Chapter XXIV: Part 24

§ 211.15. =The Taepings in China.=--Hung-sen-tsenen, born in
1813 in the province of Shan-Tung, was destined for the learned
profession but failed in his examination at Canton. There he
first, in 1833, came into contact with Protestant missionaries,
whose misunderstood words awakened in him the belief that he was
called to perform great things. At the same time he there got
possession of some Christian Chinese tracts. Failing in his
examination a second time in 1837, he fell into a dangerous
illness and had a series of visions in which an old man with a
golden beard appeared, handing to him the insignia of imperial
rank, and commanding him to root out the demons. After his
recovery he became an elementary teacher. A relative called Li
visited him in 1843. The Christian tracts were again sought out
and carefully studied. Sen now recognised in the old man of his
visions the God of the Christians and in himself the younger
brother of Jesus. The two baptized one another and won over
two young relatives to their views. Expelled from their offices,
they went in 1844 to the province of Kiang Se as pencil and
ink sellers, preached diligently the new doctrine and founded
numerous small congregations of their sect. The American
missionaries at Canton heard of the success of their preaching,
and Sen accepted an invitation to join them in 1847. The
missionary Roberts had a great esteem for him and intended to
baptize him, when in consequence of stories spread about him
their relations became strained. Sen now returned in 1848 to
his companions in Kiang Se, who had diligently and successfully
continued their preaching. In 1850 they began to attract
attention by the violent destruction of idols. When now all the
remnants of a pirate band joined them as converts, they were in
common with these persecuted by the government and proclaimed
rebels. The expulsion of the hated Mantshu dynasty, which two
hundred years before had displaced the Ming dynasty, and the
overthrow of idolatry were now their main endeavour, and in 1857
they organized under Sen a regular rebellion for the setting up
of a Taeping dynasty, _i.e._, of universal peace. The Taeping
army advanced unhindered, all Mantschu soldiers who fell into
its hands were massacred, and of the inhabitants of the provinces
conquered, only those were spared who joined their ranks. In
March, 1853, they stormed the second capital of the empire,
Nankin, the old residence of the Ming dynasty. There Sen fixed
his residence and styled himself Tien-Wang, the Divine Prince.
He assigned to ten subordinate princes the government of the
conquered provinces, almost the half of the immense empire.
Thousands of bibles were circulated; the ten commandments
proclaimed as the foundation of law, many writings, prayers
and poems composed for the instruction of the people, and these
with the bible made subjects of examination for entrance to the
learned order. An Arian theory of the trinity was set forth; the
Father is the one personal God, whose likeness in bodily human
form Sen strictly forbade, destroying the Catholic images as well
as the Chinese idols. Jesus is the first-born son of God, yet
not himself God, sent by the Father into the world in order to
enlighten it by his doctrine and to redeem it by his atoning
sufferings. Sen, the younger brother of Jesus, was sent into the
world to spread the doctrine of Jesus and to expel the demons,
the Mantschu dynasty. Reception takes place through baptism. The
Lord’s Supper was unknown to them. Bloody and bloodless offerings
were still tolerated. The use of wine and tobacco was forbidden;
the use of opium and trafficking in it were punished with death.
But polygamy was sanctioned. Saturday, according to the Old
Testament, was their holy day. Their service consisted only
of prayer, singing and religious instruction; but also written
prayers were presented to God by burning.

§ 211.16. Sen himself had no more visions after 1837. But other
ecstatic prophets arose, the eastern prince Yang and the western
prince Siao. The revelations of the latter were comparatively
sober, but those of the former were in the highest degree
blasphemously fanatical. He declared himself the Paraclete
promised by Jesus, and taught that God himself, as well as Jesus,
had a wife with sons and daughters. He was at the same time a
brave and successful general, and the mass of the Taepings were
enthusiastically attached to him. Sen humbly yielded to the
extravagances of this fanatic, even when Yang sentenced him to
receive forty lashes. Sen’s overthrow was already resolved upon
in Yang’s secret council, when Sen took courage and gave the
northern prince secret orders to murder Yang and his followers
in one night. This was done, and Sen was weak enough to allow the
executioner of his secret order to be publicly put to death so as
to appease the excited populace. But he thus again in 1856 became
master of the situation.--One of the oldest apostles of Sen,
his near relative Hung Yin, had been turned off at Hong Kong.
He there attached himself to the Basel missionary, Hamberg, who
in 1852 baptized him and made him his native helper. In hope of
winning his cousin to the true Christian faith, he travelled in
1854 to Nankin, which however he did not reach till January, 1859.
Sen received him gladly and made him his war minister. But his
efforts to introduce a purer Christianity among the Taepings were
unsuccessful, for he tried the slippery way of accommodation, and
under pressure from Sen set up for himself a harem. In October,
1860, on Sen’s repeated invitation, his former teacher, the
missionary Roberts of Nankin, arrived and was immediately made
minister for foreign affairs. The Shanghai missionaries, several
of whom visited Nankin, had interesting interviews with Yin in
1860, but not with the emperor, as they refused to go on their
knees before him. They were encouraged by Yin to hope for a
future much needed purifying of Taeping Christianity. Yang’s
revelations, however, held their ground after as well as
before, and were increased by further absurdities. To such
crass fanaticism was now added the inhuman cruelty with which
they massacred the vanquished and wasted the conquered cities
and districts. Had the European powers ranged themselves in a
friendly and peaceful attitude alongside of the Taepings, China
might now have been a Christian empire. Instead of this the
English, on account of the extreme opposition of the Taepings
to the opium traffic, took up a hostile position toward them,
while they were also in disfavour with the French, who had been
denounced by them as idolaters on account of their Romish image
worship. Down to the beginning of 1862, however, Yin’s influence
had prevented any hostile proceedings against the Europeans in
spite of many provocations given. But after that the Taepings
refused them any quarter. Roberts fled by night to save his life.
Against disciplined European troops the rebels could not hold
their ground. One city after another was taken from them, and at
last, in July 1864, their capital Nankin. Sen was found poisoned
in his burning palace.[573]

§ 211.17. =The Spiritualists.=--The shoemaker’s apprentice,
Andrew Jackson Davis of Poughkeepsie on the Hudson, in his
nineteenth year fell into a magnetic sleep and composed his
first work, “The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations
and a Voice to Mankind,” in 1845. He declared its utterances
to be spiritual revelations from the other world. But his
later writings composed in working hours made the same claim,
especially the five volume work, “Great Harmonia, being a
Philosophical Revelation of the Natural, Spiritual, and Celestial
Universe,” 1850 ff. Both went through numerous editions and
were translated into German. The great spiritual manifestation
promised in the first work was not long delayed. In a house
bought by the family of Fox in Hydesville in New York State a
spectral knocking was often heard. Through the intercourse which
the two youngest daughters, aged nine and twelve years, had with
the ghosts, the skeleton of a murdered five years’ old child of
a pedlar was discovered buried in the cellar, and when the family
soon thereafter left the house, the ghosts went with them and
continued their communications by table turning, table rapping,
table writing, etc. The thing now became epidemic. Hundreds
and thousands of male and female _mediums_ arose and held an
extremely lively and varied intercourse with innumerable departed
ones of earlier and later times. The believers soon numbered
millions, including highly educated persons of all ranks, even
such exact chemists as Mapes and Hare. An abundant literature
in books and journals, as well as Sunday services, frequent
camp-meetings and annual congresses formed a propaganda for
the alleged spiritualism, which soon found its way across the
ocean and won enthusiastic adherents for all confessions in
all European countries, especially in London, Paris, Brussels,
St. Petersburg, Vienna, Dresden, Leipzig, etc. They now broke
up into two parties called respectively Spiritualists and
Spiritists. The former put in the foreground physical experiments
with astonishing results and miraculous effects; the latter,
with the Frenchman Allan Kardec (_Rivail_) as their leader, give
prominence to the teaching of spirits by direct communication.
The former in reference to the origin of the human soul held by
the theory of traducianism; the latter to that of pre-existence
in connection with a doctrine of re-incarnation of spirits
by reason of growing purity and perfection. The latter see
in Christ the incarnation of a spirit of the highest order;
the former merely the purest and most perfect type of human
nature. But neither admit the real central truth of Christianity,
the reconciliation of sinful humanity with God in Christ.
Both evaporate the resurrection into a mere spectral spirit
manifestation; and the disclosures and utterances of the spirits
with both are equally trivial, silly, and vain.--In England the
famous palæontologist and collaborateur of Darwin, Alfr. Russel
Wallace, and the no less celebrated physicist Wm. Crookes, are
apologists of spiritualism. The latter declared in 1879 that
to the three well-known conditions of matter, solid, fluid and
gaseous, should be added a fourth, “radiant,” and that there is
the borderland where force and matter meet. And in Germany the
acute Leipzig astrophysicist Fr. Zöllner, after a whole series
of spiritualistic séances conducted by the American medium
Slade in 1877 and 1878 had been carefully scrutinized and
tested by himself and several of his most accomplished scientific
colleagues, was convinced of the existence and reality of higher
“four dimension” space in the spirit world, to which by reason
of its fourth dimension the power belonged of passing through
earthly bodily matter. The philosophers I. H. Fichte of Stuttgart
and Ulrici of Halle have admitted the reality of spiritualistic
communications and allege them as proofs of immortality.
Among German theologians Luthardt of Leipzig regards it all
as the work of demons who take advantage for their own ends
of the moral-religious dissolution of the modern world and its
consequent nerve shaking that prevails, just as in the ancient
world in the beginnings of Christianity. Zöckler of Greifswald
finds an analogy between it and the demoniacal possession of
New Testament times; so too Martensen in his “Jacob Boehme,”
and on the Catholic side W. Schneider; while Splittgerber refers
most of the manifestations in question to a merely subjective
origin in “the right side of the human soul life,” but puts
the materialization of spirits in the category of delusive
jugglery. Spiritualism has scarcely rallied from the obloquy
cast upon it by the unmasking of the tricks of the famous medium
Miss Florence Cook in London in 1880 and of the distinguished
spirit materialiser Bastian by the Grand-duke John of Austria
in 1884.[574]

§ 211.18. To the domain of unquestionable illusion belongs
also the spiritualistic movement of Indian =Theosophism= or
=Occultism=. The American Col. Olcott of New York had already
moved for twenty-two years in spiritualist circles when in 1874
he met with Madame Blavatsky, widow of a Russian general who had
been governor of Erivan in Armenia. She professed to have been
from her eighth year in communication with spirits, then to
have had secret intercourse with the Mahatmas, _i.e._ spirits
of old Indian penitents, during a seven years’ residence on the
Himalayas. She now promised to introduce the colonel to them.
Olcott and Blavatsky founded at New York in 1875 a society for
research in the department of the mystic sciences, travelled in
1878 to Further India and Ceylon, and settled finally in Madras,
whence by word and writing they proclaimed through the whole
land theosophism or occultism as the religion of the future,
which, consisting in a medley of Hinduism and Buddhism, enriched
by spiritualistic revelations of Mahatmas, vouched for by
spiritualistic signs and miracles and conformed to the most
recent philosophical and scientific researches in America and
Europe, aimed at heaping contempt upon Christianity and finally
driving it from the field. As fanatical opponents of Christian
missions in India they were strongly supported by the Brahman
and Buddhist hierarchy, and soon obtained for the theosophical
society founded by them not only numerous adherents from
among the natives, but also many Englishman befooled by their
spiritualistic swindle. As apostle and literary pioneer of the
new religion appeared an Anglo-Indian called Sinnett. In spring,
1884, Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott went on a propagandist
tour to Europe, where, in England, France, Austria, and Hungary,
they won many converts, while Col. Olcott at Elberfeld and
Madame Blavatsky at Odessa founded branches of their theosophical
society.--But meanwhile in India affairs assumed a threatening
aspect. Blavatsky on her departure had entrusted the keys of
her dwelling and her mysterious cabinet with its various panels,
falling doors, etc., to Mr. and Mrs. Coulomb, who had been
hitherto her assistants in all her juggleries. Madame Coulomb,
however, quarrelled with the board of theosophists at Madras, and
revenged herself by placing in the hands of the Scottish mission
letters addressed by Blavatsky to herself and her husband which
supplied evidence that all her spiritualistic manifestations
were only common tricks. In addition she gave public exhibitions
in which she demonstrated to the spectators _ad oculos_ the
spiritual manifestations of the Mahatmas, and subsequently
published an “Account of My Acquaintanceship with Madame
Blavatsky, 1872-1884,” with discoveries of her earlier rogueries.
Meanwhile the swindler had herself in December, 1884, returned to
Madras in company with several believers gathered up in England,
among others a young English clergyman, Leadbeater, who some
days previously in Ceylon had formally adopted Buddhism. The
theosophists now demanded that the reputed cheat and deceiver
should be brought before a civil court. The president, however,
declared that the investigations and judgment of a profane
court of law could not be accepted to the mysteries of occultism,
but promised a careful examination by a commission appointed by
himself, and Blavatsky thought it advisable “for the restoration
of her health in a cooler climate” to make off from the scene of
conflict.[575]

§ 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM.

While the antichristian spirit of the age breaks out in various theoretical forms in our literature, there also abound social and communistic movements of a practical kind. Socialism and communism both aim at a thorough-going reform of the rights of property and possession in strict proportion to the labour spent thereon. They are, however, distinguished in this, that while communism declares war against all private property and demands absolute community of goods, socialism, at least in its older and nobler forms, proceeding from the idea of precise correspondence between capital and labour, seeks to have expression given to this in fact. From the older socialism, which endeavoured to reach its end in a peaceful way within the existing lines of civil order, a later social democracy is to be distinguished by its decidedly politico-revolutionary character and tendency to attach itself more to communism. This modern socialism thinks to open the way to the realization of its hare-brained ideas by the confusion and overthrow of existing law and order.

§ 212.1. =The Beginnings of Modern Communism.=--As early as
1796 Babeuf published in Paris a communistic manifesto which
maintained the thesis that natural law gives all men an equal
right to the enjoyment of all goods. His ideas were subsequently
systematized and developed by Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, and Louis
Blanc in France, and by Weibling and Stirner in Germany. In
a treatise of 1840 Proudhon answered the question, _Qu’est-ce
que la propriété?_ in words which afterwards became proverbial,
and formed the motto of communism: _La propriété c’est le vol._
But the mere negation of property affords no permanent standing
ground. All altars must be thrown down; all religion rooted
out as the plague of humanity; the family and marriage, as the
fountain of all selfishness, must be abolished; all existing
governments must be overthrown; all Europe must be turned into
one great social democracy. A secret communistic propaganda
spread over all western Europe, had its head centres in Belgium
and Switzerland, crossed the Alps and the Pyrenees, as well as
the Channel, and found a congenial soil even in Russia.

§ 212.2. =St. Simonism.=--The Count St. Simon of Paris, reduced
to poverty by speculation, proposed by means of a thorough
organization of industry to found a new and happy state of things
in which there would be pure enjoyment without poverty and care.
An attempted suicide, which led however to his death in 1825,
made him in the eyes of his disciples a saviour of the world. The
July revolution of 1830 gave to the new universal religion, which
reinstated the flesh in its long lost rights and sought to assign
to each individual the place in the commonwealth for which he
was fitted, some advantage. “Father” Enfantin, whom his followers
honoured as the highest revelation of deity, contended with
pompous phrases and in fantastic style for the emancipation of
woman and against the unnatural institution of marriage. But
St. Simonism soon excited public ridicule, was pronounced immoral
by the courts of justice, and the remnants of its votaries fled
from the scorn of the people and the vengeance of the law to
Egypt, where they soon disappeared.

§ 212.3. =Owenists and Icarians.=--The Scotch mill-owner
=Rob. Owen= went in 1829 to America, in order there, unhindered
by religious prejudices, clerical opposition, and police
interference, to work out on a large scale his socialistic
schemes for improving the world, which in a small way he believed
he had proved already among his Scotch mill-operatives. He
bought for this purpose from the Württemberger Rapp the colony
of Harmony (§ 211, 6); but wanting the necessary capital for
the socialistic commonwealth there established, and failing to
realize his expectations, discontent, disorder, and opposition
got the upper hand, and in 1826 Owen was obliged to abandon all
his property. He now returned to England, and addressed himself
in treatises, tracts, and lectures to the working classes of
the whole land, in order to win them over to his ideas. A vast
brotherhood for mutual benefit and for the enjoyment of their
joint earnings was to put an end to earth’s misery, which the
positive religions had not lessened but only increased. In 1836,
in the great industrial cities socialist unions with nearly half
a million members were formed, with their head centre and annual
congress at Birmingham. The practical schemes of Owen, however,
had no success in England, and his societies no permanency. He
died in 1858.--Still more disastrous was the fate of the Icarian
Colony, founded in Texas in 1848 by the Frenchman =Stephen Cabet=,
author of “_Voyage en Icarie, Roman philos. et social_,” 1840,
as an attempt to realize his communistic-philanthropic ideas on
the other side of the Atlantic. The colonists soon found their
sanguine hopes bitterly disappointed, and hurled against their
leader reproaches and threats. Some ex-Icarians accused him in
1849 before the Paris police-court as a swindler, and he was
condemned to two years’ imprisonment and five years’ loss of
civil privileges. Cabet now hastened to France, and on appeal
obtained reversion of his sentence in 1851. Returning to America,
he founded a new Icarian colony at Nauvoo in Illinois. But there,
too, everything went wrong, and a revolt of the colonists obliged
him to flee. He died in 1856.[576]

§ 212.4. =The International Working-Men’s Association.=--Local
and national working-men’s unions with a socialistic organization
had for a long time existed in England, France, and Germany.
The idea of a union embracing the whole world was first broached
at the great London Exhibition in 1862, and at a conference in
London on September 28th, 1864, at which all industrial countries
of Europe were represented, it assumed a practical shape by the
founding of a universal international working-men’s association.
Its constitution was strictly centralistic. A directing committee
in London, Carl Marx of Treves, formerly _Privatdocent_ of
philosophy at Bonn, standing at its head as dictator, represented
the supreme legislative and governing authority, while alongside
of it a general standing council held the administrative and
executive power. The latter was divided into eight sections,
English, American, French, German, Belgian, Dutch, Italian,
and Spanish, and annual international congresses at Geneva,
Lausanne, Brussels, Basel, and the Hague gave opportunity for
general consultation on matters of common interest. Reception as
members was granted by the giving of a diploma after six months’
trial, and involved unconditional obedience to the statutes
and ordinances of the central authorities and the payment of
an annual fee. The number of members, not, however, exclusively
drawn from the working classes, is said to have reached two and
a half millions. The society adopted the current socialistic
and communistic ideas and tendencies. The religious principle
of the association was therefore: atheism and materialism; the
political: absolute democracy; the social: equal rights of labour
and profit, with abolition of private property, hereditary rights,
marriage, and family; and as means for realizing this programme,
unaccomplishable by peaceable methods, revolution and rebellion,
fire and sword, poison, petroleum and dynamite. Such means have
been used already in various ways by the international throughout
the Romance countries; but specially in the brief Reign of Terror
of the Paris Commune, March and April, 1871, in the relatively
no less violent attempted revolt at Alcoy in Southern Spain in
July, 1873. But meanwhile differences appeared within the society,
which were formulated at the Hague Congress in 1872, and led to
splits, which greatly lessened its unity, influence, and power to
do mischief, so that this congress may perhaps be regarded as the
first beginning of its end.[577]

§ 212.5. =German Social Democracy.=--=Ferd. Lassalle=, son of
a rich Jewish merchant of Breslau, after a full course of study
in philosophy and law, began in 1848 to take a lively part in
the advanced movements of the age, and when he found among the
liberal citizens no favour for his socialistic ideas turned
exclusively to the working classes. In answer to the question
as to what was to be done, by the central committee of a
working-men’s congress at Leipzig, he wrought out in 1863 with
great subtlety in an open letter the fundamental idea of his
universal redemption. All plans of self-help to relieve the
distress of working men hitherto proposed (specially that of
Schulze-Delitzsch) break down over the “iron economic law of
wages,” in consequence of which under the dominion of capital and
the large employers of labour wages are always with fatalistic
necessity reduced to the point indispensable for supplying a
working man’s family with the absolute necessaries of life.
The working classes, however, have the right according to the
law of nature to a full equivalent for their labour, but in
order to reach this they must be their own undertakers, and
where self-help is only a vain illusion, state help must afford
the means. By insisting on the right to universal suffrage
the working classes have obtained a decided majority in the
legislative assemblies, and there secured a government of the
future in accordance with their needs. On these principles the
Universal German Society of Working Men was constituted, with
Lassalle as its president, which position he held till his
death in a duel in 1864. Long internal disputes and personal
recriminations led to a split at the Eisenach Congress in
1869. The malcontents founded an independent “Social Democratic
Working-Men’s Union,” under the leadership of Bebel and
Liebknecht, which, particularly successful in Saxony, Brunswick,
and South Germany, represents itself as the German branch
of the “International Working-Men’s Association.” It adhered
indeed generally to Lassalle’s programme, but objected to the
extravagant adulation claimed for Lassalle by their opponents,
the proper disciples of Lassalle, who had Hasenclaver as
their leader and Berlin as their headquarters, substituted a
federal for a centralistic organization, and instead of a great
centralised government in the future desired rather a federal
republic embracing all Europe. But both declared equally in
favour of revolution; they vied with one another in bitter hatred
of everything bearing the name of religion; and wrought out
with equal enthusiasm their communistic schemes for the future.
At the Gotha Congress of 1875 a reconciliation of parties was
effected. The social-democratic agitation thus received a new
impulse and assumed threatening proportions. Yet it required such
extraordinary occurrences as the twice attempted assassination of
the aged emperor, by Hodel on May 11th, and Nobiling on June 2nd,
1878, to rouse the government to legislative action. On the basis
of a law passed in October, 1878, for two and a half years (but
in May, 1880, continued for other three and a half years, and in
May, 1884, and again in April, 1886, on each occasion extended
to other two years), 200 socialist societies throughout the
German empire were suppressed, sixty-four revolutionary journals,
circulated in hundreds of thousands and with millions of readers,
and about 800 other seditious writings, were forbidden. But that
the social- democratic organization and agitation was not thereby
destroyed is proved by the fact that in August, 1880, in an
uninhabited Swiss castle lent for the purpose, in Canton Zürich,
a congress was held, attended by fifty-six German socialists,
with greetings by letter from sympathisers in all European
countries, which among other things passed the resolution
unanimously, no longer as had been agreed upon at Gotha, to seek
their ends by lawful methods, as by the law of the socialists
impossible, but by the way of revolution.--On the other hand, the
German Imperial Chancellor Prince Bismarck in the Reichstag, 1884,
fully admitted the “right of the worker to work,” as well as the
duty of the state to ameliorate the condition of working men as
far as possible, and in three propositions: “Work for the healthy
workman, hospital attendance to the sick, and maintenance to the
invalided,” granted all that is asked for by a healthy social
policy.

§ 212.6. =Russian Nihilism.=--In Russia, too, notwithstanding a
strictly exercised censorship, the philosophico-scientific gospel
of materialism and atheism found entrance through the writings
of Moleschott, Feuerbach, Büchner, Darwin, etc. (§ 174, 3),
especially among the students. In 1860, Nihilism, springing
from this seed, first assumed the character of a philosophical
and literary movement. It sought the overthrow of all religious
institutions. Then came the women’s question, claiming
emancipation for the wife. The example of the Paris Commune
of 1871 contributed largely to the development of Nihilistic
idealism, its political revolutionary socialism. The Nihilist
propaganda, like an epidemic, now seized upon the academic youth,
male and female, was spread in aristocratic families by tutors
and governesses, won secret disciples among civil servants as
well as officers of the army and navy, and was enthusiastically
supported by ladies in the most cultured and exalted ranks. In
order to spread its views among the people, young men and women
disguised in peasant’s dress went out among the peasants and
artisans, lived and wrought like them, and preached their gospel
to them in their hours of rest. But their efforts failed through
the antipathy and apathy of the lower orders, and the energetic
interference of the government by imprisonment and banishment
thinned the ranks of the propagandists. But all the more closely
did those left bind themselves together under their central
leaders as the “Society for Country and Freedom,” and strove
with redoubled eagerness to spread revolutionary principles
by secretly printing their proclamations and other incendiary
productions, and scattering them in the streets and houses. On
January 24th, 1878, the female Nihilist _Vera Sassulitsch_ from
personal revenge dangerously wounded with a revolver General
Trepoff, the dreaded head of the St. Petersburg police. Although
she openly avowed the deed before the court and gloried in it,
she was amid the acclamations of the public acquitted. This was
the hour when Nihilism exercised its fellest terrorism. The fair,
peaceful phrase, “To work, fight, suffer, and die for the people,”
was silenced; it was now, sword and fire, dagger and revolver,
dynamite and mines for all oppressors of the people, but above
all for the agents of the police, for their spies, for all
informers and apostates. An “executive committee,” unknown to
most of the conspirators themselves, issued the death sentence;
the lot determined the executioner, who himself suffered death
if he failed to accomplish it. What was now aimed at was the
assassination of higher state officials; then the sacred person
of the emperor. Three bold attempts at assassination miscarried;
the revolver shot of Solowjews on April 14th, 1879; the mine on
the railway near Moscow that exploded too late on November 30th,
1879; the horrible attempt to blow up the Winter Palace with
the emperor and his family on February 17th, 1880; but the
fourth, a dynamite bomb thrown between the feet of the emperor
on March 13th, 1881, destroyed the life of this noble and humane
monarch, who in 1861-1863 had freed his people from the yoke of
serfdom. As for years nothing more had been heard of Nihilist
attempts, it was hoped that the government had succeeded in
putting down this diabolical rebellion, but in 1887 the news
spread that an equally horrible attempt had been planned for
the sixth anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II.,
but fortunately timely precautions were taken against it.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.

FIRST CENTURY.

A.D.
14-37. The Emperor Tiberius, § 22, 1.
41-54. The Emperor Claudius, § 22, 1.
44. Execution of James the Elder, § 16.
51. The Council at Jerusalem, § 18, 1.
54-68. The Emperor Nero, § 23, 1.
61. Paul’s Arrival at Rome, § 15.
63. Stoning of James the Just, § 16, 3.
64. Persecution of Christians in Rome, § 22, 1.
66-70. Jewish War, § 16.
81-96. The Emperor Domitian, § 22, 1.

SECOND CENTURY.

98-117. The Emperor Trajan, § 22, 2.
115. (?) Ignatius of Antioch, Martyr, § 22, 2.
117-138. The Emperor Hadrian, § 22, 2.
Basilides, Valentinus, § 22, 2, 4.
132-135. Revolt of Barcochba [Bar-Cochba], § 25.
Abt. 150. Celsus, § 23, 3.
Marcion, § 27, 11.
138-161. The Emperor Antoninus Pius, § 22, 2.
155. Paschal Controversy between Polycarp and Amicetus
[Anicetus], § 37, 2.
161-180. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3.
165. Justin Martyr, § 30, 9.
166. (155?) Martyrdom of Polycarp, § 22, 3.
172. (156?) Montanus appears as a Prophet, § 40, 1.
177. Persecution of Christians at Lyons and Vienne,
§ 22, 3.
178. Irenæus made Bishop of Lyons, § 31, 2.
180-192. The Emperor Commodus, § 22, 3.
196. Paschal Controversy between Victor and Polycrates,
§ 37, 2.

THIRD CENTURY.

202. Tertullian becomes Montanist, § 40, 2.
Pantænus dies, § 31, 4.
220. Clement of Alexandria dies, § 31, 4.
235. Settlement of the Schism of Hippolytus, § 41, 1.
235-238. The Emperor Maximinus Thrax, § 22, 4.
243. Ammonius Saccus [Saccas] dies, § 25, 2.
244. Arabian Synod against Beryllus, § 33, 7.
249-251. The Emperor Decius, § 22, 5.
250. The Schism of Felicissimus, § 41, 2.
251. The Novatian Schism, § 41, 3.
253-260. The Emperor Valerian, § 22, 5.
254. Origen dies, § 31, 5.
255-256. Controversy about Heretics’ Baptism, § 35, 5.
258. Cyprian dies, § 31, 11.
260-268. The Emperor Gallienus.
The Toleration Edict, § 22, 5.
262. Synod at Rome against Sabellius and Dionysius of
Alexandria, § 33, 7.
269. Third Synod of Antioch against Paul of Samosata,
§ 33, 8.
276. Mani dies, § 29, 1.
284-305. The Emperor Diocletian, § 22, 6.

FOURTH CENTURY.

303. Beginning of Diocletian Persecution, § 22, 6.
306. Synod of Elvira, § 38, 3; 45, 2.
Meletian Schism in Egypt, § 41, 4.
Constantius Chlorus dies, § 22, 7.
311. Galerius dies, § 22, 6.
312. Constantine’s Expedition against Maxentius, § 22, 7.
Donatist Schism in Africa, § 63, 1.
313. Edict of Milan, § 22, 7.
318. Arius is Accused, § 50, 1.
323-337. Constantine the Great, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2.
325. First Œcumenical Council at Nicæa, § 50, 1.
330-415. Meletian Schism at Antioch, § 50, 8.
335. Synod at Tyre, § 50, 2.
336. Athanasius Exiled. Arius dies, § 50, 2.
341. Council at Antioch, § 50, 2.
343. Persecution of Christians under Shapur [Sapor] II.,
§ 64, 2.
344. Synod at Sardica, § 46, 3; 50, 2.
346. Council at Milan against Photinus, § 50, 2.
348. Ulfilas, Bishop of the Goths, § 76, 1.
350-361. Constantius, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2.
351. First Council at Sirmium against Marcellus, § 50, 2.
357. Second Council at Sirmium, Homoians, § 50, 3.
358. Third Council at Sirmium, § 50, 3.
359. Synods at Seleucia and Rimini, § 50, 3.
361-363. Emperor Julian the Apostate, § 42, 3.
362. Synod at Alexandria against Athanasius, § 50, 4.
366-384. Damasus I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4.
368. Hilary of Poitiers dies, § 47, 14.
373. Athanasius dies, § 47, 3.
379. Basil the Great dies, § 47, 4.
379-395. Theodosius the Great, Emperor, § 42, 4.
380. Synod at Saragossa, § 54, 2.
381. Second Œcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 50, 4.
Ulfilas dies, § 76, 1.
384-398. Siricius, Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4.
385. Priscillian beheaded at Treves, § 54, 2.
390. Gregory Nazianzen dies, § 47, 4.
391. Destruction of the Serapeion at Alexandria, § 42, 6.
393. Council at Hippo Rhegius, § 59, 1.
397. Ambrose dies, § 47, 15.
399. Rufinus Condemned at Rome as an Origenist, § 51, 2.
400. Martin of Tours dies, § 47, 15.

FIFTH CENTURY.

402-417. Innocent I. of Rome, § 46, 5.
403. _Synodus ad Quercum_, § 51, 3.
Epiphanius dies, § 47, 10.
407. Chrysostom dies, § 47, 8.
408-450. Theodosius II. in the East, § 52, 3.
411. _Collatio cum Donatistis_, § 63, 1.
412. Synod at Carthage against Cœlestius, § 53, 4.
415. Synods at Jerusalem and Diospolis against Pelagius,
§ 53, 4.
416. Synods at Mileve and Carthage against Pelagius,
§ 53, 4.
418. General Assembly at Carthage, § 53, 4.
Roman Schism of Eulalius and Bonifacius, § 46, 6.
420. Jerome dies, § 47, 16.
Persecution of Christians under Behram [Bahram] V.,
§ 64, 2.
422-432. Cœlestine I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 6.
428. Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople,
§ 52, 3.
429. Theodore of Mopsuestia dies, § 47, 9.
The Vandals in North Africa, § 76, 3.
430. Cyril’s Anathemas, § 52, 3.
Augustine dies, § 47, 18.
431. Third Œcumenical Council at Ephesus, § 52, 3.
432. St. Patrick in Ireland, § 77, 1.
John Cassianus dies, § 47, 21.
440-461. Leo I., the Great, § 46, 7; 47, 22.
444. Cyril of Alexandria dies, § 47, 6.
Dioscurus succeeds Cyril, § 52, 4.
445. Rescript of Valentinian III., § 46, 7.
448. Eutyches excommunicated at Constantinople, § 52, 4.
449. Robber Synod at Ephesus, § 52, 4.
Attack of Angles and Saxons upon Britain, § 77, 4.
451. Fourth Œcumenical Synod at Chalcedon, § 52, 4.
457. Theodoret dies, § 47, 9.
475. Semipelagian Synods at Arles and Lyons, § 53, 5.
476. Overthrow of the West Roman Empire, § 46, 8; 76, 6.
Monophysite Encyclical of Basiliscus, § 52, 5.
482. Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, § 52, 5.
Severinus dies, § 76, 6.
484-519. The Thirty-five Years’ Schism between the East and
West, § 52, 5.
492-496. Gelasius I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 8; 47, 22.
496. Battle of Zülpich. Clovis baptized, § 76, 9.

SIXTH CENTURY.

502. _Synodus Palmaris_, § 46, 8.
517. Council at Epaon, § 76, 5.
527-565. Justinian I., Emperor, § 46, 9; 52, 6.
529. Synods at Oranges and Valence, § 53, 5.
Monastic Rule of Benedict of Nursia, § 85.
Suppression of the University of Athens, § 42, 4.
533. The Theopaschite Controversy, § 52, 6.
Overthrow of the Vandal Empire, § 76, 3.
544. Condemnation of the “Three Chapters,” § 52, 6.
553. Fifth Œcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 52, 6.
554. Overthrow of the Ostrogoth Empire in Italy, § 76, 7.
563. Council at Braga, § 54, 2.
St. Columba among the Picts and Scots. § 77, 2.
567. Founding of the Exarchate of Ravenna, § 46, 9.
568. The Longobards under Alboin in Italy, § 76, 8.
589. Council at Toledo under Reccared, § 76, 2.
Columbanus and Gallus in the Vosges Country, § 77, 7.
590-604. Gregory I., the Great, § 46, 10; 47, 22.
595. Gregory of Tours dies, § 90, 2.
596. Augustine goes as Missionary to the Anglo-Saxons,
§ 77, 4.
597. St. Columba dies, § 77, 2.
Ethelbert baptized, § 77, 4.

SEVENTH CENTURY.

606. Emperor Phocas recognises the Roman Primacy, § 46, 10.
611-641. Heraclius, Emperor, § 52, 8.
615. Columbanus dies, § 77, 7.
622. Hejira, § 65.
625-638. Honorius I., Pope, § 46, 11.
636. Isidore of Seville dies, § 90, 2.
637. Omar conquers Jerusalem, § 65.
638. Monothelite Ecthesis of Heraclius, § 52, 8.
640. Omar conquers Egypt, § 65.
642-668. Constans II., Emperor, § 52, 8.
646. St. Gallus dies, § 78, 1.
648. The Typus of Constans II., § 52, 8.
649-653. Martin I., Pope, § 46, 11.
649. First Lateran Council under Martin I., § 52, 8.
652. Emmeran at Regensburg, § 78, 2.
657. Constantine of Mananalis, § 71, 1.
662. Maximus Confessor, dies, § 47, 13.
664. Synod at Streoneshalch (_Syn. Pharensis_), § 77, 6.
668-685. Constantinus Pogonnatus, § 52, 8; 71, 1.
677. Wilfrid among the Frisians, § 78, 3.
678-682. Agatho, Pope, § 46, 11.
680. Sixth Œcumenical Council at Constantinople
(Trullanum I.), § 52, 8.
690. Wilibrord among the Frisians, § 78, 3.
692. Concilium Quinisextum (Trullanum II.), § 63, 2.
696. Rupert in Bavaria (Salzburg), § 78, 2.

EIGHTH CENTURY.

711. The Saracens conquer Spain, § 81.
715-731. Pope Gregory II., § 66, 1; 78, 4.
716. Winifrid goes to the Frisians, § 78, 4.
717-741. Leo III., the Isaurian, Emperor, § 66, 1.
718. Winifrid in Rome, § 78, 4.
722. Winifrid in Thuringia and Hesse, § 78, 4.
723. Winifrid a second time at Rome, consecrated Bishop,
etc., § 78, 4.
724. Destruction of the Wonder-working Oak at Geismar,
§ 78, 4.
726. Leo’s First Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1.
730. Leo’s Second Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1.
731. Gregory III., Pope, § 66, 1; 78, 4; 82, 1.
732. Boniface, Archbishop and Apostolic Vicar, § 78, 4.
Battle at Poitiers, § 81.
Separation of Illyria from the Roman See by Leo the
Isaurian, § 66, 1.
735. The Venerable Bede dies, § 90, 2.
739. Wilibrord dies, § 78, 3.
741. Charles Martel dies, § 78, 5.
Gregory III. dies. Leo the Isaurian dies.
741-752. Pope Zacharias, § 78, 5, 7; 82, 1.
741-775. Constantinus Copronymus, Emperor, § 66, 2.
742. Concilium Germanicum, § 78, 5.
743. Synod at Liptinä, § 78, 5; 86, 2.
744. Synod at Soissons, § 78, 5.
745. Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, § 78, 5.
752. Childeric III. deposed, Pepin the Short, King,
§ 78, 5; 82, 1.
754. Iconoclastic Council at Constantinople, § 66, 2.
Pepin’s donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 1.
755. Boniface dies, § 78, 7.
Abt. 760. Rule of St. Chrodegang of Metz, § 84, 4.
767. Synod at Gentilliacum, § 91, 2; 92, 1.
768-814. Charlemagne, § 82, 2, 4; 90, 1, etc.
772-795. Pope Hadrian I., § 82, 2.
772. Destruction of Eresburg, § 78, 9.
774. Charlemagne’s donation to the Chair of St. Peter,
§ 82, 2.
785. Wittekind and Alboin are baptized, § 78, 9.
787. Seventh Œcumenical Council at Nicæa, § 66, 3.
Founding of Cloister and Cathedral Schools, § 90, 1.
790. _Libri Carolini_, § 92, 1.
792. Synod at Regensburg, § 91, 1.
794. General Synod at Frankfort, § 91, 1; 92, 1.
795-816. Leo III., Pope, § 82, 3.
799. Alcuin’s disputation with Felix at Aachen, § 91, 1.
800. Leo III. crowns Charlemagne, § 82, 3.

NINTH CENTURY.

804. End of the Saxon War, § 78, 9.
Alcuin dies, § 90, 3.
809. Council at Aachen, on the _Filioque_, § 91, 2.
813-820. Leo the Armenian, Emperor, § 66, 4.
814-840. Louis the Pious, § 82, 4.
817. Reformation of Monasticism by Benedict of Aniane,
§ 85, 2.
820-829. Michael Balbus, Emperor, § 66, 4.
825. Synod at Paris against Image Worship, § 92, 1.
826. Theodorus Studita dies, § 66, 4.
Ansgar in Denmark, § 80, 1.
827. Establishment of Saracen Sovereignty in Sicily, § 81.
829-842. Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4.
833. Founding of the Archbishopric of Hamburg, § 80, 1.
835. Synod at Didenhofen, § 82, 4.
839. Claudius of Turin dies. Agobard of Lyons dies,
§ 90, 4.
840-877. Charles the Bald, § 90, 1.
842. Feast of Orthodoxy, § 66, 4.
Theodora recommends the out-rooting of the
Paulicians, § 71, 1.
843. Compact of Verdun, § 82, 5.
844. Eucharist Controversy of Paschasius Radbertus,
§ 91, 3.
845-882. Hincmar of Rheims, § 83, 2; 90, 5.
847. Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, § 80, 1.
848. Synod of Mainz against Gottschalk, § 91, 5.
850-859. Persecution of Christians in Spain, § 81, 1.
851-852. The Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore, § 87, 2, 3.
853. Synod of Quiersy. _Capitula Carisiaca_, § 91, 5.
855. Synod at Valence in favour of Gottschalk, § 91, 5.
856. Rabanus Maurus dies, § 90, 4.
858-867. Pope Nicholas I., § 82, 7.
858. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, § 67, 1.
859. Synod of Savonnières, § 91, 5.
861. Methodius goes to the Bulgarians, § 73, 3.
863. Cyril and Methodius go to Moravia, § 79, 2.
865. Ansgar dies, § 80, 1.
866. Encyclical of Photius, § 67, 1.
867-886. Basil the Macedonian, Emperor, § 67, 1.
867-872. Hadrian II., Pope, § 82, 7.
869. Eighth Œcumenical Council of the Latins at
Constantinople § 67, 1.
870. Treaty of Mersen, § 82, 5.
871. Basil the Macedonian puts down the Paulicians,
§ 71, 1.
Borziwoi and Ludmilla baptized, § 79, 3.
871-901. Alfred the Great, § 90, 9.
875. John VIII. crowns Charles the Bald Emperor, § 82, 8.
879. Eighth Œcumenical Council of the Greeks at
Constantinople, § 67, 1.
886-911. Leo the Philosopher, Emperor, § 67, 2.
891. Photius dies, § 67, 1.

TENTH CENTURY.

910. Abbot Berno founds Clugny, § 98, 1.
911. The German Carolingians die out, § 82, 8.
911-918. Conrad I., King of the Germans. § 96, 1.
914-928. Pope John X., § 96, 1.
919-936. Henry I., King of the Germans, § 96, 1.
934. Henry I. enforced toleration of Christianity in
Denmark, § 93, 2.
936-973. Otto I., Emperor, § 96, 1.
942. Odo of Clugny founds the Clugniac Congregation,
§ 98, 1.
950. Gylas of Hungary baptized, § 93, 8.
955. Olga baptized in Constantinople, § 73, 4.
960. Atto of Vercelli dies, § 100, 2.
962. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire of the German
Nation, § 96, 1.
963. Synod at Rome deposes John XII., § 96, 1.
966. Miecislaw of Poland baptized, § 93, 7.
968. Founding of Archbishopric of Magdeburg, § 93, 9.
970. Migration of Paulicians to Thrace, § 71, 1.
973-983. Otto II., Emperor, § 96, 2.
974. Ratherius of Verona dies, § 100, 2.
983-1002. Otto III., Emperor, § 96, 2, 3.
983. Mistewoi destroys all Christian establishments among
the Wends, § 93, 9.
987. Hugh Capet is made King of France, § 96, 2.
988. Wladimir Christianizes Russia, § 73, 4.
992-1025. Boleslaw Chrobry of Poland, § 93, 7.
996-999. Pope Gregory V., § 96, 2.
997-1038. Stephen the Saint, § 93, 8.
997. Adalbert of Prague, Apostle of Prussia, dies,
§ 93, 13.
999-1003. Pope Sylvester II., § 96, 3.
1000. Olaf Tryggvason dies, § 93, 4.
Christianity introduced into Iceland and Greenland,
§ 93, 5.
Stephen of Hungary secures the throne, § 93, 8.

ELEVENTH CENTURY.

1002-1024. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4.
1008. Olaf Skautkoning of Sweden baptized, § 93, 3.
1009. Bruno martyred, § 93, 13.
1012-1024. Pope Benedict VIII., § 96, 4.
1014-1036. Canute the Great, § 93, 2.
1018. Romuald founds the Camaldulensian Congregation,
§ 98, 1.
1024-1039. Conrad II., Emperor, § 96, 4.
1030. Olaf the Thick of Norway dies, § 93, 4.
1031. Overthrow of the Ommaides in Spain, § 95, 2.
1039-1056. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4, 5.
1041. Treuga Dei, § 105, 1.
1046. Synod at Sutri, § 96, 4.
1049-1054. Pope Leo IX., § 96, 5.
1050. Synods at Rome and Vercelli against Berengar,
§ 101, 2.
1053. Epistle of Michael Cærularius, § 67, 3.
1054. Excommunication of Greek Church by Papal Legates,
§ 67, 3.
1056-1106. Henry IV., Emperor, § 96, 6-11.
1059. Pope Nicholas II. assigns the choice of Pope to the
College of Cardinals, § 96, 6.
1060. Robert Guiscard founds the Norman Sovereignty in
Italy, § 95, 1.
1066. Murder of Gottschalk, King of the Wends, § 93, 9.
1073-1085. Pope Gregory VII., § 96, 7-9.
1075. Gregory’s third Investiture Enactment, § 96, 7.
1077. Henry IV. as a Penitent at Canossa, § 96, 8.
1079. Berengar subscribes at Rome the doctrine of
Transubstantiation, § 101, 2.
1086. Bruno of Cologne founds the Carthusian Order, § 98, 2.
1088-1099. Pope Urban II., § 96, 10.
1095. Synod at Clermont, § 94.
1096. First Crusade. Godfrey of Boulogne, § 94, 1.
1098. Synod at Bari. Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4.
Robert of Citeaux founds the Cistercian Order,
§ 98, 1.
1099. Conquest of Jerusalem, § 94, 1.
1099-1118. Pope Paschalis II., § 96, 11.

TWELFTH CENTURY.

1106-1125. Henry V., Emperor, § 96, 11.
1106. Michael Psellus dies, § 68, 5.
1109. Anselm of Canterbury dies, § 101, 1, 3.
1113. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, § 98, 1; 102, 3.
1118. Founding of the Order of Knights Templar.
Knights of St. John, § 98, 7.
Basil, head of Bogomili, sent to the stake, § 71, 4.
1119-1124. Calixtus II., Pope, § 96, 11.
1121. Norbert founds the Præmonstratensian Order, § 98, 2.
1122. Concordat of Worms, § 96, 11.
1123. Ninth Œcumenical Council (First Lateran), § 96, 11.
1124. First Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg,
§ 93, 10.
1126. Peter of Bruys burnt, § 108, 7.
1128. Second Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg,
§ 93, 10.
1130-1143. Pope Innocent II., § 96, 13.
1135. Rupert of Deutz dies, § 102, 8.
1139. Tenth Œcumenical Council (Second Lateran), § 96, 13.
1141. Synod at Sens condemns Abælard’s writings, § 102, 2.
Hugo St. Victor dies, § 102, 4.
1142. Abælard dies, § 102, 2.
1143. Founding of the Roman Commune, § 96, 13.
1145-1153. Pope Eugenius III., § 96, 13.
1146. Fall of Edessa, § 94, 2.
1147. Second Crusade. Conrad III. Louis VII., § 94, 2.
1149. Henry of Lausanne dies, § 108, 7.
1150. _Decretum Gratiani_, § 99, 5.
1152-1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14.
1153. Bernard of Clairvaux dies, § 102, 3.
1154. Vicelin [Vicelinus] dies, § 93, 9.
1154-1159. Hadrian IV., Pope, § 96, 14.
1155. Arnold of Brescia put to death, § 96, 14.
1156. Peter the Venerable dies, § 98, 1.
Founding of Carmelite Order, § 98, 3.
1157. Introduction of Christianity into Finland, § 93, 11.
1159-1181. Pope Alexander III., § 96, 15, 16.
1164. Peter the Lombard dies, § 102, 5.
Council of Clarendon, § 96, 16.
1167. Council at Toulouse (Cathari), § 108, 2.
1168. Christianity of the Island of Rügen, § 93, 10.
1169. Gerhoch of Reichersberg dies, § 102, 6, 7.
1170. Thomas Becket murdered, § 96, 16.
Founding of the Waldensian sect, § 108, 10.
1176. Battle of Legnano, § 96, 15.
1179. Eleventh Œcumenical Council (Third Lateran), § 96, 15.
1180. John of Salisbury dies, § 102, 9.
1182. Maronites are attached to Rome, § 73, 3.
1184. Meinhart in Livonia, § 93, 12.
1187. Saladin conquers Jerusalem, § 94, 3.
1189. Third Crusade. Frederick Barbarossa, § 94, 3.
1190-1197. Henry VI., Emperor, § 96, 16.
1190. Founding of Order of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8.
1194. Eustathius of Thessalonica dies, § 68, 5.
1198-1216. Pope Innocent III., § 96, 17, 18.

THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

1202. Joachim of Floris dies, § 108, 5.
Founding of Order of the Brothers of the Sword,
§ 93, 12.
Genghis Khan destroys Kingdom of Prester John,
§ 72, 1.
1204-1261. Latin Empire in Constantinople, § 94, 4.
1207. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, § 96, 18.
1208. Peter of Castelnau slain, § 109, 1.
1209-1229. Albigensian Crusade, § 109, 1.
1209. Council of Paris against Sect of Amalrich of Bena,
§ 108, 4.
1212. Battle at Tolosa, § 95, 2.
1213. John Lackland receives England as a Papal Fief,
§ 96, 18.
1215-1250. Frederick II., Emperor, § 96, 17, 19, 20.
1215. Twelfth Œcumenical Council (Fourth Lateran),
§ 96, 18.
1216. Confirmation of the Dominican Order, § 98, 5.
1216-1227. Pope Honorius III., § 96, 19.
1217. Fourth Crusade. Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4.
1223. Confirmation of Franciscan Order, § 98, 3.
1226. Francis of Assisi dies, § 98, 3.
1226-1270. Louis IX., the Saint, § 94, 6; 93, 15.
1227-1241. Pope Gregory IX., § 96, 19.
1228. Fifth Crusade. Frederick II., § 94, 5.
Settlement of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia,
§ 93, 13.
1229. Synod at Toulouse, § 109, 2.
1231. St. Elizabeth dies, § 105, 3.
1232. Inquisition Tribunal set up, § 109, 2.
1233. Conrad of Marburg slain, § 109, 3.
1234. Crusade against Stedingers, § 109, 3.
1237. Union of the Order of Sword with that of Teutonic
Knights, § 98, 8.
1243-1254. Pope Innocent IV., § 96, 20.
1245. Thirteenth Œcumenical Council (first of Lyons),
§ 96, 20.
Alexander of Hales died, § 103, 4.
1248. Foundation stone of Cathedral of Cologne laid,
§ 104, 13.
Sixth Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6.
1253. Robert Grosseteste dies, § 103, 1.
1254. Condemnation of the “_Introductorius in evangelium
æternum_,” § 108, 5.
1260. First Flagellant Campaign in Perugia, § 107, 1.
1260-1282. Michael Paläologus, Emperor, § 67, 4.
1261-1264. Urban IV., Pope, § 96, 20.
1262. Arsenian Schism, § 70, 1.
1268. Conradin on the Scaffold. § 96, 20.
1269. Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX., § 96, 21.
1270. Seventh Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6.
1271-1276. Pope Gregory X., § 96, 21.
1272. Italian Mission to the Mongols. Marco Polo, § 93, 15.
David of Augsburg dies, § 103, 10.
Bertholdt [Berthold] of Regensburg dies, § 104, 1.
1273-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor, § 96, 21, 22.
1274. Fourteenth Œcumenical Council (second of Lyons),
§ 96, 21.
Thomas Aquinas dies, § 103, 6.
Bonaventura dies, § 103, 4.
1275. Strassburg Minster, § 104, 13.
1280. Albert the Great dies, § 103, 5.
1282. Sicilian Vespers, § 96, 22.
1283. Prussia subdued, § 93, 13.
1286. Barhabraeus [Barhebræus] dies, § 72, 2.
1291. Fall of Acre, § 94, 6.
John of Montecorvino among the Mongols, § 93, 16.
1294. Roger Bacon dies, § 103, 8.
1294-1303. Boniface VIII., Pope, § 110, 1.
1296. Bull _Clericis laicos_, § 110, 1.
1300. First Roman Jubilee, § 117.
Lollards at Antwerp, § 116, 2.
Gerhard Segarelli burnt, § 108, 8.

FOURTEENTH CENTURY.