Chapter VIII: Celtic Art of the Christian Period (1)

THE LEADING CHARACTERISTICS OF CELTIC ART OF THE
CHRISTIAN PERIOD IN GREAT BRITAIN, AND THE GENERAL
NATURE OF ITS DECORATIVE AND SYMBOLIC ELEMENTS

The leading characteristics of Celtic art of the Christian period are as follows:—

(1) The prominence given to the margin or frame within which the
whole design is enclosed.
(2) The arrangement of the design within the margin in panels, each
containing a complete piece of ornament.
(3) The use of setting-out lines for the ornament, placed diagonally
with regard to the margin.
(4) The use of interlaced-work, step-patterns, key-patterns,
spirals, and zoömorphs in combination.
(5) The geometrical perfection of all the ornament.
(6) The superiority of the decorative designs to the figure drawing.

There are in the world two distinct schools of decorative art, one which entirely ignores the shape of the surface to be ornamented, and the other which allows the contour of the margin to influence the whole design. Japanese art belongs to the first of these, and Celtic art to the second. In the Irish illuminated MSS. the rectangular shape of the page determines the setting-out of the design, which is universally enclosed within a rectangular margin composed of lines of various thicknesses, or within an ornamental panelled frame. The only exception is in the case of the initial pages of the Four Gospels, where the margin is incomplete, so as to allow the extremities of the letters to project more nearly to the edge of the page. This prominence given to the margin often greatly influences the designs within it, more especially the key-patterns with diagonal setting-out lines. In sculptured stonework either roll-mouldings or flat bands form the margin, and in metalwork the margins are raised and the panels sunk.

The panels within the margin are generally rectangular, but sometimes they are circular, annular, segmental, triangular, etc. The ornament in adjoining panels is seldom of a similar kind, and the patterns are often arranged on the principle of chequerwork, so that if there is a panel of interlaced-work at the left-hand upper corner of the page of a MS., and a panel of key-pattern at the left-hand lower corner, the order will be reversed on the opposite side of the page, and the key-pattern will be at the right-hand upper corner and the interlaced-work at the right-hand lower corner.

The diagonal setting-out lines are chiefly confined to the key-patterns, and, as we shall see subsequently, are the origin of the peculiar form of Celtic key-pattern which was developed from the Greek fret.

The various motives that have been specified—namely, interlaced-work, step-patterns, key-patterns, spirals, and zoömorphs—are not always found in combination, except in the MSS., sculptured stones, and metalwork of the best period. The step-patterns are, as a rule, only found in the early MSS. and on the enamelled settings of metalwork. Foliage is a distinctly non-Celtic element, and wherever it occurs it is a proof of Anglian influence from Northumbria. As the decadence of Celtic art set in the spirals disappeared first, and then the key-patterns, leaving only interlaced-work and zoömorphs, which survived even after the Norman conquest. Key-patterns survived in a debased form in the architectural details of the churches of the twelfth century in Ireland, but not in Scotland or Wales.

By the geometrical perfection of the Celtic ornament is meant that there are hardly ever any mistakes in the setting-out and complete execution of the designs. Thus in the interlaced-work every cord laps under and over with unfailing regularity (never over two or under two), and all the cords are joined up so as not to leave any loose ends. All the details of the spiralwork are executed with the minutest care, and there is never a broken line or pseudo-spiral. In the zoömorphic designs the beasts are all provided with the proper number of limbs and are complete in every respect down to the smallest detail.

The inferiority of the figure drawing in Christian Celtic art to the ornament will be dealt with subsequently in its proper place.

We will now proceed to examine in detail the different motives made use of in the Celtic art of the Christian period in Great Britain.

INTERLACED-WORK

The interlaced ornament used in Celtic art may be divided into the following classes:—

(1) Regular plaitwork, without any breaks.
(2) Broken plaitwork, with breaks made in an irregular way.
(3) Knotwork.
(4) Circular knotwork.
(5) Triangular knotwork.
(6) Ringwork or chainwork.

Interlaced-work is the predominant motive of the Celtic style of the Christian period. It lasted longer in time than any other motive, and its geographical distribution extends over a larger area. It is very seldom that one motive is used by itself for the decoration of a stone monument, metal object, or page of a MS.; but where this is the case the motive chosen is invariably interlaced-work, and not a key-pattern, spiral, or zoömorph. As instances of sculptured monuments decorated entirely with interlaced-work we have the cross at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire, and the cross-shaft at St. Neot, Cornwall.

The evolution of knotwork from plaitwork cannot better be studied anywhere than in the decoration of the Welsh crosses. Let us now endeavour to trace the various stages in the process by which the higher forms of Celtic interlaced-work were arrived at.

In Egyptian, Greek, and Roman decorative art the only kind of interlaced-work is the plait, without any modification whatever; and the man who discovered how to devise new patterns from a simple plait by making what I term _breaks_ laid the foundation of all the wonderfully complicated and truly bewildering forms of interlaced ornament found in such a masterpiece of the art of illumination as the Book of Kells in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. Although we do not know _who_ made this discovery of how to make breaks in a plait, we know pretty nearly _when_ it was made. In the decoration of the mosaic pavements in Great Britain belonging to the period of the Roman occupation, no instance, as far as I can ascertain, exists of the introduction of a break in a plait; nor is there any break in the plaitwork on the marble screen and the capitals of the columns of the ciborium in the Church of San Clemente at Rome (which are dated by R. Cattaneo[446] between A.D. 514 and 523). In the eighth century, however, there are several examples with well-authenticated dates of the use of true knotwork (as distinguished from plaitwork) in the decoration of churches in Italy; namely, on the ciborium of San Giorgio at Valpolicella[447] (A.D. 712); on the Baptistery of Calistus at Cividale[448] (A.D. 737); and on the jambs of the doorway of the Chapel of San Zeno in the Church of San Prassede at Rome[449] (A.D. 772-795).

[446] _L’Architettura in Italia_, pp. 29 and 31.

[447] _Ibid._, p. 80.

[448] _Ibid._, p. 87.

[449] _Archæologia_, vol. xl., p. 191.

It would appear, then, that the transition from plaitwork to knotwork took place between the Lombard conquest of Italy under Alboin in A.D. 563, and the extinction of the Lombard monarchy by Charlemagne in A.D. 774; possibly during the reigns of Luitprand (A.D. 712-736) and Rachis (A.D. 744): for the name of the former king is mentioned in the inscriptions on the Baptistery at Cividale and the ciborium of San Giorgio at Valpolicella, and the latter on the altar at Cividale.

I now propose to explain how plaitwork is set out, and the method of making breaks in it. When it is required to fill in a rectangular panel with a plait the four sides of the panel are divided up into equal parts (except at the ends, where half a division is left), and the points thus found are joined, so as to form a network of diagonal lines. The plait is then drawn over these lines, in the manner shown on the accompanying diagram. The setting-out lines ought really to be double so as to define the width of the band composing the plait, but they are drawn single on the diagram in order to simplify the explanation.

If now we desire to make a break in the plait any two of the cords are cut asunder at the point where they cross each other, leaving four loose ends A, B, C, D. To make a break the loose ends are joined together in pairs. This can be done in two ways only: (1) A can be joined to C and D to B, forming a vertical break; or (2) A can be joined to D and C to B, forming a horizontal break. The decorative effect of the plait is thus entirely altered by running two of the meshes between the cords into one. By continuing the process all the knots most commonly used in Celtic decorative art may be derived from a simple plait.

[450] This occurs on the second panel of the cross at Llanbadarn Fawr.

Let us proceed to trace the process of the evolution of knotwork out of plaitwork by actual instances taken from the Welsh crosses. We have, to start with, good examples of plaits of four, six, and ten cords[451] without any breaks at Nevern, Pembrokeshire; and Llantwit Major, and Margam, Glamorganshire. Next, plaits with a single break only are to be seen at Carew, Pembrokeshire, and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire; then plaits with several breaks, made quite regardless of symmetry or order, at Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire; and, lastly, breaks made at regular intervals, at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. When the breaks are made symmetrically at regular intervals, and brought sufficiently near together, the plait ceases to be the most prominent feature in the design, and in its place we get a pattern composed entirely of what (for want of a better name) are called knots. On some of the Welsh crosses (as at Carew and Nevern, Pembrokeshire), however, the breaks are made with sufficient regularity and proximity to produce knots, and yet the knots themselves are not symmetrically placed. The result is a class of interlaced-work, intermediate between plaitwork with irregular breaks and knotwork. The same kind of thing is to be seen on the crosses at Coppleston, Devonshire; and St. Neot, Cornwall.

[451] Plaits of an uneven number of cords are seldom used, because they produce lopsided patterns.

Scale ¹/₁₆ linear]

Scale ¹/₁₂ linear]

(Occurring at Llanbadarn Fawr)]

(Occurring at St. Neuadd Siarman)]

If two horizontal breaks and two vertical breaks are made next to each other in a plait, a space in the shape of a cross is produced. A large number of the interlaced patterns used in Celtic decorative art are derived from a plait by making cruciform breaks at regular intervals. There are examples of this in Wales, at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire; Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardiganshire; and Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire. It is not unlikely that symbolism had something to do with the frequent use of the cruciform break.

There are eight elementary knots which form the basis of nearly all the interlaced patterns in Celtic decorative art, with the exception of those already described. Two of the elementary knots are derived from a three-cord plait, and the remaining six from a four-cord plait.

=Knot No. 1= is derived from a three-cord plait by making horizontal breaks on one side of the plait only, and =No. 2= by making horizontal breaks alternately on one side and the other.

=Knot No. 3= is derived from a four-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the middle of the plait.

=Knot No. 4= is derived from No. 3 by making a horizontal break at A; and =No. 5= from No. 4 by making a vertical break at B and C.

=Knot No. 6= is derived from a four-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the middle of the plait, in the same way as in the case of knot No. 3, but closer together.

=Knot No. 7= is derived from No. 6 by making a vertical break at B; and =No. 8= from No. 6 by making vertical breaks at B and C.

If a series of knots repeated in a single row can be derived from a plait of _n_ bands, a series of the same knots repeated in a double row can be derived from a plait of _2n_ bands. Thus a pattern composed of knot No. 1 arranged in a double row would be derived from a plait of six cords.

Knots like Nos. 3 and 4, which are longer than they are broad, can be placed either horizontally or vertically. Thus No. 3 placed with its longer axis vertical can be derived from a four-cord plait, but if placed horizontally it would be derived from a six-cord plait.

Knot No. 2 does not occur on the Welsh crosses, and No. 1 only in a double row, as at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. This pattern is derived from a six-cord plait by making horizontal breaks in the two edges of the plait, and vertical breaks in the middle, the stages being shown on the annexed diagram.

Knot No. 3, in a single row placed with its longer axis vertical, occurs at Llandough, Glamorganshire, and, in a single row placed the other way, at Margam, Glamorganshire.

Examples of the two knots, Nos. 4 and 5, which are derived from No. 3, are to be seen at Baglan, Glamorganshire, and Penally, Pembrokeshire.

Knot No. 6, in a single row, occurs at Llantwit Major, Glamorganshire, and its second derivative, No. 8, at Llantwit Major, and also at Neuadd Siarman, Brecknockshire. Its first derivative, No. 7, is only used in a double row on the Welsh crosses, as at Silian and Maes Mynach, Cardiganshire, and at Penally, Pembrokeshire, where the knots have an extra spiral twist. The direction of the twist of the spirally bent cord is the same in both the right-hand and left-hand vertical row of knots, although the positions of the knots are different. The more usual arrangement is to make the cords twist in opposite directions, as on the annexed diagram, in which the evolution of the pattern is shown. (Page 271.)

The clearest proof that the spiral knot No. 7 was developed from plaitwork in the manner explained is that on stones at Llangenydd, Glamorganshire; Whithorn, Wigtownshire; Abercorn, Linlithgowshire; and Aycliffe, Co. Durham; the successive stages of development can be easily traced.

I have coined the term _circular knotwork_ to describe a particular class of interlaced-work, in which the circular curves made by the cords give the pattern its distinctive appearance. The best example of circular knotwork in any of the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. occurs on one of the ornamental cross-pages of the Book of Durrow.[452] Circular knotwork is not used in the decoration of the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork, probably because it is only suitable for application to larger surfaces than are to be found on comparatively small metal objects. Circular knotwork is characteristic of the Irish and Scottish sculptured monuments of the best period; it is unknown in Cornwall and the Isle of Man and there is only one instance of its occurrence in Wales. Very good examples of circular knotwork may be seen on sculptured monuments in Ireland[453] at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice and Termonfechin, Co. Louth; Boho, Co. Fermanagh; Kilfenora, Co. Clare; and Drumcliff, Co. Sligo; and in Scotland[454] at Collieburn, Sutherland (now in the Dunrobin Museum); Tarbet (now at Invergordon Castle), Brodie, Elginshire; Nigg, Ross-shire; Aberlemno, Monifieth (now in the Edinburgh Museum), and Eassie, Forfarshire; and Rossie Priory and St. Madoes, Perthshire.

[452] J. R. Allen and J. Anderson’s _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_, p. lxxviii.; J. A. Bruun’s _Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages_, pt. I, “Celtic MSS.,” p. 8.

[453] H. O’Neill’s _Crosses of Ancient Ireland_.

[454] Allen and Anderson’s _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_.

The most common kinds of circular knotwork appear to have been evolved in the following manner. It has already been shown how knot No. 3 can be derived from a four-cord plait by making a series of horizontal breaks at regular intervals, leaving two crossing-points of the cords between each break; and how knot No. 4 can again be derived from knot No. 3 by making a horizontal break at the point A.

Now if a pair of knots like No. 4 be placed opposite each other thus—

and repeated in a vertical row, we get the pattern shown below.

By making pointed ends to the loops forming the knots and “sweetening” the curves of the bands between each knot the appearance of the whole is changed, and its development from the plait disguised. Almost all geometrical ornament is capable of conveying several different impressions to the mind according to the way it is observed by the eye for the time being, and the intellectual pleasure which a pattern gives is most probably dependent on the infinite variety of these kaleidoscopic changes. Taking this pattern for example, if the attention is concentrated upon the portions of the pattern between each of the points where the bands cross in the centre, it will seem as if the whole was formed of repetitions of knot No. 4; but if the attention be now directed towards the portions lying between the middle points of each of the knots, the pattern will appear to consist entirely of circular curves with two diameters crossing each other diagonally.

_Photograph supplied by the Rev. J. M. Joass, LL.D., Honorary Curator_]

When the circular knot thus obtained is repeated in a double row we get a comparatively simple pattern, in which the circular curves assume much greater prominence.

More complicated forms of circular knots can be derived from the elementary circular knot by combining it with a circular ring, either a larger one enclosing the four loops in the middle entirely, or a smaller one interlaced through the loops thus:—

Further variations can again be produced from these by severing the bands in places, and joining parts of the loops to the rings on the same principle that breaks can be made in a plait.

The connection between the different knots will at once become clear if they are drawn on separate pieces of tracing paper and placed one over the other.

Another kind of circular knotwork is formed by enclosing the simpler sort of knots derived directly from plaitwork within a circular band, which crosses over in one or two places and turns inwards to form the enclosed knots.

The illustrations of the different kinds of circular knotwork from actual examples show the process of development.

_From photographs of the cast in the Science and Art Museum, Edinburgh, supplied by Mr. Vallance, Curator_]

By the term _triangular knotwork_ is meant interlaced patterns, the setting-out lines of which form triangles only or triangles and lozenges. The patterns are made by distorting the simple knots derived from plaitwork, so as to adapt them to the triangular shape. This species of knotwork is very seldom seen except in a few of the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. and on some of the sculptured stones of Ireland and Scotland. The best examples are at Kilfenora, Co. Clare; Ulbster (now at Thurso Castle), Sutherlandshire; and Dunfallandy, Perthshire.

Under the head of ringwork and chainwork are included all patterns composed of circular, oval, and looped rings interlaced symmetrically round a centre, or arranged so as to form a long chain. Patterns of this kind are not found in the best Celtic work, and when they occur it is generally an indication either of Scandinavian influence or of the style being debased.

A certain number of modifications of the interlaced-work already described are produced by adapting the patterns so that they will fit into circular or annular spaces. Instances of this may be seen on the erect cross-slabs at Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon Castle) and Nigg, Ross-shire; Glamis, Forfarshire; and Rossie Priory, Perthshire; and on the Lough Erne and Monymusk Reliquaries.

STEP-PATTERNS

A step-pattern is one which is formed of straight lines bent backwards and forwards at right angles so as to resemble a flight of steps. The lines are often arranged symmetrically round a centre, so as to make cruciform and swastika designs, and the different parts are also generally shaded alternately black and white on the principle of chequerwork. Step-patterns hardly ever occur in Christian Celtic art except on the enamelled bosses of metalwork and in a few of the illuminated MSS., such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51), the Gospels of MacRegol, the Book of Kells, and the Book of Durrow. The step-patterns in the MSS. so nearly resemble those on the enamelled bosses on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, and the Cross of Cong, that there can be but little doubt the illuminators copied their designs from the enamels. In the Pagan Celtic enamels the ornament is nearly always curvilinear; but in the Christian Celtic enamels it is rectilinear, the arrangement of the _cloisons_ being very similar to that on the Anglo-Saxon disc brooches incrusted with small slabs of garnet, glass, etc. Instances have already been given in a previous chapter of the use of step-patterns by the Pagan Celts on the engraved woodwork from the Glastonbury Marsh Village (p. 161). The only instances I have met with of step-patterns on the sculptured stones of the early Christian period in this country are at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts; and Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare.

KEY-PATTERNS

The term _key-pattern_ is used to describe a particular kind of rectilinear ornament which bears a certain amount of resemblance to the perforations in a key to allow it to pass the wards of a lock. The best-known key-pattern is the Greek fret. This is composed of what may be appropriately called straight-line spirals; that is to say, straight lines (or, to speak more accurately, narrow straight bars) bent round into a series of right angles in the same direction. The space between the lines (or narrow bars) is generally about the same width as that of the line itself.

Key-patterns

(1) Aberlady, Haddingtonshire
(2) Abercorn, Linlithgowshire
(3) St. Andrews, Fifeshire
(4) Collieburn, Sutherlandshire
]

The key-patterns used in Christian Celtic art may be classified as follows:—

(1) _Square key-patterns_, in which the lines run horizontally
and vertically parallel to the margins.
(2) _Diagonal key-patterns_, in which the lines run vertically
parallel to the right and left margins, and diagonally in
two directions at an angle of 45° to the margins.
(3) _Diaper key-patterns_, in which the lines run horizontally
and vertically parallel to the margins, and diagonally in
two directions at an angle of 45° to the margins.

The essential difference between the key-patterns used by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans and those used by the Christian Celts consists in the introduction of diagonal lines by the latter. Square key-patterns (_i.e._ those of the Greek fret type) were very seldom used in Christian Celtic art. There is, however, a very good example on one of the crosses at Penmon, Anglesey. The first step in the evolution of the Celtic key-pattern was to turn the Greek fret round through an angle of 45° so as to make the lines run diagonally with regard to the margins instead of parallel to them. Key-patterns in this stage of development are to be seen in the Lindisfarne Gospels, the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51), and an Anglian cross-shaft from Aberlady, Haddingtonshire, now at Carlowrie Castle, near Kirkliston, Midlothian. It will be observed, however, that the result of changing a square key-pattern into a diagonal one is to leave a series of unornamented triangles all round the edge (p. 280). When these triangles are filled in by bending the ends of the diagonal lines round through an angle of 45°, so as to run parallel to the margins, we get such a characteristically Celtic key-pattern as the one on the great cross-shaft at St. Andrews, Fifeshire. Lastly, when the opposite ends of the diagonal lines in the middle of the panel are bent round in a similar manner, the most typical of all the Celtic key-patterns is arrived at, of which there is a very good example on the erect cross-slab at Farr, Sutherlandshire.

Key-patterns

(1) Rosemarkie, Ross-shire
(2) Farr, Sutherlandshire
(3) Gattonside, Roxburghshire
(4) Nigg, Ross-shire
]

The filling in of the sharp corners made by the lines inclined to each other at an angle of 45°, with small black triangles (if in a MS.) or with sunk triangles (if on a sculptured stone) gives a decorative finish to the pattern, and still further adds to its distinctively Celtic character.

Next to interlaced-work the key-pattern is the most common motive made use of in the decorative art of the Christian Celtic period. It occurs in nearly all the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. and on a large proportion of the sculptured monuments in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Key-patterns and interlaced-work in combination, but without any other decorative motive, may be seen on the Welsh crosses at Carew and Nevern, Pembrokeshire; Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire; and Llantwit Major and Margam, Glamorganshire. On the metalwork of the period key-patterns seldom occur, except on the bronze bells, on a strap-buckle from Islandbridge, near Dublin, and on the Crucifixion plaque of repoussé bronze from Athlone, now in the Dublin Museum.

SPIRAL ORNAMENT

The spiral is the only decorative motive used in Christian Celtic art that can be proved to have been borrowed from the Pagan Celtic art of the preceding period. Although spiral ornament appears to be so complicated when it is completed, the geometrical process of setting it out is simplicity itself. All that it is necessary to do is to fill in the surface to be decorated with circles of any size, leaving about the same distance between each; then connect the circle with =S=- or =C=-shaped curves; and, lastly, fill in the circles with spirals working from the tangent points, where the =S= or =C= curves touch the circles, inwards to the centre. As the size of the circles is a matter of no importance, a surface of irregular shape may be covered with spiral ornament just as easily as one of symmetrical shape. In the flamboyant ornament of the Pagan Celtic period we have the same =S=- and =C=-shaped curves, but the circles were occupied either by a disc of enamel (as on the bronze shield from the Thames), or by raised conchoids (as on the gold necklet from Limavady, Co. Londonderry). In the spiral ornament of the Christian Celtic period closely coiled spirals like those of the bronze age were substituted for the discs of enamel or raised conchoids. The background of the spirals, however, retained several of the prominent features of the repoussé metalwork, the effect of the light shining on the raised trumpet-shaped expansions of the =S= and =C= curves being imitated in black and white or coloured by almond-like dots. In the later and less refined spiral ornament of the Christian period this background disappears altogether, and the spirals are made all the same size and placed close together.

As the spiral was the earliest decorative motive in Christian Celtic art, so it was also the first to disappear, and its disappearance marks the decadence of the style. We have in a previous chapter traced the spiral motive from the Pagan metalwork through the enamelled disc ornaments of the bronze bowls of the Transition period to the illuminated MSS. of Christian times. Spiral ornament in its best form is to be found in the following MSS.:—

The Lindisfarne Gospels A.D. 720.
The Book of Kells 8th century.
The Gospels of St. Chad ” ”
The Book of Durrow ” ”
The Book of Armagh A.D. 750-808.
The Gospels of Willibrod A.D. 739.
The Gospels of St. Gall 8th or 9th century.
The Gospels of MacRegol A.D. 820.
The Gospels of Stockholm A.D. 871.
The Vespasian A. i. Psalter 8th century.

In metalwork spiral ornament is less common than in the MSS., there being good examples on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, the Monymusk Reliquary, and the Athlone Crucifixion Plaque.

Spiral ornament of the best kind is found on the sculptured stone monuments only in Ireland and Scotland.[455] In Wales, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man spiral ornament is extremely rare, and when it does occur it is of debased character. Typical examples of spiral ornament may be seen on the sculptured monuments in Ireland at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice, Co. Louth; Clonmacnois, King’s Co.; and Kilklispeen, Co. Kilkenny; and in Scotland at Nigg, Shandwick, Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon Castle), all in Ross-shire; the Maiden Stone, Aberdeenshire; St. Vigeans, Forfarshire; Meigle and Dunfallandy, Perthshire; and Ardchattan, Argyllshire.

[455] Chiefly in the Pictish districts of the north-east of Scotland.

Judging from the evidence afforded by the dated specimens, the best kind of spiral ornament seems to have disappeared entirely from Christian Celtic art after the first quarter of the tenth century.

SCALE ⅛ LINEAR]

ZOÖMORPHIC DESIGNS

Animal forms are used in Celtic art of the Christian period in three different ways, namely, (1) pictorially, (2) symbolically, and (3) decoratively. As cases of the first kind of treatment we have the hunting scenes,[456] battle scenes,[457] men driving in chariots[458] drawn by horses, groups of animals,[459] etc., on the erect cross-slabs of Scotland and on the bases of some of the Irish and Welsh crosses. Although these subjects may have some symbolism behind them, yet all the living creatures represented are treated realistically, and not conventionally. As cases of the second kind of treatment we have the Symbols of the Four Evangelists, which, although consisting of the figures of a man, a lion, a bull, and an eagle, are generally highly conventionalised. Lastly, we have the decorative use of animal forms, where the zoölogical species of the creatures represented becomes of so little importance that it is altogether ignored. The creatures can certainly be divided into beasts, birds, fishes, and reptiles; but the artist has taken such liberties with the shapes of their bodies, limbs, heads, tails, and other details, that he would be a bold man who would say of any one of the beasts whether it was intended for a lion, a tiger, a dog, a wolf, or a bear. The quadruped most in favour with the Christian Celtic artist may, as has been already suggested, have been degraded by successive copying from the Classical lion. Anyway, it has a head something like that of a dog, with pointed ears, an attenuated body, four legs terminating in paws with claws, and a long tail. The head and the paws are never misrepresented for decorative purposes, but the body, limbs, ears, and tail may be extended to any given length or bent in any desired direction. The beasts and other creatures are generally shown in profile, and only rarely in plan.

[456] As on the erect cross-slab at Hilton of Cadboll (now at Invergordon Castle), Ross-shire.

[457] As on the erect cross-slab at Aberlemno, Forfarshire.

[458] As on the base of the cross in the churchyard of Kells, Co. Meath.

[459] As on the erect cross-slabs at Shandwick, Ross-shire; and St. Vigeans, Forfarshire; and on the base of the cross at Castledermot, Co. Kildare.

In the simplest kind of zoömorphic ornament a single beast is used to fill a panel, the different attitudes being as follows:—

(1) With the head looking forwards.
(2) With the head bent backwards.
(3) With the head bent backwards, biting the middle of the body.
(4) With the head bent backwards, biting the end of the tail.
(5) With the tail curled up over the back.
(6) With the tail curled up under the belly.

If the beasts are in pairs, they may be placed in the following positions:—

(1) Symmetrically facing towards each other, or face to face.
(2) Symmetrically facing away from each other.
(3) In a horizontal row one in front of the other.
(4) In a vertical row one below the other.

When there are three or four beasts, besides being arranged in rows, they may be placed after the fashion of the triskele or the swastika round a centre.

Interlaced zoömorphic ornament can be made with a single beast by extending the length of its tail and ear, and forming them into knots at intervals, crossing over the body and limbs where necessary. Sometimes the tail alone is knotted. In this sort of ornament the shape of the beast is seen distinctly and the knots occupy the background. A more complicated design can be made from a single beast by twisting its body and limbs into knots as well as the ears and tail.

The panels of zoömorphic ornament in Christian Celtic art are, however, usually composed of two or more beasts placed symmetrically with regard to each other and having their bodies and limbs crossed over and interlaced. The ears and tails may also be extended and formed into knots in combination with the bodies and limbs. The designs thus produced will be seen to consist apparently of two sets of bands crossing each other diagonally, the wide bands being the bodies of the beasts and the narrow bands, the limbs, tails, and ears. The bands are nearly straight, or if bent at all only gently curved.

When the beasts are not placed in opposite symmetrical positions, but in horizontal rows one in front of the other, or in vertical rows one below the other, the bodies are often bent round spirally in one direction or twisted into =S=-shaped spirals in two directions. A favourite device with the Celtic artist was to make the beasts bite their own bodies, limbs, or tails, or the body, limbs, or tail of the beast immediately in front of it.

The zoömorphic designs composed of birds were arranged on the same principles as those composed of beasts.

Reptiles or serpentine creatures with bodies of nearly the same width throughout were converted into interlaced zoömorphic ornament by twisting, plaiting, looping, or knotting the bodies together. This class of ornament is, in fact, the ordinary interlaced patterns derived from the plait, with heads added at one end and tails at the other.

A very ingenious zoömorphic design is made by filling in a long narrow panel with the body of a serpentine creature undulating from side to side. The head of the creature is at the top of the panel, and the body remains about the same width until it reaches the bottom of the panel, where its width is greatly reduced and its direction reversed. On its return journey it makes a series of Stafford knots, which fill in the spaces between the undulations of the body and the sides of the panel, and the end of the tail is finally received into the mouth of the reptile.[460]

There are two kinds of zoömorphic designs which are peculiar to the MSS. of the period, namely, initial letters made in the form of a bird or beast, and the incomplete frames round the initial pages of the Gospels terminating in a beast’s head at one end and a fish-like tail at the other. The only thing of a similar kind which occurs on the sculptured monuments is the zoömorphic margin round some of the erect cross-slabs of the east of Scotland.[461] The margin is formed by two beasts, the heads of which appear at the top facing each other and the tails at the bottom.

[460] Instances of this occur at Lanherne and Sancreed, Cornwall.

[461] At Cossins and Monifieth, Forfarshire; and Meigle, Dunfallandy; and St. Madoes, Perthshire. The arched top of the frame round the miniature of Christ seized by the Jews, in the Book of Kells, is treated in exactly the same way as the pedimented tops of the erect cross-slabs. In the second table of Eusebian Canons, in the Book of Kells, the head and arms of Christ are placed between the two beasts’ heads.

Zoömorphs are found throughout the whole range of Christian Celtic art; they form an important feature in the decoration of nearly all the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS.; they are particularly characteristic of the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork; and they are of frequent occurrence on the sculptured monuments of Ireland and Scotland. On the crosses of Wales and Cornwall zoömorphs are comparatively rare. Some of the best instances of zoömorphic designs in the MSS. are to be seen in the cross-pages of the Book of Durrow, the Gospels of Lindisfarne, the Book of Kells, the Gospels of St. Chad, and the St. Gall Gospels (Codex No. 51); in metalwork on the Ardagh Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, the Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick’s Will, the Cross of Cong, and the Shrine of St. Manchan; and on sculptured monuments at Termonfechin, Co. Louth; Kells, Co. Meath; Tihilly, King’s Co.; Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare; Nigg, Ross-shire; Aberlemno and Invergowrie, Forfarshire; St. Madoes, Perthshire; Penally, Pembrokeshire; and Sancreed and Lanherne, Cornwall.

Sometimes key-patterns and spirals are converted into zoömorphic designs by the addition of animals’ heads, as at Penmon, Anglesey; and Termonfechin, Co. Louth. The centres of spirals are also often made zoömorphic, as in the Gospels of Lindisfarne, on the cross at Kilklispeen, Co. Kilkenny, and on an erect cross-slab at St. Vigeans, Forfarshire.

Probably the most wonderful _tour de force_ in the way of zoömorphic sculpture is a pair of panels on the erect cross-slab at Nigg, Ross-shire. Each panel is ornamented with a series of raised bosses arranged symmetrically. The whole of the convex surfaces of the bosses is covered with intricate knotwork, and the background is composed of serpents, the tails of which coil spirally round the bases of the bosses, and in each case enter the circumference at three points to form the interlaced-work on the boss. After innumerable crossings under and over, the tails again diverge at three other points round the base of the boss, and finally terminate in small spirals in different parts of the background.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC DESIGNS

Under the above heading are classed all designs in which the complete figure of a man, or portions of a man are used for purposes of decoration. Human heads occur in metalwork in the decoration of the Tara Brooch[462] and in sculptured stonework on the cross of Muiredach, at Monasterboice, Co. Louth, and on a cross-head from the crannog at Drumgay Loch.

[462] A pin-brooch ornamented with a human head, from Woodford River, Co. Cavan, is illustrated in Sir W. Wilde’s _Catal. of the Mus. R.I.A._, p. 565.

The most remarkable instances of the decorative use of the complete figures of men in the illuminated MSS. are to be found in the Book of Kells. The figures are generally arranged in pairs facing each other, in groups of three triskele fashion, and in nearly all cases the attitudes are extremely uncomfortable with the knees drawn up close against the stomach. The limbs of the different figures are crossed over and interlaced, as in zoömorphic ornament, and the hands are shown grasping either the limbs, hair, or beard of one of the other figures. Sometimes the human figures are combined with figures of birds or beasts.

We have already referred to the incomplete frames of the initial pages of the Gospels with zoömorphic terminations. In the

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“Nativitas XPI”

initial page in the Book of Kells the incomplete frame terminates in a human head at one end and two legs at the other. Another initial page in the same MS.—that of St. Mark’s Gospel—has a zoömorphic frame, but the beast’s head is holding a man between its jaws, whilst the man is tugging at the beast’s tongue with his hand.

Groups of four human figures arranged swastika fashion, interlaced and each grasping the limbs, wrists, hair, or beard of one of the other figures, occur on crosses in Ireland at Kilkispeen, Co. Kilkenny; Monasterboice, Co. Louth; and Kells, Co. Meath; and in Scotland on a recumbent monument at Meigle, Perthshire. A human figure interlaced with a bird occurs in two instances on sculptured stones in Scotland, namely, at Monifieth, Forfarshire (now in the Edinburgh Museum of Antiquities); and at Meigle, Perthshire.

FOLIAGE

Leaf and plant motive decoration is entirely foreign to the spirit of purely Celtic Christian art, and whenever it occurs it is generally to be traced to Northumbrian influence. The Book of Kells and the Stockholm Gospels are the only Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS. in which any trace of foliage can be detected. There are panels of foliage on the Irish crosses at Kells, Co. Meath; Monasterboice, Co. Louth; and Clonmacnois, King’s Co. In Wales there is an instance of foliage on the crosses at Penally, Pembrokeshire. In Scotland the only sculptured monuments with foliage upon them (excluding, of course, those in the Northumbrian districts of the south) are the erect cross-slabs at Hilton of Cadboll and Tarbet, Ross-shire (both now at Invergordon Castle); St. Vigeans, Forfarshire; and Crieff, Perthshire; on crosses at Camuston, Forfarshire; Dupplin, Perthshire; and on a cross-shaft at St. Andrews, Fifeshire.

The foliage may in all cases be traced back to the Classical vine, the well-known symbol of Christ. It is often much degraded by successive copying, and although the forms of the leaves are often altered beyond recognition the bunches of grapes can always be made out.

SYMBOLICAL FIGURE-SUBJECTS

We have already mentioned most of the figure-subjects to be found in the Hiberno-Saxon illuminated MSS., and on the Irish ecclesiastical metalwork. It remains therefore only now to take the sculptured monuments into consideration.

It was in Ireland alone that a recognised cycle of scriptural figure subjects was adopted for the decoration of the crosses and that in nearly all cases the ornament was relegated to a subordinate position. In Scotland and Wales, on the contrary, Scripture scenes are seldom represented on the sculptured monuments; in Cornwall the only figure subject which occurs on the crosses is the Crucifixion; and in the Isle of Man the figure-subjects are mostly taken from the Pagan Norse mythology.

The following table shows the Scriptural subjects on the sculptured monuments of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, and the frequency with which they occur:—

------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
|Ireland.|Scotland.|Wales.|Cornwall.
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
_Old Testament_— | | | |
Adam and Eve | 15 | 2 | — | —
Noah in the Ark | 2 | 1 | — | —
Sacrifice of Isaac | 9 | 1 | — | —
Three Children in Furnace | 4 | — | — | —
Daniel in Den of Lions | 8 | 9 | — | —
David and Harp | 6 | 2 | — | —
David and Lion | 6 | 2 | — | —
David and Goliath | 3 | — | — | —
Jonah and Whale | — | 3 | — | —
Ascent of Elijah | — | 1 | — | —
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
_New Testament_— | | | |
Virgin and Child | — | 5 | — | —
Adoration of Magi | 2 | 1 | — | —
Flight into Egypt | 1 | — | — | —
Baptism of Christ | 2 | — | — | —
Miracle of Loaves and Fishes| 4 | 1 | — | —
Raising of Lazarus | — | 1 | — | —
Crucifixion | 16 | 5 | 3 | 40
Christ in Glory | 5 | 1 | — | —
Last Judgment | 1 | — | — | —
Annunciation | — | — | 1 | —
Christ seized by the Jews | 2 | — | 1 | —
Twelve Apostles | 1 | — | — | —
Agnus Dei | 2 | — | — | —
Dextera Dei | 2 | — | — | —
------------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------

In addition to the above there are the following, which are sacred or ecclesiastical, but not, strictly speaking, Scriptural:—

-----------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
|Ireland.|Scotland.|Wales.|Cornwall.
-----------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------
Symbols of Four Evangelists | — | 4 | — | —
Cherubim | — | — | 1 | —
Angels | — | 22 | — | —
Saints | — | — | — | —
Oranti | — | 1 | 3 | —
-----------------------------+--------+---------+------+---------

It appears, then, that the Scriptural subjects of most frequent occurrence in Ireland are the Crucifixion, Adam and Eve, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, and the scenes from the Life of David; and in Scotland, the Crucifixion, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, the Virgin and Child, and the symbols of the four Evangelists.

The subjects common to both Ireland and Scotland are Adam and Eve, Noah (?), Sacrifice of Isaac, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, David and the Harp, David and the Lion, Adoration of the Magi, Flight into Egypt, Miracle of Loaves and Fishes, Crucifixion, Christ in Glory, Agnus Dei, Angels.

The subjects which occur in Ireland, but not in Scotland, are the Three Children in the Furnace, David and Goliath, Baptism of Christ, Resurrection, Last Judgment, Dextera Dei, Twelve Apostles. And those which occur in Scotland, but not in Ireland, are Ascent of Elijah, Raising of Lazarus, Jonah and the Whale, Annunciation, Salutation, Miracle of Healing the Blind, Christ and Mary Magdalene, Lazarus.

Of the subjects on the early sculptured stones of Ireland and Scotland the following belong to the cycle of subjects found on the paintings in the Catacombs and the Sculptured Sarcophagi (A.D. 50 to 450):—

Adam and Eve. Daniel in the Lions’ Den.
Noah. Jonah and the Whale.
Sacrifice of Isaac. Adoration of Magi.
Three Children in the Furnace. Adoration of Magi.
Ascent of Elijah. Miracle of Healing the Blind.

The following subjects belong to the Lombardo-Byzantine period (A.D. 700-1100):—

David. Christ in Glory.
Baptism of Christ. Last Judgment.
Crucifixion. Agnus Dei.
Resurrection. Dextera Dei.
Flight into Egypt. Twelve Apostles.
Virgin and Child (apart from Magi). Symbols of the Four Evangelists.
Christ and Mary Magdalene. Angels.

Thus the early Sculptured Stones and the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. of Great Britain, and the Carlovingian Ivories afford a connecting link between the older symbolism of the primitive Christianity of the Catacomb period and the more strictly ecclesiastical art of mediæval times.

Quite apart from the fact that King David was a type of Christ, and that his pictures formed the illustrations of the Psalter, it is not surprising that he should have been an object of popular worship amongst the warlike and musical Celts, to one side of whose character his heroic deeds in rending the jaws of the lion and slaying the giant Goliath, would appeal as strongly as his talent as a harper would to the other.

A small MS. Irish Psalter in the British Museum (Vit. F. i.)[463] contains two very curious miniatures, one of David Playing the Harp and the other of David and Goliath.[464] The former is interesting, because I think it helps to explain the meaning of a figure sitting on the back of a beast and playing a harp,[465] sculptured on one of the panels of the cross at Clonmacnoise. As I hold, this is intended for David; and my reason for supposing this is, because the throne on which David is seated in the miniature in the Psalter is conventionally treated as a beast.

[463] Westwood’s _Miniatures_, pl. 5.

[464] In the miniature of David and Goliath in the Psalter David holds a sling in one hand and a beast-headed club in the other. The resemblance between this club and the beast’s-head symbol, which occurs on the Norrie’s Law silver ornaments and on several of the early incised slabs in Scotland, may be only accidental, but it is worth noting as a possible clue to the scriptural interpretation of the symbol.

[465] O’Neil, pl. 24A.

I am not quite sure whether the boat with men in it, on the stone at Cossins, is intended for Noah’s Ark or not, but a boat of just the same kind is represented on a carved wooden pillar at Olaf’s Church,[466] Nesland, where it is associated with other Scriptural subjects, amongst others the creation of Eve, Samson and Delilah, and David and Goliath. In this case there can be little doubt but that the boat is intended for Noah’s Ark, so that probably the boat at Cossins has the same meaning.

The angels are cherubim, with four wings, and spirals where the wings join on to the body, representations of which are to be seen on the stones at Eassie, Glamis, and elsewhere in Scotland. They do not occur on any of the sculptured crosses in Ireland; but there are instances of angels or the symbols of the four evangelists treated in the same fashion in the St. Gall Gospels, Codex No. 51,[467] and on the Book Shrine of St. Molaise’s Gospels,[468] in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin, and also on a bronze plaque[469] of the Crucifixion, in the same collection. I have recently discovered a very curious instance of an angel of this kind, with three wings on a cross-slab, with interlaced-work, in St. David’s Cathedral, given in Westwood’s _Lapidarium Walliæ_ (pl. 63, fig. 4), but the wings and spirals only shown, and the head of the angel omitted.

[466] L. H. S. Dietrichsen, _De Norske Stavkirker_, p. 362.

[467] C. Purton Cooper’s “Appendix A to Report on Rymer’s Fœdera,” pl. 5.

[468] _Archæologia_, vol. xliii., p. 131.

[469] Westwood’s _Miniatures_, pl. 51.

The pair of ecclesiastics, sometimes standing, sometimes enthroned, sometimes kneeling, with a bird holding a circular disc in its mouth between them, is a subject common to the early sculptured stones of both Scotland[470] and Ireland,[471] but the exact meaning of it has yet to be ascertained if we are not to take the instance on the Ruthwell cross as an authoritative explanation of the whole.

[470] As at Nigg and St. Vigeans. Dr. J. Anderson regards the Nigg example as being intended for St. Paul and St. Anthony.

[471] As at Kells, Moone Abbey, Clonca.

As I have already pointed out in my Rhind Lectures on _Christian Symbolism_, there is a nearer affinity between the subjects chosen to decorate the bases of the Irish crosses and the representations of hunting scenes, horsemen, chariots, etc., on the upright cross-slabs of the north-east of Scotland, than the more strictly Scriptural scenes on the shafts of the Irish crosses. The best examples illustrating this are to be seen on the bases of the crosses at Kells (Figs. 5 and 6), Monasterboice, Clonmacnois, Castle Dermot (Fig. 7), and Kilklispeen.

The chariot on the Meigle slab, now lost, may be compared with the chariots to be seen on the shaft of the cross at Killamery, and on the bases of the crosses at Monasterboice, Kilklispeen, and in Kells churchyard; on the base of the cross in the street at Kells we have the eagle and fish, as on the “Drosten” stone at St. Vigeans,[472] and as in the Book of Armagh; and on the base of this same cross, and on the cross of Muredach at Monasterboice, centaurs occur, in some respects like those on the slabs at Aberlemno, Meigle, and Glamis.

[472] Another remarkable instance of the eagle and fish has recently been found on a stone with an Ogam inscription, at Latheron, near Keiss, Caithness.

On the base of the Kilklispeen cross is portrayed a procession of ecclesiastics taking part in a most remarkable ceremony. On the south side of the base is to be seem a priest carrying a processional cross, and followed by a man leading a horse, on the back of which is laid the headless trunk of a man, with two birds of prey, or carrion crows, perched on the top.

On the north side of the base are two ecclesiastics on horseback, followed by two more in a chariot drawn by a pair of horses.

On the east side are several beasts, birds, and a man.

On the west side is a central figure, perhaps a bishop, with three ecclesiastics holding croziers on each side of him.

These scenes can hardly be Scriptural; and if they are not taken from the life of some saint, it is difficult to see what explanation remains to be suggested, except that an event of local importance is here commemorated. The bases of the pillar-cross at Llandough and of the great wheel-cross at Margam, both in Glamorganshire, are the only ones with figures of horsemen upon them in Wales.

The symbolism of the shafts of the Irish crosses is so strictly biblical that secular subjects may have been placed on the bases by way of contrast, to indicate the actual world or earth on which the cross stood representing the spiritual world. The eagle and fish may personify the ocean, and the centaur the desert, for which we have the authority of the bestiaries and the legendary life of St. Anthony.

The points of similarity between the ornamental patterns on the stones of Ireland and Scotland raise questions of too much intricacy to be dealt with here; but it may be remarked that figure-sculpture forms the chief feature of the Irish crosses—geometrical, zoömorphic, and foliageous designs being only as a rule applied to the decoration of the smaller panels on the sides of the shafts and to the rings connecting the arms. The upright cross-slabs of Scotland, more particularly those in Ross-shire, approach much more nearly in style—and therefore probably in age—to the illuminated pages of the Hiberno-Saxon MSS. of the best period, than do any of the Irish crosses.