Chapter I: Part 1

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CHURCH HISTORY.

BY
PROFESSOR KURTZ.

_AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED EDITION BY THE_
REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A.

IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. III.

_SECOND EDITION._

London:
HODDER AND STOUGHTON,
27, PATERNOSTER ROW.

MDCCCXCIII.

BUTLER & TANNER,
THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
FROME, AND LONDON.

CONTENTS.

THIRD DIVISION.
(Continued.)

SECOND SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

I. Relations between the Different Churches.

§ 152. EAST AND WEST.
(1) Roman Catholic Hopes.
(2) Calvinistic Hopes.
(3) Orthodox Constancy.

§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM.
(1) Conversions of Protestant Princes.
(2) The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring States.
(3) Livonia and Hungary.
(4) The Huguenots in France.
(5) The Waldensians in Piedmont.
(6) The Catholics in England and Ireland.
(7) Union Efforts.
(8) The Lehnin Prophecy.

§ 154. LUTHERANISM AND CALVINISM.
(1) Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel, A.D. 1605-1646.
(2) Calvinizing of Lippe, A.D. 1602.
(3) The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist, A.D. 1613.
(4) Union Attempts.

§ 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM.
(1) The First Two Stuarts.
(2) The Commonwealth and the Protector.
(3) The Restoration and the Act of Toleration.

II. The Roman Catholic Church.

§ 156. THE PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS.
(1) The Papacy.
(2) The Jesuits and the Republic of Venice.
(3) The Gallican Liberties.
(4) Galileo and the Inquisition.
(5) The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception.
(6) The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
(7) New Congregations and Orders.
1. Benedictine Congregation of St. Banne.
2. Benedictine Congregation of St. Maur.
3. The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus.
4. The Piarists.
5. The Order of the Visitation of Mary.
(8) 6. The Priests of the Missions and Sisters
of Charity.
7. The Trappists.
8. The English Nuns.
(9) The Propaganda.
(10) Foreign Missions.
(11) In the East Indies.
(12) In China.
(13) Trade and Industry of the Jesuits.
(14) An Apostate to Judaism.

§ 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM.
(1) Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal.
(2) Michael Molinos.
(3) Madame Guyon and Fénelon.
(4) Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and Pantheism.
(5) Jansenism in its first Stage.

§ 158. SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
(1) Theological Science.
(2) Church History.
(3) Art and Poetry.

III. The Lutheran Church.

§ 159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES.
(1) Christological Controversies.
1. The Cryptist and Kenotist Controversy.
2. The Lütkemann Controversy.
(2) The Syncretist Controversy.
(3) The Pietist Controversy in its First Stage.
(4) Theological Literature.
(5) Dogmatics.

§ 160. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
(1) Mysticism and Asceticism.
(2) Mysticism and Theosophy.
(3) Sacred Song.
(4) ---- Its 17th Century Transition.
(5) Sacred Music.
(6) The Christian Life of the People.
(7) Missions.

IV. The Reformed Church.

§ 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES.
(1) Preliminaries of the Arminian Controversy.
(2) The Arminian Controversy.
(3) Consequences of the Arminian Controversy.
(4) The Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies.
(5) ---- Continued.
(6) Theological Literature.
(7) Dogmatic Theology.
(8) The Apocrypha Controversy.

§ 162. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
(1) England and Scotland.
(2) ---- Political and Social Revolutionists.
(3) ---- Devotional Literature.
(4) The Netherlands.
(5) ---- Voetians and Cocceians.
(6) France, Germany, and Switzerland.
(7) Foreign Missions.

V. Anti- and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties.

§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS.
(1) The Socinians.
(2) The Baptists of the Continent.
1. The Dutch Baptists.
2. The Moravian Baptists.
(3) The English Baptists.
(4) The Quakers.
(5) ---- Continued.
(6) The Quaker Constitution.
(7) Labadie and the Labadists.
(8) ---- Continued.
(9) Fanatical Sects.
(10) Russian Sects.

§ 164. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS.
(1) Philosophy.
(2) ---- Continued.
(3) Freethinkers--England.
(4) ---- Germany and France.

THIRD SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

I. The Catholic Church in East and West.

§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
(1) The Popes.
(2) Old and New Orders.
(3) Foreign Missions.
(4) The Counter-Reformation.
(5) In France.
(6) Conversions.
(7) The Second Stage of Jansenism.
(8) The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands.
(9) Suppression of the Order of Jesuits, A.D. 1773.
(10) Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy.
(11) Theological Literature.
(12) In Italy.
(13) The German-Catholic Contribution to the Illumination.
(14) The French Contribution to the Illumination.
(15) The French Revolution.
(16) The Pseudo-Catholics--The Abrahamites or
Bohemian Deists.
(17) ---- The Frankists.

§ 166. THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES.
(1) The Russian State Church.
(2) Russian Sects.
(3) The Abyssinian Church.

II. The Protestant Churches.

§ 167. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE “THE ILLUMINATION.”
(1) The Pietist Controversies after the Founding of the
Halle University.
(2) ---- Controversial Doctrines.
(3) Theology.
(4) Unionist Efforts.
(5) Theories of Ecclesiastical Law.
(6) Church Song.
(7) Sacred Music.
(8) The Christian Life and Devotional Literature.
(9) Missions to the Heathen.

§ 168. THE CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN.
(1) The Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood.
(2) The Founding of the Brotherhood.
(3) The Development of the Brotherhood down to
Zinzendorf’s Death, A.D. 1727-1760.
(4) Zinzendorf’s Plan and Work.
(5) Numerous Extravagances.
(6) Zinzendorf’s Greatness.
(7) The Brotherhood under Spangenberg’s Administration.
(8) The Doctrinal Peculiarities of the Brotherhood.
(9) The Peculiarities of Worship among the Brethren.
(10) Christian Life of the Brotherhood.
(11) Missions to the Heathen.

§ 169. THE REFORMED CHURCH BEFORE THE “ILLUMINATION.”
(1) The German Reformed Church.
(2) The Reformed Church in Switzerland.
(3) The Dutch Reformed Church.
(4) Methodism.
(5) ---- Continued.
(6) Theological Literature.

§ 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS.
(1) Fanatics and Separatists in Germany.
(2) The Inspired Societies in Wetterau.
(3) J. C. Dippel.
(4) Separatists of Immoral Tendency.
(5) Swedenborgianism.
(6) New Baptist Sects.
(7) New Quaker Sects.
(8) Predestinarian-Mystical Sects.

§ 171. RELIGION, THEOLOGY, AND LITERATURE OF THE “ILLUMINATION.”
(1) Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in the English Church.
1. The Deists.
2. The So-called Arians.
3. The Later Unitarians.
(2) Freemasons.
(3) The German “Illumination.”
1. Its Precursors.
(4) 2. The Age of Frederick the Great.
(5) 3. The Wöllner Reaction.
(6) The Transition Theology.
(7) The Rationalistic Theology.
(8) Supernaturalism.
(9) Mysticism and Theosophy.
(10) The German Philosophy.
(11) The German National Literature.
(12) Pestalozzi.

§ 172. CHURCH LIFE IN THE PERIOD OF THE “ILLUMINATION.”
(1) The Hymnbook and Church Music.
(2) Religious Characters.
(3) Religious Sects.
(4) The Rationalistic “Illumination” outside of Germany.
(5) Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise.

FOURTH SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

I. General and Introductory.

§ 173. SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.

§ 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE IN RELATION TO CHRISTIANITY
AND THE CHURCH.
(1) The German Philosophy.
(2) ---- Continued.
(3) The Sciences; Medicine.
(4) Jurists; Historians; Geography; Philology.
(5) National Literature--Germany.
(6) ---- Continued.
(7) ---- Other Countries.
(8) Popular Education.
(9) Art.
(10) Music and the Drama.

§ 175. INTERCOURSE AND NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN THE CHURCHES.
(1) Romanizing Tendencies among Protestants.
(2) The Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism.
(3) Romish Controversy.
(4) Roman Catholic Union Schemes.
(5) Greek Orthodox Union Schemes.
(6) Old Catholic Union Schemes.
(7) Conversions.
(8) ---- The Mortara Affair.
(9) ---- Other Conversions.
(10) The Luther Centenary, A.D. 1883.

II. Protestantism in General.

§ 176. RATIONALISM AND PIETISM.
(1) Rationalism.
(2) Pietism.
(3) The Königsberg Religious Movement, A.D. 1835-1842.
(4) The Bender Controversy.

§ 177. EVANGELICAL UNION AND LUTHERAN SEPARATION.
(1) The Evangelical Union.
(2) The Lutheran Separation.
(3) The Separation within the Separation.

§ 178. EVANGELICAL CONFEDERATION.
(1) The Gustavus Adolphus Society.
(2) The Eisenach Conference.
(3) The Evangelical Alliance.
(4) The Evangelical Church Alliance.
(5) The Evangelical League.

§ 179. LUTHERANISM, MELANCHTHONIANISM, AND CALVINISM.
(1) Lutheranism within the Union.
(2) Lutheranism outside of the Union.
(3) Melanchthonianism and Calvinism.

§ 180. THE “_PROTESTANTENVEREIN_.”
(1) The Protestant Assembly.
(2) The “_Protestantenverein_” Propaganda.
(3) Sufferings Endured.
(4) ---- In Berlin.
(5) ---- In Schleswig Holstein.

§ 181. DISPUTES ABOUT FORMS OF WORSHIP.
(1) The Hymnbook.
(2) The Book of Chorales.
(3) The Liturgy.
(4) The Holy Scriptures.

§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY.
(1) Schleiermacher, A.D. 1768-1834.
(2) The Older Rationalistic Theology.
(3) Historico-Critical Rationalism.
(4) Supernaturalism.
(5) Rational Supernaturalism.
(6) Speculative Theology.
(7) The Tübingen School.
(8) Strauss.
(9) The Mediating Theology.
(10) Lutheran Theologians.
(11) Old Testament Exegetes.
(12) University Teachers.
(13) The Lutheran Confessional Theology.
(14) ---- Continued.
(15) ---- Continued.
(16) Reformed Confessionalism.
(17) The Free Protestant Theology.
(18) In the Old Testament Department.
(19) Dogmatists.
(20) Ritschl and his School.
(21) ---- Opponents.
(22) Writers on Constitutional Law and History.

§ 183. HOME MISSIONS.
(1) Institutions.
(2) The Order of St. John.
(3) The Itinerant Preacher Gustav Werner in Württemberg.
(4) Bible Societies.

§ 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS.
(1) Missionary Societies.
(2) Europe and America.
(3) Africa.
(4) ---- Livingstone and Stanley.
(5) Asia.
(6) China.
(7) Polynesia and Australia.
(8) Missions to the Jews.
(9) Missions among the Eastern Churches.

III. Catholicism in General.

§ 185. THE PAPACY AND THE STATES OF THE CHURCH.
(1) The First Four Popes of the Century.
(2) Pius IX., A.D. 1846-1878.
(3) The Overthrow of the Papal States.
(4) The Prisoner of the Vatican, A.D. 1870-1878.
(5) Leo XIII.

§ 186. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS.
(1) The Society of Jesus and Related Orders.
(2) Other Orders and Congregations.
(3) The Pius Verein.
(4) The Various German Unions.
(5) Omnipotence of Capital.
(6) The Catholic Missions.
(7) ---- Mission Societies.

§ 187. LIBERAL CATHOLIC MOVEMENTS.
(1) Mystical-Irenical Tendencies.
(2) Evangelical-Revival Tendencies.
(3) Liberal-Scientific Tendencies.
(4) Radical-Liberalistic Tendencies.
(5) Attempts at Reform in Church Government.
(6) Attempts to Found National Catholic Churches.
(7) National Italian Church.
(8) The Frenchman, Charles Loyson.

§ 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM.
(1) The Ultramontane Propaganda.
(2) Miracles.
(3) Stigmatizations.
(4) ---- Louise Lateau.
(5) Pseudo-Stigmatizations.
(6) Manifestations of the Mother of God in France.
(7) Manifestations of the Mother of God in Germany.
(8) Canonizations.
(9) Discoveries of Relics.
(10) The blood of St. Januarius.
(11) The Leaping Procession at Echternach.
(12) The Devotion of the Sacred Heart.
(13) Ultramontane Amulets.
(14) Ultramontane Pulpit Eloquence.

§ 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL.
(1) Preliminary History of the Council.
(2) The Organization of the Council.
(3) The Proceedings of the Council.
(4) Acceptance of the Decrees of the Council.

§ 190. THE OLD CATHOLICS.
(1) Formation and Development of the Old Catholic Church
in the German Empire.
(2) ---- Continued.
(3) The Old Catholics in other Lands.

§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY, ESPECIALLY IN GERMANY.
(1) Hermes and his School.
(2) Baader and his School.
(3) Günther and his School.
(4) John Adam Möhler.
(5) John Jos. Ignat. von Döllinger.
(6) The Chief Representatives of Systematic Theology.
(7) The Chief Representatives of Historical Theology.
(8) The Chief Representatives of Exegetical Theology.
(9) The Chief Representatives of the New Scholasticism.
(10) The Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars, 1863.
(11) Theological Journals.
(12) The Popes and Theological Science.

IV. Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States.

§ 192. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION.
(1) The Imperial Commission’s Decree, 1803.
(2) The Prince-Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine.
(3) The Vienna Congress and the Concordat.
(4) The Frankfort Parliament and the Würzburg Bishops’
Congress of 1848.

§ 193. PRUSSIA.
(1) The Catholic Church to the Close of the Cologne
Conflict.
(2) The Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism, 1841-1871.
(3) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia down to 1848.
(4) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1848-1872.
(5) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1872-1880.
(6) ---- Continued.
(7) The Evangelical Church in the Annexed Provinces.
(8) ---- In Hanover.
(9) ---- In Hesse.

§ 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES.
(1) The Kingdom of Saxony.
(2) The Saxon Duchies.
(3) The Kingdom of Hanover.
(4) Hesse.
(5) Brunswick, Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Lippe-Detmold.
(6) Mecklenburg.

§ 195. BAVARIA.
(1) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under
Maximilian I., 1799-1825.
(2) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under
Louis I., 1825-1848.
(3) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under
Maximilian II., 1848-1864, and Louis II.
(4) Attempts at Reorganization of the Lutheran Church.
(5) The Church of the Union in the Palatine of the Rhine.

§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES AND RHENISH ALSACE
AND LORRAINE.
(1) The Upper Rhenish Church Province.
(2) The Catholic Troubles in Baden down to 1873.
(3) The Protestant Troubles in Baden.
(4) Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau.
(5) In Protestant Württemberg.
(6) The Catholic Church in Württemberg.
(7) The Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine
since 1871.

§ 197. THE SO-CALLED KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
(1) The Aggression of Ultramontanism.
(2) Conflicts Occasioned by Protection of the Old
Catholics, 1871-1872.
(3) Struggles over Educational Questions, 1872-1873.
(4) The Kanzelparagraph and the Jesuit law, 1871-1872.
(5) The Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875.
(6) Opposition in the States to the Prussian May Laws.
(7) Share in the Conflict taken by the Pope.
(8) The Conflict about the Encyclical _Quod nunquam_
of 1875.
(9) Papal Overtures for Peace.
(10) Proof of the Prussian Government’s willingness
to be Reconciled, 1880-1881.
(11) Conciliatory Negotiations, 1882-1884.
(12) Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures,
1885-1886.
(13) Definitive Conclusion of Peace, 1887.
(14) Independent Procedure of the other German Governments.
1. Bavaria.
2. Württemberg.
3. Baden.
(15) 4. Hesse-Darmstadt.
5. Saxony.

§ 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
(1) The Zillerthal Emigration.
(2) The Concordat.
(3) The Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria.
(4) The Clerical Landtag Opposition in the Tyrol.
(5) The Austrian Universities.
(6) The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1874-1876.
(7) The Protestant Church in the Transleithan Provinces.

§ 199. SWITZERLAND.
(1) The Catholic Church in Switzerland till 1870.
(2) The Geneva Conflict, 1870-1883.
(3) Conflict in the Diocese of Basel-Soleure, 1870-1880.
(4) The Protestant Church in German Switzerland.
(5) The Protestant Church in French Switzerland.

§ 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.
(1) The United Netherlands.
(2) The Kingdom of Holland.
(3) ---- Continued.
(4) ---- Continued.
(5) The Kingdom of Belgium.
(6) ---- Continued.
(7) ---- Continued.
(8) The Protestant Church.

§ 201. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.
(1) Denmark.
(2) Sweden.
(3) Norway.

§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
(1) The Episcopal State Church.
(2) The Tractarians and Ritualists.
(3) ---- Continued.
(4) Liberalism in the Episcopal Church.
(5) Protestant Dissenters in England.
(6) Scotch Marriages in England.
(7) The Scottish State Church.
(8) Scottish Heresy Cases.
(9) The Catholic Church in Ireland.
(10) The Fenian Movement.
(11) The Catholic Church in England and Scotland.
(12) German Lutheran Congregations in Australia.

§ 203. FRANCE.
(1) The French Church under Napoleon I.
(2) The Restoration and the Citizen Kingdom.
(3) The Catholic Church under Napoleon III.
(4) The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III.
(5) The Catholic Church in the Third French Republic.
(6) The French “Kulturkampf,” 1880.
(7) ---- Continued.
(8) The Protestant Churches under the Third Republic.

§ 204. ITALY.
(1) The Kingdom of Sardinia.
(2) The Kingdom of Italy.
(3) The Evangelization of Italy.
(4) ---- Continued.

§ 205. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
(1) Spain under Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina.
(2) Spain under Isabella II., 1843-1865.
(3) Spain under Alphonso XII., 1875-1885.
(4) The Evangelization of Spain.
(5) The Church in Portugal.

§ 206. RUSSIA.
(1) The Orthodox National Church.
(2) The Catholic Church.
(3) The Evangelical Church.

§ 207. GREECE AND TURKEY.
(1) The Orthodox Church of Greece.
(2) Massacre of Syrian Christians, 1860.
(3) The Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle.
(4) The Armenian Church.
(5) The Berlin Treaty, 1878.

§ 208. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
(1) English Protestant Denominations.
(2) The German Lutheran Denominations.
(3) ---- Continued.
(4) German-Reformed and other German-Protestant
Denominations.
(5) The Catholic Church.

§ 209. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA.
(1) Mexico.
(2) In the Republics of Central and Southern America.
(3) Brazil.

V. Opponents of Church and of Christianity.

§ 210. SECTARIANS AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC AND
ORTHODOX RUSSIAN DOMAINS.
(1) Sects and Fanatics in the Roman Catholic Domain.
1. The Order of New Templars.
2. St. Simonians.
3. Aug. Comte.
(2) 4. Thomas Pöschl.
5. Antonians.
6. Adamites.
7. David Lazzaretti.
(3) Russian Sects and Fanatics.
(4) ---- Continued.

§ 211. SECTARIES AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN.
(1) The Methodist Propaganda.
(2) The Salvation Army.
(3) Baptists and Quakers.
(4) Swedenborgians and Unitarians.
(5) Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations.
(6) Christian Communistic Sects.
1. Harmonites.
2. Bible Communists.
(7) Millenarian Exodus Communities.
1. Georgian Separatists.
2. Bavarian Chiliasts.
(8) 3. Amen Community.
4. German Temple Communities.
(9) The Community of “the New Israel.”
(10) The Catholic Apostolic Church of the Irvingites.
(11) The Darbyites and Adventists.
(12) The Mormons or Latter Day Saints.
(13) ---- Continued.
(14) ---- Continued.
(15) The Taepings in China.
(16) ---- Continued.
(17) The Spiritualists.
(18) Theosophism or Occultism.

§ 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM.
(1) The Beginnings of Modern Communism.
(2) St. Simonism.
(3) Owenists and Icarians.
(4) The International Working-Men’s Association.
(5) German Social Democracy.
(6) Russian Nihilism.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.

INDEX.

THIRD DIVISION.
(Continued.)

SECOND SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

I. Relations between the Different Churches.

§ 152. EAST AND WEST.

The papacy formed new plans for conquest in the domain of the Eastern church, but with at most only transient success. Still more illusory were the hopes entertained for a while in Geneva and London in regard to the Calvinizing of the Greek church.

§ 152.1. =Roman Catholic Hopes.=--The Jesuit missions among the
Turks and schismatic Greeks failed, but among the Abyssinians
some progress was made. By promising Spanish aid, the Jesuit
Paez succeeded, in A.D. 1621, in inducing the Sultan Segued to
abjure the Jacobite heresy. Mendez was made Abyssinian patriarch
by Urban VIII. in A.D. 1626, but the clergy and people repeatedly
rebelled against sultan and patriarch. In A.D. 1642 the next
sultan drove the Jesuits out of his kingdom, and in it henceforth
no traces of Catholicism were to be found.--In Russia the false
Demetrius, in A.D. 1605, working in Polish Catholic interests,
sought to catholicize the empire; but this only convinced the
Russians that he was no true czar’s son. When his Catholic Polish
bride entered Moscow with 200 Poles, a riot ensued, in which
Demetrius lost his life.[445]

§ 152.2. =Calvinistic Hopes.=--=Cyril Lucar=, a native of Crete,
then under Venetian rule, by long residence in Geneva had come
to entertain a strong liking to the Reformed church. Expelled
from his situation as rector of a Greek seminary at Ostrog by
Jesuit machinations, he was made Patriarch of Alexandria in
A.D. 1602 and of Constantinople in A.D. 1621. He maintained
a regular correspondence with Reformed divines in Holland,
Switzerland, and England. In A.D. 1628 he sent the famous Codex
Alexandrinus as a present to James I. He wrought expressly
for a union of the Greek and Reformed churches, and for this
end sent, in A.D. 1629, to Geneva an almost purely Calvinistic
confession. But the other Greek bishops opposed his union
schemes, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople accused
him of political faults. Four times the sultan deposed and
banished him, and at last, in A.D. 1638, he was strangled as
a traitor and cast into the sea.--One of his Alexandrian clergy,
Metrophanes Critopulus, whom in A.D. 1616 he had sent for his
education to England, studied several years at Oxford, then
at German Protestant universities, ending with Helmstadt, where,
in A.D. 1625, he composed in Greek a confession of the faith
of the Greek Orthodox Church. It was pointedly antagonistic to
the Romish doctrine, conciliatory toward Protestantism, while
abandoning nothing essential in the Greek Orthodox creed, and
showing signs of the possession of independent speculative power.
Afterwards Metrophanes became Patriarch of Alexandria, and in
the synod, presided over by Lucar’s successor, Cyril of Berrhoë,
at Constantinople in A.D. 1638, gave his vote for the formal
condemnation of the man who had been already executed.[446]

§ 152.3. =Orthodox Constancy.=--The Russian Orthodox church,
after its emancipation from Constantinople and the erection of
an independent patriarchate at Moscow in A.D. 1589 (§ 73, 4),
had decidedly the pre-eminence over the Greek Orthodox church,
and the Russian czar took the place formerly occupied by the
East Roman emperor as protector of the whole Orthodox church.
The dangers to the Orthodox faith threatened by schemes of union
with Catholics and Protestants induced the learned metropolitan,
Peter Mogilas of Kiev, to compose a new confession in
catechetical form, which, in A.D. 1643, was formally authorized
by the Orthodox patriarchs as Ὀρθόδοξος ὁμολογία τῆς καθολικῆς
καὶ ἀποστολικῆς ἐκκλησίας τῆς ἀνατολικῆς.--Thirty years later
a controversy on the eucharist broke out between the Jansenists
Nicole and Arnauld, on the one side, and the Calvinists Claude
and Jurieu, on the other (§ 157, 1), in which both claimed to
be in agreement with the Greek church. A synod was convened
under =Dositheus of Jerusalem= in A.D. 1672, at the instigation
of French diplomatists, where the questions raised by Cyril
were again taken into consideration. Maintaining a friendly
attitude toward the Romish church, it directed a violent
polemic against Calvinism. In order to save the character of
the Constantinopolitan chair for constant Orthodoxy, Cyril’s
confession of A.D. 1629 was pronounced a spurious, heretical
invention, and a confession composed by Dositheus, in which
Cyril’s Calvinistic heresies were repudiated, was incorporated
with the synod’s acts.

§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM.

The Jesuit counter-reformation (§ 151) was eminently successful during the first decades of the century in Bohemia. The Westphalian Peace restrained its violence, but did not prevent secret machinations and the open exercise of all conceivable arts of seduction. Next to the conversion of Bohemia, the greatest triumph of the restoration was won in France in the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Besides such victories the Catholics were able to glory in the conversion of several Protestant princes. New endeavours at union were repeatedly made, but these in every case proved as fruitless as former attempts had done.

§ 153.1. =Conversions of Protestant Princes.=--The first
reigning prince who became a convert to Romanism was the
Margrave =James III. of Baden=. He went over in A.D. 1590
(§ 144, 4), but as his death occurred soon after, his conduct
had little influence upon his people. Of greater consequence
was the conversion, in A.D. 1614, of the Count-palatine Wolfgang
William of Neuburg, as it prepared the way for the catholicizing
of the whole Palatinate, which followed in A.D. 1685. Much was
made of the passing over to the Catholic church of =Christina
of Sweden=, the highly gifted but eccentric daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus. As she had resigned the crown, the pope gained no
political advantage from his new member, and Alexander VII.
had even to contribute to her support. The Elector of Saxony,
=Frederick Augustus II.=, passed over to the Roman Catholic
church in A.D. 1697, in order to qualify himself for the Polish
crown; but the rights of his Protestant subjects were carefully
guarded. An awkwardness arose from the fact that the prince was
pledged by the directory of the Regensburg Diet of A.D. 1653 to
care for the interests of the evangelical church. Now that he
had become a Catholic, he still formally promised to do so, but
had his duties discharged by a commissioner. Subsequently this
officer was ordered to take his directions from the evangelical
council of Dresden.

§ 153.2. =The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring
States= (§ 151, 1).--Matthias having, in violation of the royal
letter of his predecessor Rudolph II. (§ 139, 19), refused to
allow the Protestants of Bohemia to build churches, was driven
out; the Jesuits also were expelled, and the Calvinistic
Elector-palatine Frederick V. was chosen as prince in A.D. 1619.
Ferdinand II. (A.D. 1619-1637) defeated him, tore up the
royal letter, restored the Jesuits, and expelled the Protestant
pastors. Efforts were made by Christian IV. of Denmark and other
Protestant princes to save Protestantism, but without success.
Ferdinand now issued his =Restitution Edict= of A.D. 1629,
which deprived Protestants of their privileges, and gave to
Catholic nobles unrestricted liberty to suppress the evangelical
faith in their dominions. It was then that Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden, in religious not less than political interests, made his
appearance as the saviour of Protestantism.[447] The unhappy war
was brought to an end in A.D. 1648 by the publication at Münster
and Osnabrück of the =Peace of Westphalia=, which Innocent X.
in his bull “_Zelo Domus Dei_” of A.D. 1651 pronounced “null
and void, without influence on past, present, and future.”
Germany lost several noble provinces, but its intellectual
and religious freedom was saved. Under Swedish and French
guarantee the Augsburg Religious Peace was confirmed and even
extended to the Reformed, as related to the Augsburg Confession.
The church property was to be restored on January 1st,
A.D. 1624. The political equality of Protestants and Catholics
throughout Germany was distinctly secured. In =Bohemia=,
however, Protestantism was thoroughly extirpated, and in the
other Austrian states the oppression continued down to the time
of Joseph II. In =Silesia=, from the passing of the Restitution
Edict, over a thousand churches had been violently taken from
the evangelicals. No compensation was now thought of, but
rather the persecution continued throughout the whole century
(§ 165, 4), and many thousands were compelled to migrate, for
the most part to Upper Lusatia.

§ 153.3. Also in =Livonia=, from A.D. 1561 under Polish rule,
the Jesuits gained a footing and began the restoration, but
under Gustavus Adolphus from A.D. 1621 their machinations
were brought to an end.--The ruthless =Valteline Massacre=
of A.D. 1620 may be described as a Swiss St. Bartholomew on
a small scale. All Protestants were murdered in one day. The
conspirators at a signal from the clock tower in the early
morning broke into the houses of heretics, and put all to death,
down to the very babe in the cradle. Between four and five
hundred were slaughtered.--In =Hungary=, at the close of the
preceding century only three noble families remained Catholic,
and the Protestant churches numbered 2,000; but the Jesuits, who
had settled there under the protection of Rudolph II. in 1579,
resumed their intrigues, and the Archbishop of Gran, Pazmany,
wrought hard for the restoration of Catholicism. Rakoczy of
Transylvania, in the Treaty of Linz of A.D. 1645, concluded
a league offensive and defensive with Sweden and France, which
secured political and religious liberty for Hungary; but of
the 400 churches of which the Protestants had been robbed only
ninety were given back. The bigoted Leopold I., from A.D. 1655
king of Hungary, inaugurated a yet more severe persecution,
which continued until the publication of the Toleration Edict
of Joseph II. in A.D. 1781. The 2,000 Protestant congregations
were by this time reduced to 105.

§ 153.4. =The Huguenots in France= (§ 139, 17).--Henry IV.
faithfully fulfilled the promises which he made in the Edict of
Nantes; but under Louis XIII., A.D. 1610-1643, the oppressions
of the Huguenots were renewed, and led to fresh outbreaks.
Richelieu withdrew their political privileges, but granted
them religious toleration in the Edict of Nismes, A.D. 1629.
Louis XIV., A.D. 1643-1715, at the instigation of his confessors,
sought to atone for his sins by purging his land of heretics.
When bribery and court favour had done all that they could do in
the way of conversions, the fearful dragonnades began, A.D. 1681.
The formal =Revocation of the Edict of Nantes= followed in
A.D. 1685, and persecution raged with the utmost violence.
Thousands of churches were torn down, vast numbers of confessors
were tortured, burnt, or sent to the galleys. In spite of the
terrible penal laws against emigrating, in spite of the watch
kept over the frontiers, hundreds of thousands escaped, and were
received with open arms as _refugees_ in Brandenburg, Holland,
England, Denmark, and Switzerland. Many fled into the wilds of
the Cevennes, where under the name of Camisards they maintained
a heroic conflict for years, until at last exterminated by an
army at least ten times their strength. The struggle reached
the utmost intensity of bitterness on both sides in A.D. 1702,
when the fanatical and inhumanly cruel inquisitor, the Abbé
du Chaila, was slain. At the head of the Camisard army was
a young peasant, Jean Cavalier, who by his energetic and skilful
conduct of the campaign astonished the world. At last the
famous Marshal Villars, by promising a general amnesty, release
of all prisoners, permission to emigrate with possessions,
and religious toleration to those who remained, succeeded in
persuading Cavalier to lay down his arms. The king ratified
this bargain, only refusing the right of religious freedom.
Many, however, submitted; while others emigrated, mostly to
England. Cavalier entered the king’s service as colonel; but
distrusting the arrangements fled to Holland, and afterwards
to England, where in A.D. 1740 he died as governor of Jersey.
In A.D. 1707 a new outbreak took place, accompanied by prophetic
fanaticism, in consequence of repeated dragonnades, but it
was put down by the stake, the gallows, the axe, and the wheel.
France had lost half a million of her most pious, industrious,
and capable inhabitants, and yet two millions of Huguenots
deprived of all their rights remained in the land.[448]

§ 153.5. =The Waldensians in Piedmont= (§ 139, 25).--Although
in A.D. 1654 the Duke of Savoy confirmed to the Waldensians
their privileges, by Easter of the following year a bloody
persecution broke out, in which a Piedmontese army, together
with a horde of released prisoners and Irish refugees,
driven from their native land by Cromwell’s severities, to
whom the duke had given shelter in the valleys, perpetrated
the most horrible cruelties. Yet in the desperate conflict
the Waldensians held their ground. The intervention of the
Protestant Swiss cantons won for them again a measure of
toleration, and liberal gifts from abroad compensated them
for their loss of property. Cromwell too sent to the relief
of the sufferers the celebrated Lord Morland in A.D. 1658.
While in the valleys he got possession of a number of MSS.
(§ 108, 11), which he took home with him and deposited in
the Cambridge Library. In A.D. 1685 the persecution and civil
war were again renewed at the instigation of Louis XIV. The
soldiers besieged the valleys, and more than 14,000 captives
were consigned to fortresses and prisons. But the rest of the
Waldensians plucked up courage, inflicted many defeats upon
their enemy, and so moved the government in A.D. 1686 to release
the prisoners and send them out of the country. Some found their
way to Germany, others fled to Switzerland. These last, aided
by Swiss troops, and led by their own pastor, Henry Arnaud, made
an attack upon Piedmont in A.D. 1689, and conquered again their
own country. They continued in possession, notwithstanding all
attempts to dislodge them.

§ 153.6. =The Catholics in England and Ireland.=--When James I.,
A.D. 1603-1625, the son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English
throne (§ 139, 11), the Catholics expected from him nothing
short of the complete restoration of the old religion. But
great as James’ inclination towards Catholicism may have been,
his love of despotic authority was still greater. He therefore
rigorously suppressed the Jesuits, who disputed the royal
supremacy over the church; and the bitterness of the Catholics
now reached its height. They organized the so-called =Gunpowder
Plot=, with the intention of blowing up the royal family and
the whole Parliament at the first meeting of the house. At
the head of the conspiracy stood Rob. Catesby, Thomas Percy
of Northumberland, and Guy Fawkes, an English officer in the
Spanish service. The plan was discovered shortly before the day
appointed for its execution. On November 5th, A.D. 1605, Fawkes,
with lantern and matches, was seized in the cellar. The rest of
the conspirators fled, but, after a desperate struggle, in which
Catesby and Percy fell, were arrested, and, together with two
Jesuit accomplices, executed as traitors. Great severities were
then exercised toward the Catholics, not only in England, but
also in Ireland, where the bulk of the population was attached
to the Romish faith. James I. completed the transference of
ecclesiastical property to the Anglican church, and robbed
the Irish nobles of almost all their estates, and gifted them
over to Scottish and English favourites. All Catholics, because
they refused to take the oath of supremacy, _i.e._ to recognise
the king as head of the church, were declared ineligible
for any civil office. These oppressions at last led to the
fearful =Irish massacre=. In October, A.D. 1641, a desperate
outbreak of the Catholics took place throughout the country.
It aimed at the destruction of all Protestants in Ireland.
The conspirators rushed from all sides into the houses of the
Protestants, murdered the inhabitants, and drove them naked and
helpless from their homes. Many thousands died on the roadside
of hunger and cold. In other places they were driven in crowds
into the rivers and drowned, or into empty houses, which were
burnt over them. The number of those who suffered is variously
estimated from 40,000 to 400,000. Charles I., A.D. 1625-1649,
was suspected as instigator of this terrible deed, and it may
be regarded as his first step toward the scaffold (§ 155, 1).
After the execution of Charles, Oliver Cromwell, in A.D. 1649,
at the call of Parliament, took fearful revenge for the Irish
crime. In the two cities which he took by storm he had all
the citizens cut down without distinction. Panic-stricken, the
inhabitants of the other cities fled to the bogs. Within nine
months the whole island was reconquered. Hundreds of thousands,
driven from their native soil, wandered as homeless fugitives,
and their lands were divided among English soldiers and settlers.
During the time of the English Commonwealth, A.D. 1649-1660,
all moderate men, even those who had formerly demanded religious
toleration, not only for all Christian sects, but also for Jews
and Mohammedans, and even atheists, were now at one in excluding
Catholics from its benefit, because they all saw in the
Catholics a party ready at any moment to prove traitors to their
country at the bidding of a foreign sovereign.--The Restoration
under Charles II. could not greatly ameliorate the calamities of
the Irish. Religious persecution indeed ceased, but the property
taken from the Catholic church and native owners still remained
in the hands of the Anglican church and the Protestant occupiers.
To counterbalance the Catholic proclivities of Charles II.
(§ 155, 3), the English Parliament of A.D. 1673 passed the =Test
Act=, which required every civil and military officer to take
the test oaths, condemning transubstantiation and the worship
of the saints, and to receive the communion according to the
Anglican rite as members of the State church. The statements
of a certain Titus Oates, that the Jesuits had organized a plot
for murdering the king and restoring the papacy, led to fearful
riots in A.D. 1678 and many executions. But the reports were
seemingly unfounded, and were probably the fruit of an intrigue
to deprive the king’s Catholic brother, James II., of the right
of succession. When James ascended the throne, in A.D. 1685,
he immediately entered into negotiations with Rome, and
filled almost all offices with Catholics. At the invitation of
the Protestants, the king’s son-in-law, William III. of Orange,
landed in England in A.D. 1688, and on James’ flight was
declared king by the Parliament. The Act of Toleration, issued
by him in A.D. 1689, still withheld from Papists the privileges
now extended to Protestant dissenters (§ 155, 3).[449]

§ 153.7. =Union Efforts.=

1. Although =Hugo Grotius= distinctly took the side of
the Remonstrants (§ 160, 2), his whole disposition was
essentially irenical. He attempted, but in vain, not
only the reconciliation of the Arminians and Calvinists,
but also the union of all Protestant sects on a common
basis. Toward Catholicism he long maintained a decidedly
hostile attitude. But through intimate intercourse with
distinguished Catholics, especially during his exile
in France, his feelings were completely changed. He now
invariably expressed himself more favourably in regard
to the faith and the institutions of the Catholic church.
Its semi-Pelagianism was acceptable to him as a decided
Arminian. In his “_Votum pro Pace_” he recommended as the
only possible way to restore ecclesiastical union, a return
to Catholicism, on the understanding that a thorough reform
should be made. But that he was himself ready to pass over,
and was hindered only by his sudden death in A.D. 1645, is
merely an illusion of Romish imagination.[450]

2. King Wladislaus [Wladislaw] IV. of Poland thought
a union of Protestants and Catholics in his dominions
not impossible, and with this end in view arranged the
=Religious Conference of Thorn= in A.D. 1645. Prussia
and Brandenburg were also invited to take part in it.
The elector sent his court preacher, John Berg, and asked
from the Duke of Brunswick the assistance of the Helmstadt
theologian, George Calixt. The chief representatives of
the Lutheran side were Abraham Calov, of Danzig, and John
Hülsemann, of Wittenberg. That Calixt, a Lutheran, took
the part of the Reformed, intensified the bitterness of
the Lutherans at the outset. The result was to increase
the split on all sides. The Reformed set forth their
opinions in the “_Declaratio Thorunensis_,” which in
Brandenburg obtained symbolical rank.

3. J. B. =Bossuet=, who died in A.D. 1704, Bishop of Meaux,
used all his eloquence to prepare a way for the return of
Protestants to the church in which alone is salvation. In
several treatises he gave an idealized exposition of the
Catholic doctrine, glossed over what was most offensive
to Protestants, and sought by subtlety and sophistry
to represent the Protestant system as contradictory
and untenable.[451] During the same period the Spaniard
=Spinola=, Bishop of Neustadt, who had come into the
country as father confessor of the empress, proposed
a scheme of union at the imperial court. The controverted
points were to be decided at a free council, but the
primacy of the pope and the hierarchical system, as
founded _jure humano_, were to be retained. In prosecuting
his scheme, with the secret support of Leopold I., Spinola,
between A.D. 1676 and 1691, travelled through all Protestant
Germany. He found most success, out of respect for the
emperor, in Hanover, where the Abbot of Loccum, Molanus,
zealously advocated the proposed union, in which on the
Catholic side Bossuet, on the Protestant side the great
philosopher =Leibnitz=, took part. But the negotiations
ended in no practical result. That Leibnitz had himself
been already secretly inclined to Catholicism, some
think to have proved by a manuscript, found after his
death, entitled in another’s hand, “_Systema Theologicum
Leibnitii_.” Favourably disposed as Leibnitz was to
investigate and recognise what was profound and true
even in Catholicism, so that he reached the conviction
that neither of the two churches had given perfect and
adequate expression to Christian truth, he has apparently
sought in this work to make clear to himself what and how
much of specifically Catholic doctrines were justifiable,
and to sketch out a system of doctrine occupying a place
superior to both confessions. In this treatise many
doctrines are expressed in a manner quite divergent from
that of the Tridentine creed, while several expressions
show how clearly he perceived the contradiction between
his own Protestant faith and the Romish system, amid all
his attempts to effect a reconciliation.

§ 153.8. =The Lehnin Prophecy.=--The hope entertained, about
the end of the seventeenth century, by Catholics throughout
Germany of the speedy restoration of the mother church
was expressed in the so called =Vaticinium Lehninense=.
Professedly composed in the thirteenth century by a monk
called Hermann, of the cloister of Lehnin in Brandenburg,
it characterized with historical accuracy in 100 Leonine
verses the Brandenburg princes down to Frederick III., of
whose coronation in A.D. 1701 it is ignorant, and after this
proceeds in a purely fanciful and arbitrary manner. From
Joachim II., who openly joined the Reformation, it enumerates
eleven members, so that the history is just brought down to
Frederick William III. With the eleventh the Hohenzollern
dynasty ends, Germany is united, the Catholic church restored,
and Lehnin raised again to its ancient glory. Under Frederick
William IV., the Catholics diligently sought to prove the
genuineness of the prophecy, and by arbitrary methods to extend
it so as to include this prince. Lately “the deadly sin of
Israel” spoken of in it has been pointed to as a prophecy of
the _Kultur-kampf_ of our own day (§ 197). The first certain
trace of the poem is in A.D. 1693. Hilgenfeld thinks that its
author was a fanatical pervert, Andr. Fromm, who was previously
a Protestant pastor in Berlin, and died in A.D. 1685 as canon
of Leitmeritz, in Bohemia.

§ 154. LUTHERANISM AND CALVINISM.

The Reformed church made its way into the heart of Lutheran Germany (§ 144) by the Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel and Lippe, and by the adherence of the electoral house of Brandenburg. Renewed attempts to unite the two churches were equally fruitless with the endeavours after a Catholic-Protestant union.

§ 154.1. =Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel, A.D. 1605-1646.=--Philip
the Magnanimous, died 1567, left to his eldest son, William IV.,
one half of his territories, comprising Lower Hesse and
Schmalcald, with residence at Cassel; to Louis IV. a fourth
part, _viz._ Upper Hesse, with residence at Marburg; while
his two youngest sons, Philip and George, were made counts,
with their residence at Darmstadt. Philip died in 1583 and
Louis in 1604, both childless; in consequence of which the
greater part of Philip’s territory and the northern half
of Upper Hesse with Marburg fell to Hesse-Cassel, and the
southern half with Giessen to Hesse-Darmstadt.--Landgrave
=William IV.= of Hesse-Cassel sympathised with his father’s
union and levelling tendencies, and by means of general synods
wrought eagerly to secure acceptance for them throughout Hesse
by setting aside the _ubiquitous_ Christology (§ 141, 9) and
the Formula of Concord, while firmly maintaining the _Corpus
Doctrinæ Philippicum_ (§ 141, 10). The fourth and last of
those general synods was held in 1582. Further procedure was
meanwhile rendered impossible by the increase of opposition.
For, on the one hand, Louis IV., under the influence of the
acute and learned but contentious Ægidius Hunnius, professor of
theology at Marburg, 1576-1592, became more and more decidedly
a representative of exclusive Lutheranism; and, on the other
hand, William’s Calvinizing schemes became from day to day more
reckless. His son and successor =Maurice= went forward more
energetically along the same lines as his father, especially
after the death of his uncle Louis in 1604, who bequeathed to
him the Marburg part of his territories. These had been given
him on condition that he should hold by the confession and
its apology as guaranteed by Charles V. in 1530. But in 1605
he forbad the Marburg theologians to set forth the ubiquity
theology; and when they protested, issued a formal prohibition
of the dogma with its presuppositions and consequences, and
insisted on the introduction of the Reformed numbering of the
commandments of the decalogue, and the breaking of bread at
the communion, and the removal of the remaining images from
the churches (§ 144, 2). The theologians again protested, and
were deprived of their offices. The result was the outbreak
of a popular tumult at Marburg, which Maurice suppressed
by calling in the military. When in several places in Upper
and even in Lower Hesse opposition was persisted in, and the
resisting clergy could not be won over either by persuasion
and threatening or by persecution, Maurice in 1607 convened
consultative diocesan synods at Cassel, Eschwege, Marburg,
St. Goar, and soon after a general synod at Cassel, which,
giving expression on all points to the will of the landgrave,
drew up, besides a new hymnbook and catechism, a new “Christian
and correct confession of faith,” by which they openly and
decidedly declared their attachment to the Reformed church.
Soon Hesse accepted these conclusions, but not the rest of
the state, where the opposition of the nobles, clergy, and
people, in spite of all attempts to enforce this acceptance
by military power, imprisonment, and deposition, could not
be altogether overcome.--Meanwhile George’s son and successor,
=Louis V.=, 1596-1626, had been eagerly seeking to make capital
of those troubles in his cousin’s domains in favour of the
Darmstadt dynasty. He gave his protection to the professors
expelled from Marburg in 1605, founded in 1607 a Lutheran
university at Giessen, and made accusations against his cousin
before the imperial supreme court, which in 1623, on the basis
of the will of Louis IV. and the Religious Peace of Augsburg
(§ 137, 5), declared the inheritance forfeited, and entrusted
the electors of Cologne and Saxony with the execution of the
sentence. These in conjunction with the troops of the league
under Tilly attacked Upper and Lower Hesse; the Lutheran
University of Giessen was transferred to Marburg, and Upper
Hesse, after the banishment of the Reformed pastors, went
over wholly to the Lutheran confession. Maurice, completely
broken down, resigned in favour of his son =William V.=, who
was obliged to make an agreement, according to which he made
over Upper Hesse, Schmalcald, and Katzenelnbogen to =George II.=
of Hesse-Darmstadt, the successor of Louis V. In consequence
of his attachment to Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years’
War the ban of the empire was pronounced upon William. He died
in 1637. His widow, =Amalie Elizabeth=, undertook the government
on behalf of her young son William VI., and in 1646, after
repeated victories over George’s troops, made a new agreement
with him, by which the territories taken away in 1627 were
restored to Hesse-Cassel, under a guarantee, however, that
the _status quo_ in matters of religion should be preserved,
and that they should continue predominantly Lutheran. The
university property was divided; Giessen obtained a Lutheran,
Marburg a Reformed institution, and Lower Hesse received
a moderately but yet essentially Reformed ecclesiastical
constitution.

§ 154.2. =Calvinizing of Lippe, A.D. 1602.=--Count Simon VI.
of Lippe, in his eventful life, was brought into close relations
with the Reformed Netherlands and with Maurice of Hesse. His
dominions were thoroughly Lutheran, but from A.D. 1602 Calvinism
was gradually introduced under the patronage of the prince.
The chief promoter of this innovation was Dreckmeyer, chosen
general superintendent in A.D. 1599. At a visitation of churches
in A.D. 1602, the festivals of Mary and the apostles, exorcism,
the sign of the cross, the host, burning candles, and Luther’s
catechism were rejected. Opposing pastors were deposed, and
Calvinists put in their place. The city Lemgo stood out longest,
and persevered in its adherence to the Lutheran confession
during an eleven years’ struggle with its prince, from A.D. 1606
to 1617. After the death of Simon VI., his successor, Simon VII.,
allowed the city the free exercise of its Lutheran religion.

§ 154.3. =The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist,
A.D. 1613.=--John Sigismund, A.D. 1608-1619, had promised his
grandfather, John George, to maintain his connexion with the
Lutheran church. But his own inclination, which was strengthened
by his son’s marriage with a princess of the Palatinate, and
his connexion with the Netherlands, made him forget his promise.
Also his court preacher, the crypto-Calvinist Solomon Fink,
contributed to the same result. On Christmas Day, A.D. 1613,
he went over to the Reformed church. In order to share in the
Augsburg Peace, he still retained the Augsburg Confession,
naturally in the form known as the _Variata_. In A.D. 1624,
he issued a Calvinist confession of his own, the _Confessio
Sigismundi_ or _Marchica_, which sought to reconcile the
universality of grace with the particularity of election
(§ 168, 1). His people, however, did not follow the prince,
not even his consort, Anne of Prussia. The court preacher,
Gedicke, who would not retract his invectives against the
prince and the Reformed confession, was obliged to flee from
Berlin, as also another preacher, Mart. Willich. But when
altars, images, and baptismal fonts were thrown out of the
Berlin churches, a tumult arose, in A.D. 1615, which was
not suppressed without bloodshed. In the following year the
elector forbade the teaching of the _communicatio idiomatum_
and the _ubiquitas corporis_ (§ 141, 9) at the University of
Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In A.D. 1614, owing to the publication
of a keen controversial treatise of Hutter (§ 159, 5) he
forbade any of his subjects going to the University of
Wittenberg, and soon afterwards struck out the Formula of
Concord from the collection of the symbolical books of the
Lutheran church of his realm.--Continuation, § 169, 1.

§ 154.4. =Union Attempts.=--Hoë von Hoënegg, of an old Austrian
family, was from A.D. 1612 chief court preacher at Dresden,
and as spiritual adviser of the elector, John George, on the
outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, got Lutheran Saxony to
take the side of the Catholic emperor against the Calvinist
Frederick V. of the Palatinate, elected king of Bohemia.
In A.D. 1621, he had proved that “on ninety-nine points the
Calvinists were in accord with the Arians and the Turks.” At
the Religious Conference of Leipzig of A.D. 1631 a compromise
was accepted on both sides; but no practical result was secured.
The Religious Conference of Cassel, in A.D. 1661, was a well
meant endeavour by some Marburg Reformed theologians and
Lutherans of the school of Calixt (§ 158, 2); but owing to
the agitation caused by the Synergist controversy, no important
advance toward union could be accomplished. The union efforts
of Duke William of Brandenburg, A.D. 1640-1688, were opposed by
Paul Gerhardt, preacher in the church of St. Nicholas in Berlin.
On refusing to abstain from attacks on the Reformed doctrine
he was deposed from his office. He was soon appointed pastor
at Lübben in Lusatia, where he died in A.D. 1676.--The most
zealous apostle of universal Protestant union, embracing even
the Anglican church, was the Scottish Presbyterian John Durie.
From A.D. 1628 when he officiated as pastor of an English colony
at Elbing, till his death at Cassel in A.D. 1640, he devoted his
energies unweariedly to this one task. He repeatedly travelled
through Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England, and the Netherlands,
formed acquaintance with clerical and civil authorities,
had intercourse with them by word and letter, published
a multitude of tracts on this subject; but at last could
only look back with bitter complaints over the lost labours
of a lifetime.[452]--Continuation, § 169, 1.

§ 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM.[453]

On the outbreak of the English Revolution, occasioned by the despotism of the first two Stuarts, crowds of Puritan exiles returned from Holland and North America to their old home. They powerfully strengthened their secret sympathisers in their successful struggle against the episcopacy of the State church (§ 139, 6); but, breaking up into rival parties, as Presbyterians and Independents (§ 143, 3, 4), gave way to fanatical extravagances. The victorious party of Independents also split into two divisions: the one, after the old Dutch style, simple and strict believers in Scripture; the other, first in Cromwell’s army, fanatical enthusiasts and visionary saints (§ 161, 1). The Restoration, under the last two Stuarts, sought to re-introduce Catholicism. It was William of Orange, by his Act of Toleration of A.D. 1689, who first brought to a close the Reformation struggles within the Anglican church. It guaranteed, indeed, all the pre-eminent privileges of an establishment to the Anglican and Episcopal church, but also granted toleration to dissenters, while refusing it to Catholics.