This is very commonly observed by Brahmans, and a few castes which engage a Brahman priest for their ceremonies. The main idea is the propitiation of the soul of the dead married woman. If such a woman dies in a family, every ceremony of an auspicious nature must be preceded by sumangaliprarthana, or worship of this married woman (sumangali). Orthodox females think that, if the ceremony is not performed, she will do them some harm. Another custom, now dying out, is the tying of a dagger to the waist of the bridegroom.

In the Madura district, the Kavarais are described [126] as being "most commonly manufacturers and sellers of bangles made of a particular kind of earth, found only in one or two parts of the district. Those engaged in this traffic usually call themselves Chettis or merchants. When otherwise employed as spinners, dyers, painters, and the like, they take the title of Nayakkan. It is customary with these, as with other Nayakkans, to wear the sacred thread: but the descendants of the Nayakkan kings, who are now living at Vellei-kuricchi, do not conform to this usage, on the ground that they are at present in a state of impurity and degradation, and consequently ought not to wear the sacred emblem."

The bulk of the Kavarais in Tanjore are said [127] "to bear the title Nayak. Some that are engaged in trade, more especially those who sell glass bangles, are called Settis, and those who originally settled in agriculture are called Reddis. The title of Nayak, like Pillai, Mudali, and Setti, is generally sought after. As a rule, men of the Palli or cooly class, when they enter the Government service, and shepherds, when they grow rich in trade or otherwise, assume this title, wear the namam (the trident mark on the forehead emblematic of the Vaishnava persuasion), and call themselves Kavarais or Vadugars, though they cannot speak Telugu, much less point to any part of the Telugu country as the seat of their forefathers."

One of the largest sub-divisions of the Kavarais is Valaiyal, the Tamil equivalent of Gazula, both words meaning a glass or lac bangle. [128]

Kavuthiyan.--The Kavuthiyans are described as follows in the Gazetteer of Malabar. "They are barbers who serve the Tiyans and lower castes; they are also sometimes given the title Kurup. Their females act as midwives. There seem to be several sections, distinguished by the affix of the name of the castes which they serve, as for instance Tacchakavuthiyan or Tacchakurup, and Kanisakavuthiyan, appropriated to the service of the Asaris and Kanisans respectively; while the barbers who serve the Izhuvans are known both as Aduttons, Vattis, or Izhuva Kavuthiyans. But whether all these should be regarded as offshoots of one main barber caste, or as degraded sections of the castes which they serve, the Kavuthiyans proper being only barbers to the Tiyans, it is difficult to determine. The fact that the Naviyan or Kavuthiyan section of the Veluttedans, as well as the Kavuthiyan section of the Mukkuvans, are admittedly but degraded sections of these castes, makes the second the more probable view. It is also to be noticed that the Kavuthiyans, in the north at least, follow marumakkattayam (inheritance in the female line), while the Taccha and Kanisa Kavuthiyans follow the other principle of descent."