Chapter XX: Part 20

§ 202.3. From the middle of 1850 the tractarians, who had
hitherto confined themselves to the development of the Romanizing
system of doctrine, began to apply its consequences to the church
ritual and the Christian life, and so won for themselves the name
of =Ritualists=, which has driven out their earlier designation.
Wherever possible they showed their Catholic zeal by introducing
images, crucifixes, candles, holy water, mass dresses, mass
bells, and boy choristers, urged the restoration of the seven
sacraments, especially of extreme unction, auricular confession,
the sacrificial theory and Corpus Christi day, of prayers for
the dead and masses for souls, invocation of saints and the
blessed Virgin; they also praised celibacy and monasticism,
etc. Ritualism has from the first shown singular skill in party
organization. The _English Church Union_, founded in 1860, has
now nearly 200,000 members, of these about 3,000 clergymen and
50 bishops, and it embraces 300 branches over the whole domain
of the Anglican church. Numerous brotherhoods and sisterhoods,
guilds and orders, organized after the style of Roman Catholic
monasticism, promote the interests of ritualism, and zealously
prosecute home and foreign mission work. The _Confraternity
of the Blessed Sacrament_ originated in 1862, was able in 1882
to celebrate Corpus Christi day in 250 churches along with the
Romish church, dispensing only with the procession. The _Society
of the Holy Cross_, founded in 1873 consists only of priests,
and forms a kind of directory for all branches of the ritualistic
propaganda. The _English Order of St. Augustine_ has a threefold
division, into spiritual brothers who are preparing for priests’
orders, lay brothers who are being qualified as lay preachers,
both under the strictest vows, and a sort of tertiaries, who are
free from vows. Among the sisterhoods which already supply nurses
to all the great hospitals of the capital, the most important is
that called “by the name of Jesus.” They take, like the Beguines
of the middle ages, the three vows, but not as binding for life.
By the ultra high church party the genuine apostolic succession
of the ordination of the first Protestant archbishop, Matthew
Parker, and so the genuineness of all subsequent ordinations
going back to him, were doubted; three Anglican bishops are
said to have had episcopal consecration anew conferred on them
by a Greek Catholic bishop. The reckless and wilful procedure
of the ritualists in imitating the Roman Catholic ritual in
public worship called forth frequent violent disturbances at
their services, and noisy crowds flocked to their churches.
Most frequent and violent were the riots in 1859 and 1860 in the
parish of St. George’s, London, where scarcely any service was
held without disgraceful scenes of hissing, whistling, stamping,
and cries of “No popery.” The offscouring of all London flocked
to the Sunday services as to a public entertainment. Instead of
hymns, street songs were sung, instead of responses blasphemous
cries were shouted forth, while cushions and prayer-books
were hurled at the altar decorations, etc. These unseemly
proceedings were caused by the ritualistic rector, Bryan King,
who had introduced the objectionable ceremonial, and obstinately
continued it in spite of the decided opposition and protests
of his colleague, Mr. Allen. King’s removal in 1860 first
put an end to these disturbances, which police interference
proved utterly unable to check. The ritualistic _Church Union_,
called into existence by these proceedings, was opposed by an
anti-ritualistic _Church Association_, and from both multitudes
of complaints and appeals were brought before the ecclesiastical
and civil tribunals. The first case they brought up was that of
Rev. A. H. MacConochie, of Holborn, who, having been admonished
by the ecclesiastical courts on account of his ritualistic
practices in 1867, appealed to the Privy Council. And although
this court decided in 1869 that all ceremonies not authorized
by the prayer-book are to be regarded as forbidden, he and
his followers continued to act on the principle that whatever
is not there expressly prohibited ought to be permitted. The
_Public Worship Regulation Bill_, introduced by Archbishop Tait,
and passed by Parliament, which legislatively determined the
procedure in ritualistic cases, did not prevent the constant
advance of this movement. The _Court of Arches_ now issued a
suspension against the accused, and condemned them to prison
when they continued to officiate, until they declared themselves
ready to obey or to demit their office. Tooth of Hatcham, Dale of
London, Enraght of Bordesdale, and Green of Miles Platting were
actually sent to prison in 1880. But the first three were soon
liberated by the Court of Appeal finding some technical flaw
in the proceedings against them, while Green, in whose case no
such flaw appeared, lay in confinement for twenty months. The
ritualists still persistently continued their practice, and their
opponents renewed their prosecutions; these were followed by
appeals to the higher courts, presenting of petitions to both the
Houses of Parliament, addresses with vast numbers of signatures
for and against to the Archbishop of Canterbury, to Convocation
which had meanwhile been restored, to the Cabinet, to the
Queen, etc. The result was that many cases were abandoned, some
obnoxious parties transferred elsewhere, and a very few deposed.

§ 202.4. =Liberalism in the Episcopal Church.=--The more liberal
tendency of the broad church party had also many supporters who
scrupled not to pass beyond the traditional bounds of English
orthodoxy. In opposition to the orthodoxy zealousy inculcated
at Oxford, rationalism found favour at the rival university of
Cambridge, and vigorous support was given to the views of the
Tübingen school of Baur in the London _Westminster Review_. And
even in high church Oxford, there were not wanting teachers in
sympathy with the critical and speculative rationalism of Germany.
Great excitement was caused in 1860 by the “_Essays and Reviews_,”
which in seven treatises by so many Oxford professors contested
the traditional apologetics and hermeneutics of English theology,
and set a sublimated rationalism in its place. In Germany these
not very important treatises would probably have excited little
remark, but in the English church they roused an unparalleled
disturbance; more than nine thousand clergymen of the episcopal
church protested against the book, and all the bishops
unanimously condemned it. The excitement had not yet subsided
when from South Africa oil was poured upon the flames. Bishop
Colenso of Natal (died 1883), who had zealously carried on the
mission there, but had openly expressed the conviction that
it is unwise, unscriptural, and unchristian to make repudiation
by Caffres living in polygamy, of all their wives but one, a
condition of baptism, had occasioned still greater offence by
publishing in 1863 in seven vols. a prolix critical disquisition
on the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua, in which he contested
the authenticity and unconditional credibility of these books
by arguments familiar long ago but now quite antiquated and
overthrown in Germany. During a journey to England undertaken for
his defence he was excommunicated and deposed by a synod of the
South African bishops in Capetown. The Privy Council, as supreme
ecclesiastical court in England, cleared him, as well as the
authors of the Essays, from the charge of heresy. An important
aid for the dissemination of liberal religious views is afforded
by the Hibbert Lectureship. Robert Hibbert (died 1849), a wealthy
private gentleman in London, assigned the yearly interest of
a considerable sum for “the spreading of Christianity in its
simplest form as well as the furthering of the unfettered
exercise of the individual judgment in matters of religion.”
The Hibbert trustees are eighteen laymen who dispense the
revenues in supplementing the salaries of poorly paid clergymen
of liberal views, in providing bursaries for theological students
at home and abroad, and in other such like ways, but since 1878
especially, by advice of distinguished scholars, in the endowment
of annual courses of lectures, afterwards published, on subjects
in the domain of philosophy, biblical criticism, the comparative
science of religion and the history of religion. The first
Hibbert Lecturer was the celebrated Oxford professor, Max Müller,
in 1878. Among other lecturers may be named Renan of Paris in
1880; Kuenen of Leyden in 1882; Pfleiderer of Berlin, in 1885.
The battle waged with great passionateness on both sides since
1869 for and against the removal of the Athanasian Creed, or at
least its anathemas, from the liturgy has not yet been brought
to any decided result.

§ 202.5. =Protestant Dissenters in England.=--Down nearly to the
end of the eighteenth century all the enactments and restrictions
of the Toleration Act of 1689 (§ 155, 3) continued in full force.
But in 1779 the obligation of Protestant dissenters to subscribe
the Thirty-nine Articles was abolished, and the acknowledgment
of the Bible as God’s revealed word substituted. The right of
founding schools of their own, hitherto denied them, was granted
in 1798. In 1813 the Socinians were also included among the
dissenters who should enjoy these privileges. After a severe
struggle the _Corporation and Test Acts_ were set aside in 1826,
affording all dissenters entrance to Parliament and to all civil
offices. The necessity of being married and having their children
baptized in an episcopal church was removed by the Marriage and
Registration Act of 1836 and 1837, and divorce suits were removed
from the ecclesiastical to a civil tribunal in 1857. In 1868
compulsory church rates for the episcopal parish church were
abolished. Lord Russell’s University Bill of 1854, by restricting
subscription of the Thirty-nine Articles to the theological
students, opened the universities of Oxford and Cambridge
to dissenters, while the University Tests Bill of 1871 made
the adherents of all religious confessions eligible for all
university honours and emoluments at both seminaries. Thus
one restriction after another was removed, so that at last the
episcopal church has nothing of her exclusive privileges left
beyond the rank and title of a state church, and the undiminished
possession of all her ancient property, from which her prelates
draw princely revenues.

§ 202.6. =Scotch Marriages in England.=--The saints of the
English Revolution had indeed resolved in 1653 to introduce
civil marriage (§ 162, 1). But the reaction under Cromwell set
this unpopular law aside, and the Restoration made marriage by
an Anglican clergyman, even for dissenters, an indispensable
condition of legal recognition. But in no country, especially
among the higher orders, were private marriages, without the
knowledge and consent of the family, so frequent as here,
and clergymen were always to be found unscrupulous enough to
celebrate such weddings in taverns or other convenient places.
When an end had been put to such irregularities on English soil
by an Act of Parliament of 1753, lovers seeking secret marriage
betook themselves to Scotland. In that country there prevailed,
and still prevails, the theory that a declaration of willingness
on both sides constitutes a perfectly valid marriage. The
Scottish ecclesiastical law indeed requires church proclamation
and ceremony, but failure to observe this requirement is
followed only by a small pecuniary fine. Fugitive English couples
generally made the necessary declaration before a blacksmith
at Gretna-Green, who was also justice of the peace in this
small border village, and were then legitimately married people
according to Scottish law. Only in 1856 were all marriages
performed in this manner without previous residence in Scotland
pronounced by Act of Parliament invalid.

§ 202.7. =The Scottish State Church.=--The Presbyterian Church of
Scotland, from the beginning strictly Calvinistic in constitution,
doctrine and practice, has, generally speaking, preserved
this character. Only in recent times has the endeavour of the
so-called _Moderates_ to introduce a milder type of doctrine won
favour. The Established Church, as a national church properly
so-called and recognised by law, dates from the political union of
England and Scotland in the kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, and
the Anglican Episcopal Church there was then reduced to a feebly
represented dissenting denomination. Patronage, set aside indeed
in the Reformation age, but restored under Queen Anne in 1712,
and since then, in spite of all opposition from the stricter
party, continued, because often misused to secure the intrusion
of inacceptable ministers upon congregations, gave occasion
to repeated secessions. Thus the _Secession Church_ broke off
in 1732, and the _Relief Church_ in 1752, the latter going
beyond the former’s protest against patronage by unconditional
repudiation of Erastianism, _i.e._ the theory of the necessary
connection of Church and State (§ 144, 1), and the assertion
of the spiritual independence of the church, and expressed
firmly the principles of Voluntaryism, _i.e._ the payment of all
ecclesiastical officers, etc., by voluntary contributions. Both
parties united in 1847 in the _United Presbyterian Church_, which
now embraces one-fifth of the population.--Twice that number
joined the secession of the Free Church in 1843. The General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland granted to congregations in
1834 the right of vetoing presentations to vacancies. The civil
courts, however, upheld the absolute right of patrons, and at
the Assembly of 1843 about two hundred of the most distinguished
ministers, with the great Dr. Chalmers (died 1847) at their head,
left the state church, and, as _Non-Intrusionists_, founded
the _Free Church of Scotland_, which at its own cost formed new
parishes and distinguished itself by Christian zeal in every
direction. It differs from the _United Presbyterian Church_ in
restricting its opposition to the abuse of patronage, without
repudiating right off every sort of state aid and endowment as
unevangelical. But even to it the law passed in 1846, granting
to all congregations the right of veto, seemed now no longer
a sufficient motive to return to the state church. Even when
in 1874, parliament, at the call of the government, formally
abolished the rights of patronage through all Scotland and gave
to the congregations the right of choosing their own ministers,
the General Assembly of the Free Church by a great majority
refused to reunite with the state church brought so near
it, because it conceded to the civil courts unwarrantable
interference with its internal affairs, especially the right
of suspending its clergy.[559]

§ 202.8. =Scottish Heresy Cases.=--The Glasgow presbytery
lodged before the United Presbyterian Synod in Edinburgh of
1878 a charge against the Rev. Fergus Ferguson of heresy,
because his teaching was in conflict with the church doctrine
of the atonement in saying that sinners, apart from Christ’s
intervention, would not suffer eternal punishment but extinction,
and that the same fate still lay before unbelievers and the
impenitent. After five days’ violent discussion, the majority of
the synod, while strongly dissenting from his views and urging
him to avoid it in his preaching and catechising, resolved
to retain him in office as having proved his adherence to the
orthodox doctrine of the atonement. But when, at next year’s
synod, the Rev. D. Macrae of Gourock asserted that, in spite of
the Westminster Confession, it was allowable for ministers to
deny the eternity of punishment, and would not promise to preach
otherwise, he was unanimously deposed.--Far more exciting and
long continued were the proceedings begun in the Free Church
in 1876, against Professor Robertson Smith of Aberdeen, who was
charged before his presbytery with offensive statements about
angels, but especially with contradicting the inspiration of
Scripture by contesting the Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy.
After various proposals of deposition, suspension, rebuke,
acquittal, had been made, the General Assembly of 1880, after
much deliberation and discussion, by a majority found the charge
of heterodoxy not proven, but earnestly exhorted the accused
to greater circumspection and moderation, and the decision was
greeted with thundering applause from the students and waving of
handkerchiefs from the ladies present. But when, very soon after
this acquittal, several other contributions by him appeared
in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, on the Hebrew Language and
Literature, and Haggai, in the spirit of the Wellhausen criticism
(§ 182, 18), as also an article on Animal Worship among the
Arabians and in the Old Testament, in the _Journal of Philology_,
the _Commission_ sitting in Edinburgh reinstituted proceedings
against him. In October, 1880, Smith vindicated before that court
his scientific attitude toward the Old Testament, maintaining
that a moderate criticism of the biblical books was reconcilable
with the maintenance of their inspired authority. The majority of
the Commission, however, voted for his expulsion from his chair.
Smith protested both against the competence and against the
judgment of the Commission, but declared himself ready to submit
to the judgment of the General Assembly. Meanwhile he accepted
an invitation from Glasgow to deliver public lectures there on
the Old Testament, which were received with extraordinary favour.
This course was published under the title: “_The Old Testament
in the Jewish Church_.” The General Assembly of May, 1881, now
decided by a large majority to remove him from his academical
chair, with retention of his license and his professor’s
salary, which latter, however, Smith declined. But his numerous
sympathizers presented him with a scientific library worth
£3,000, and promised an annual stipend equal to his former salary.
In 1883 he received the appointment as Professor of Arabic in
Cambridge and the large revenues of that office allowed him to
decline the offer of his friends.[560]

§ 202.9. =The Catholic Church in Ireland.=--The Catholic
inhabitants of Ireland under Protestant proprietors, and forced
to pay tithes for the support of the Protestant clergy, were
always deprived of civil rights. In 1809 O’Connell (died 1847),
an agitator of great popular eloquence, placed himself at the
head of the oppressed people, in order in a constitutional way
to secure religious and political freedom and equality. At last,
in 1829, the Emancipation Bill, supported by Peel and Wellington,
was passed, which on the basis of the formal declaration of the
whole Catholic episcopate that papal infallibility and papal
sovereignty in civil matters was not part of the Catholic faith
nor could be joined therewith either in Ireland or anywhere else
in the Catholic world, gave to Catholics admission to parliament
and to all civil and military appointments. But the hated tithes
remained, and were enforced, when refused, by military force.
After long debates in both houses of parliament, the Tithes Bill
was adopted in 1838, which transferred the tithe as a land-tax
from tenants to proprietors, which, however, was only a
postponing of the question. It was thus regarded by O’Connell. He
declared that justice for Ireland could only be got by abolishing
the legislative union with Great Britain existing since 1800,
and restoring her independent parliament. For this purpose
he organized the Repeal Association. In 1840 another no less
powerful popular agitator arose in the person of the Irish
Capuchin, Father Mathew, the apostle of temperance, who with
unparalleled success persuaded thousands of those degraded by
drink to take vows of abstinence from spirituous liquors. He
kept apart from all political agitation, but the fruits of his
exertions were all in its favour. O’Connell in 1843 organized
monster meetings, attended by hundreds of thousands. The
government had him tried, the jury found him guilty, but the
House of Lords quashed the conviction and liberated him from
prison in 1844. The Peel ministry now sought to soothe the
excitement by passing in 1845 the Legacy Act, which allowed
Catholics to hold property in their own names, and the Maynooth
Bill, by which the theological seminary at Maynooth received a
rich endowment from the State. Continued famine, and consequent
emigration of several hundreds of thousands to America and
Australia, relieved Ireland of a considerable portion of its
Catholic population, while Protestant missions by Bible and
tract circulation and by schools had some success in evangelizing
those who remained. On November 5th, 1855, the anniversary of
the Gunpowder Plot, the Redemptorists at Kingstown, near Dublin,
erected and burnt a great bonfire in the public streets of Bibles
which they had seized, and the primate archbishop of Ireland
justified it by reference to the example of the believers at
Ephesus (Acts xix. 19).

§ 202.10. The Fenian movement, originating among the American
Irish, which since 1863 created such terror among the English,
was the result of political rather than religious agitation.
Although this movement failed in its proper end, namely the
complete separation of Ireland from England, it yet forced
upon the government the conviction of the absolute necessity of
meeting the just demands of the Irish by thorough-going reforms
and putting an end to the oppressions which the native farmers
suffered at the hands of foreign landowners, and the grievances
endured by the Catholic church by the maintenance of the Anglican
church established in Ireland. The carrying out of these reforms
was the service rendered by the Gladstone ministry. By the Irish
Land Bill of 1870 the land question was solved according to
the demands of justice, and by the Irish Church Bill of 1869,
which deprived the Anglican church in Ireland of the character
of a state church and put it on the same footing as other
denominations, the church question was similarly settled. The
dignitaries of the Anglican church thus lost their position as
state officials and their seats in the House of Lords. The rich
property of the hitherto established church was calculated and
applied partly to compensating for losses caused by this reform,
partly to creating benevolent institutions for the general
good. But neither the Church Bill, nor the Land Bill, nor the
Universities Bill, which in 1880 founded by state aid a Catholic
university in Dublin, secured the reconciliation of the Irish.
“Eternal hatred of England” was and is the battle cry; “Ireland
for the Irish, and only for them,” is their watchword. In order
to carry out this scheme an Irish “National League” was formed,
and innumerable secret “Moonlighters,” under the supposed
leadership of “Captain Moonshine,” committed atrocities by
burning farm steadings and mutilating cattle, murdering and
massacring by dagger and revolver, petroleum and dynamite, and
directed their operations against the representatives of the
government, against proprietors who sought rent, against tenants
who paid rent, against officials who endeavoured to enforce it,
and against everything that was, or was called, English. In order
to cut at the root of this lawlessness, which by proclamation
of a state of siege was only restricted, not overthrown, the
government of 1881 passed further agrarian reforms: All tenant
rights were to be purchased by the surplus of the fund formed by
the disestablishment of the Irish church, and where this did not
suffice, by state grants, and the right to conclude contracts
for rent and to determine its amount was transferred from the
proprietors to a newly-constituted land court, without whose
permission, after the lapse of the fifteen years’ term, no rent
contract could be made. But even this did not stop almost daily
repeated murders and acts of destruction. The government now
sought the aid of the pope through the mediation of a Catholic
member of parliament on a visit to Rome; but these merely
confidential negotiations led to no considerable result. In May,
1883, the curia, on the occasion of a collection promoted by the
National League as a magnificent national present to the great
(Protestant) leader of the agitation, Mr. Parnell, in a circular
letter, forbad “_proprio motu_,” the bishops in the strictest
manner taking any part in the movement, and urged them to
dissuade their members from doing so. But only Archbishop McCabe
of Dublin (died 1885), from the first an opponent of the League,
issued a pastoral against it to be read in all the pulpits of his
diocese. The other bishops ignored the papal command, and among
the Catholic people the opinion obtained that they owed to the
pope obedience in spiritual but not in political matters. The
collections for the Parnell fund were continued with redoubled
zeal. The attempts of dynamitards, supplied with materials by
their American compatriots, and other agrarian offences have not
yet been finally stopped.

§ 202.11. =The Catholic Church in England and Scotland.=--The
Emancipation Act, passed mainly for the relief of the Irish,
naturally also benefited English Catholics, who in 1791 had been
allowed to hold Catholic services. Led by the numerous accessions
of Puseyites to entertain the most extravagant hopes, Pius IX.
in 1850 issued a bull, by which the Roman Catholic hierarchy
in England was reinstituted with twelve suffragan bishoprics
under one archbishop of Westminster. The bull occasioned great
excitement in the Protestant population (_Anti-Papal Aggression_),
and the _Ecclesiastical Titles Bill_ forbade the use of
ecclesiastical titles not sanctioned by the law of the land.
After the first excitement had passed, the Catholic bishops,
at their head the learned and brilliant and zealous ultramontane
Cardinal Archbishop Wiseman (died 1865), and his successor,
surpassing him, if not in genius and learning, at least in
ultramontane zeal, the Puseyite convert Manning, made a cardinal
in 1875, used with impunity their condemned titles, until in 1871
the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill was formally revoked by act of
parliament. Conversions in noble families were particularly
numerous in the later decades. Since 1850 the number of Catholics
in England and Scotland has quadrupled. This has been caused in
great part by Irish emigration, for the middle and lower ranks of
the English have scarcely been affected by the conversion fever,
which as the latest form of the fitful humour of the English had
so rich a harvest in the families of the nobility. In 1780 all
London had only one Catholic place of worship, the chapel of the
Sardinian embassy, which on June 2nd of that year was wrecked and
burnt by a raging mob. Now the English capital has two episcopal
dioceses, ninety-four Catholic churches and chapels (besides
about 900 Anglican churches) with 313 clergymen, and forty-four
cloisters. In the House of Lords sit twenty-eight Roman Catholic
peers, and in both countries there are forty-seven Catholic
baronets. Since 1847 England has a specifically Catholic
university at Kensington, under the episcopate, and with the
pope as its supreme head, which, however, with its poor staff
of teachers and its expensive course attracts but a few of
the Catholic youth of England. Since the Anti-Papal Aggression
of 1850 failed, the Protestant people have shown themselves
comparatively indifferent to such assumptions of the papacy.--In
the Act of Union of 1707 (§ 155, 3), =Scotland= was guaranteed
the absolute exclusion of every sort of Roman Catholic hierarchy
for all time to come. But in recent times the number of its
Catholic inhabitants so greatly increased, that Pius IX. in his
last years, not unaided by the English government, eagerly urged
the re-establishment of the hierarchy, and Leo XIII. was able at
his first consistory of the college of cardinals in March, 1878,
to make appointments to the two newly-erected archdioceses and
their bishoprics. On the following Easter Sunday the allocution
relating thereto was read in all Catholic churches in Scotland.
The restoration was thus carried out in spite of all protests and
demonstrations of Scottish Protestants.

§ 202.12. =German Lutheran Congregations in Australia.=--Besides
the dominant Anglican church, emigration has led to the formation
of a considerable number of German Lutheran congregations, which
are distributed in three synods.

1. The Victoria Synod was founded in 1852 by pastor Göthe.
It adopted at first the union platform, but subsequently
attached itself more decidedly to the Lutheran confession.

2. Pastor Karch, who in 1830 emigrated with a number of Prussian
Lutherans, in order to avoid the union, laid the foundation
of the Immanuel Synod. Since 1875 it has been supplied with
preachers from the missionary institute of Neuendettelsau.
It is distinguished by its missionary zeal for the conversion
of the natives, pursues with special interest the study of
the prophetic word, and makes chiliasm an open question which
need not rend the church.

3. The South Australian Synod, on the other hand, is the decided
opponent of any sort of chiliasm, and has assumed an attitude
of violent antagonism to the Immanuel Synod.

§ 203. FRANCE.

In France, lauded as the eldest daughter of the church after the overthrow of the first Empire, ultramontanism, under the secret and open co-operation of the Jesuits, has ever arisen with revived youth and vigour out of all the political convulsions which have since passed over the land. And though indeed Gallicanism seemed again to obtain strength under the second Empire and, down to the close of that period, found many able champions among learned theologians like Bishop Maret (§ 189, 1), and even among exalted prelates like the noble Archbishop Darboy of Paris, a martyr of his office under the Commune (§ 212, 4), its influence faded gradually, and in the latest phase of France’s political development, the third republic, seems utterly to have disappeared, so that even the “_Kulturkampf_” which broke out in 1879 could not give it life again.--The number of Protestant churches and church members, in spite of bloody persecutions during the Bourbon restoration, and many arbitrary restrictions by Catholic prefects under the citizen king and the second Empire, by numerous accessions of whole congregations and groups of congregations through zealous evangelization efforts, by means of school instruction, itinerant preaching, and Bible colportage, has increased during the century fourfold. In the Reformed church the opposition of methodistically tinctured orthodoxy, reinforced from England and French Switzerland, and rationalistic freethinking, led to sharp conflicts. Also in the Lutheran church, more strongly influenced by Germany, similar discussions arose, but a more conciliatory spirit prevailed and violent struggles were avoided.

§ 203.1. =The French Church under Napoleon I.=--In 1801 Napoleon
as Consul concluded with Pius VII. a =Concordat= which, adopting
the concordat of Francis I. (§ 110, 14), abandoning the pragmatic
sanction of Bourges, and only haggling about the limits to be
fixed for the two powers, gave no consideration to the idea of
a wholesome internal reform of the French Church: Catholicism is
the acknowledged religion of the majority of the French people;
the church property belongs to the state, with the obligation to
maintain the clergy and ordinances; the clergy who had taken the
oath and those who were expatriated were all to resign, but were
eligible for election; new boundaries were to be marked out for
the episcopal dioceses with reference to the political divisions
of the country; the government elects and the pope confirms the
bishops, and these, with approval of the government, appoint the
priests. The one-sided =Organic Articles= of the first Consul of
1802, which were annexed to the publication of the Concordat as
a code of explanatory regulations, made any proclamation of papal
orders and decrees of all foreign councils dependent on previous
permission of the government, as also the calling of synods and
consultative assemblies of the clergy. They further ordained that
all official services of the clergy should be gratuitous, and
transferred to the civil council the right and duty of strict
inquiry into any clerical breach of civil laws and any misuse
or excessive exercise of clerical authority. The thirty-first
article, however, created that unhappy order of _Desservants_
or curates, the result of which was that interim appointments
were made to most of the benefices in order to squeeze state pay
in supplement to the inadequate ecclesiastical endowments, and
so their holders were at the absolute mercy of the bishops who
could transport or dispense with them at any moment. For further
particulars about the friendly and hostile relations of Napoleon
and the pope, see § 185, 1. By an imperial decree of 1810, the
four articles of the Gallican Church (§ 156, 3) were made laws
of the Empire; and a French National Council of 1811 sought to
complete the reconstruction of the church according to Napoleon’s
ideas, but proved utterly incapable for such a task, and was
therefore dissolved by the emperor himself.--To pacify the
Protestants, dissatisfied with the Concordat, amid flattering
acknowledgment of their services to the state, to science and
to the arts, an appendix was attached to the Organic Articles,
securing to them liberty of religious worship and political and
municipal equality with Catholics. For training ministers for the
Reformed Church a theological seminary was founded at Montauban,
and for Lutherans an academy with a seminary at Strassburg.
Napoleon also afterwards proved himself on every occasion ready
to help the Protestants. He was equally forward in recognising
public opinion in France. The National Institute of France in
1804 offered a prize for an essay on the influence of Luther’s
Reformation on the formation and advance of European national
life, and awarded it to the treatise of the Catholic physician
Villers (_Essai sur l’influence de la réf. de Luther_, etc.),
which in all respects glorified Protestantism. Even the Catholic
clergy during the first Empire exhibited an easy temper and
tolerance such as was never shown before or since. The obligatory
civil marriage law introduced by the Revolution in 1792, obtained
place in the _Code Napoléon_ in 1804, and was with it introduced
in Belgium and the provinces of the Rhine.[561]

§ 203.2. =The Restoration and the Citizen Kingdom.=--The =Charter=
of the Bourbon Restoration under Louis XVIII. (1814-1824) and
Charles X. (1824-1830) made Catholicism the state religion and
granted toleration and state protection to the other confessions.
A new concordat concluded with Pius VII. in 1817, by which that
of Napoleon of 1801, with the Organic Articles of the following
year, were abrogated, and the state of matters previous to 1789
restored, was so vigorously opposed by the nation, that the
ministry were obliged to withdraw the measure introduced in both
chambers for giving it legislative sanction. Ultramontanism,
however, in its boldest form, steadily favoured by the
government, soon prevailed among the clergy to such an extent
that any inclination to Gallicanism was denounced as heresy and
intolerance of Protestantism lauded as piety. In southern France
the rekindled hatred of the Catholic mob against the Reformed
broke out in 1815 in brutal and bloody persecution. The
government kept silence till the indignation of Europe obliged
it to put down the atrocities, but the offenders were left
unpunished. Connivance in such lawlessness on the part of the
government contributed largely to its overthrow in the July
revolution of 1830. The Catholic Church then lost again the
privilege of a state religion, and the hitherto persecuted and
oppressed Protestants obtained equal rights with the Catholics.
But even under the new constitutional government of Orleans,
ultramontanism soon reasserted itself. The Protestants had to
complain of much injury and injustice from Catholic prefects,
and the Protestant minister Guizot claimed for France the
protectorate of the whole Catholic world. The Reformed Church
meanwhile flourished, though vacillating between methodistic
narrowness and rationalistic shallowness, growing both inwardly
and outwardly, and also the Lutheran communities, which outside
of Alsace were only thinly scattered, enjoyed great prosperity.
In the February revolution of 1848 the Catholic clergy readily
yielded obedience to the citizen king Louis Philippe, and,
on the ground that the Catholic church is suited to any form
of government which only grants liberty to the church, did
not refuse their benediction to the tree of freedom with the
sovereign people at the barricades.

§ 203.3. =The Catholic Church under Napoleon III.=--Louis
Napoleon, as president of the new republic (1848-1852), and still
more decidedly as emperor (1852-1870), inclined to follow the
traditions of his uncle, regarded the concordat of 1801 as still
legally in force and seemed specially anxious to arouse zeal
for the Gallican liberties. Although his bayonets secured the
pope’s return to Rome (§ 185, 2) and even afterwards supported
his authority there, he did not fulfil the heart’s wish of the
emperor by the people’s grace to place the imperial crown upon
his head in his own person. Severely strained relations between
the imperial court and the episcopate resulted in 1860 from a
pamphlet against the papacy inspired by the government (§ 185, 3).
Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, was one of the oldest and most
determined defenders of the interests of the papal see, and from
Poitiers the emperor was pretty openly characterized as a second
Pilate. The government did not venture directly to interfere
between the two, but reminded the bishops that the emperor’s
differences with the pope referred only to temporal affairs. It
also forbade the forming of separate societies for the collecting
of Peter’s pence, and dissolved the societies of St. Vincent,
instituted for benevolent purposes, but misused for ultramontane
agitations. When Archbishop Desprez of Toulouse, like his
predecessors in 1662 and 1762, on May 16th, 1862, with pompous
phrases of piety appointed the jubilee festival of the “_fait
glorieux_,” by which at Toulouse three hundred years before,
by means of shameful treachery and base breach of pledges 4,000
Protestants were murdered (§ 139, 15), a shout of indignation
rose from almost all French journals and the government forbade
the ceremonial. It also refused permission to proclaim the papal
encyclical with the syllabus (§ 185, 2) and condemned several
bishops who disobeyed for misuse of their office. Under the
influence of the ultramontane empress Eugenie, however, the
relation of the government to the curia and the higher clergy of
the empire, since the one could not do without the other, became
more friendly and intimate, till the day of Sedan, September 2nd,
1870, put an end to the Napoleonic empire and the temporal power
of the papacy which it had maintained.

§ 203.4. =The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III.=--After the
revolution of 1848, the Lutherans at an assembly in Strassburg
and the Reformed in Paris consulted about a new organization of
their churches. But as the latter resolved in order to maintain
constitutional union amid doctrinal diversity, entirely to set
aside symbol and dogma, pastor Fr. Monod and Count Gasparin,
the noble defenders of French Protestantism, lodged a protest,
and with thirty congregations of the strict party constituted
a new council at Paris in 1849, independent of the state, as the
_Union des églises évangéliques de France_ with biennial synods.
Louis Napoleon gave to the Reformed Church a central council in
Paris with consistories and presbyteries; to the Lutheran, an
annual general consistory as a legislative court and a standing
directory as an administrative court. The Lutheran theological
faculty at Strassburg with its vigorous unconfessional science
represents the westernmost school of Schleiermacher’s theology.
The academy at Montauban, with Adolph Monod at its head,
represents Reformed orthodoxy, not strictly confessional but
coloured by methodistic piety, and Coquerel in Paris, was the
head of the rationalistic party of the Reformed national church.
The lead in the reaction against rationalism since 1830 has
been taken by the _Société évangélique_ at Paris, which, aiming
at the Protestantising of France, and using for this end Bible
colportage, tract distribution, the sending out of evangelists,
school instruction, etc., has developed an extraordinarily
restless and successful activity. It has been powerfully
supported by the evangelical society of Geneva. The number of
Protestant clergymen in France has steadily risen, and almost
every year in and out of the Catholic population new evangelical
congregations have been formed, in spite of endless difficulties
put in the way by Catholic courts. In Strassburg, in 1854, the
Jesuits persuaded the Catholic prefects to recall and arrest
the revenues of the former St. Thomas institute, which since the
Reformation had been applied to the maintenance of a Protestant
gymnasium. The prefect of Paris, however, was instructed to
desist from his claims. In the speech from the throne in 1858,
the emperor declared that the government secured for Protestants
full liberty of worship, without forgetting, however, that
Catholicism is the religion of the majority, and the _Moniteur_
commented on this imperial speech so evidently in the spirit
of the _Univers_, that the prefects could not be in doubt how
to understand it. By General Espinasse, who, after the Orsini
attempt on the emperor’s life in 1858, officiated for a long
time as Minister of the Interior, the prefects were expressly
instructed, to extend their espionage of the ill-affected press
to the proceedings of the evangelical societies, and to prohibit
the colportage of Protestant Bibles. On a change of minister,
however, the latter enactment was withdrawn, and only agents
of foreign Bible societies were interfered with. By an imperial
decree of 1859, the right of permitting of the opening of new
Protestant churches and chapels was taken from the local courts
and transferred to the imperial council of state. For every
Protestant congregation, so soon as it numbered 400 souls, the
legal state salary for the clergymen would be paid.

§ 203.5. =The Catholic Church in the Third French
Republic.=--The Gambetta government, the national vindication
of the 4th September, 1870, resigned its power in February, 1871,
into the hands of the National Assembly elected by the whole
nation, which, although through clerical influence upon the
electors predominantly monarchical and clerical, appointed
the old Voltairean Thiers (died, 1877), formerly ministerial
president under Louis Philippe, as alone qualified for the
difficult post of president of the republic. In the necessary
second vote, indeed, there was a considerable increase of the
republican and as such thoroughly anti-clerical party; but even
in its ranks it was admitted that the establishment of France
as leader of all Europe in the fight against ultramontanism
and the co-operation therein of the clergy were the absolutely
indispensable means for the political _Revanche_, after which
the hearts of all Frenchmen longed as the hart for the water
streams. A petition from five bishops and other dignitaries
to the National Assembly for the restoration of the temporal
power of the pope was set aside as inopportune. But Archbishop
Guibert of Paris, without asking the government, proclaimed the
infallibility dogma, and the minister of instruction, Jules Simon,
contented himself with warning the episcopate in a friendly way
against any further illegal steps of that kind. The clerical
party was also successful in its protest to the National Assembly
against the education law, which by raising the standard of
instruction, placing it under the supervision of the state and
making inspection of schools obligatory, proposed to put an end
to the terrible ignorance of the French people as the chief cause
of their deep decay. Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans was appointed
president of the commission for examining it, and so its fate
was sealed. Meanwhile the people, by frequent manifestations of
the Virgin, were roused to a high pitch of religious excitement.
Crowds of pilgrims encouraged by miraculous healings flocked
to our Lady of La Salette, at Lourdes, etc. (§ 188, 6), and the
consecration of _Notre Dame de la Deliverance_ at Bayeux was
celebrated as a brilliant national festival. When in May, 1873,
Thiers gave way before the machinations of his opponents and,
under the new president, Marshal Macmahon, the thoroughly
clerical ministry of the Duc de Broglie got the helm of affairs,
the pilgrimage craze, mariolatry and ultramontane piety, aided
by the prefects and mayors, increased to an unparalleled extent
among all ranks. Under the Buffet ministry of 1875 the influence
of clericalism was unabated. To him it owed its most important
acquisition, the right of creating free Catholic universities
wholly independent of the State, with the privilege of conferring
degrees. But when in 1876 the new elections for the National
Assembly gave an anti-clerical majority, Buffet was obliged to
resign. The new Dufaure ministry, with the Protestant Waddington
as minister of instruction, declared indeed that it continued
the liberty of instruction, but decidedly refused the right
of conferring degrees. The proposal to this effect met with
the hearty support of the new chamber of deputies. But all the
greater was the jubilation of the clericals when the senate by
a small majority refused its consent, and all the more eagerly
was the founding of new free Catholic universities carried on,
at Paris, Angers, Lyons, Lille and Toulouse, but notwithstanding
every effort they only attracted a very small number of
scholars,--in 1879, when they flourished most, at all the five
there were only 742 students.

§ 203.6. =The French “Kulturkampf,” 1880.=--The Dufaure ministry
was succeeded in December, 1876, by the semi-liberal ministry
of Jules Simon, which again was driven out in a summary fashion
by president Macmahon on May 16th, 1877, and replaced, on the
dissolution of the chamber, by a clerical ministry under Duc
de Broglie. But in the newly elected chamber the republican
anti-clerical majority was so overwhelming that Macmahon, on
January 30th, 1879, abandoning his motto of government, _J’y
suis et j’y reste_, was at last obliged, between the alternatives
offered him by Gambetta, _Se soumettre ou se démettre_, to choose
the latter. His successor was Grévy, president of the Chamber,
who entrusted the protestant Waddington with the forming of a new
ministry in which Jules Ferry was minister of instruction. Ferry
brought in a bill in March to abolish the representation of the
clergy in the High Council of Education by four archiepiscopal
deputies, continuing indeed the free Catholic universities,
but requiring their students to enroll in a state university
which alone could hold examinations and give degrees, and
finally enacting by Article 7 that the right of teaching in all
educational institutions should be refused to members of all
religious orders and congregations not recognised by the state.
The chamber deputies accepted this bill without amendment on
July 9th, but the senate on March 7th, 1880, after passing
six articles refused to adopt the seventh. On March 29th, the
president of the republic issued on his own authority two decrees,
based indeed upon earlier enactments (1789-1852), gone into
desuetude indeed, but never abrogated (§ 186, 2), demanded the
dissolution of the Society of Jesus, containing 1,480 members
in 56 institutions, within three months, and insisted that the
orders and congregations not recognised by the State, embracing
14,033 sisters in 602 institutions and 7,444 brothers in 384
institutions, in the same time should by production of their
statutes and rules seek formal recognition or else be broken
up. A storm of protests on the part of the bishops greeted these
“_March Decrees_,” and riotous demonstrations made before the
Minister of Instruction at his residence at Lille expressed the
protests of the students of the Catholic university there. The
pope now broke his reserve and by a nuncio sent the president
of the republic a holograph letter in which he declared that he
must interfere on behalf of the Jesuits and the threatened orders,
because they were indispensably necessary to the wellbeing of
the church. He did not wish that they should have recourse to
unlawful means, but it must be understood that they would appeal
to the courts for protection of their threatened civil liberties.
When therefore on the morning of June 30th the police began their
work of expelling the Jesuits from their houses, these lodged a
complaint before the courts of invasion of their domestic peace
and infringement of their personal liberty. Their schools were
closed on August 31st, the end of the school year; meanwhile
they had taken the precaution to transfer most of them to such as
would be ready afterwards to restore them. The enforcement of the
second of the March Decrees against the other orders was delayed
for a while. A compromise proposed by the episcopate, favoured
by the pope and not absolutely rejected even by the minister
Freycinet, Waddington’s successor, according to which instead
of the required application for recognition all these orders
should sign a declaration of loyalty, undertaking to avoid all
participation in political affairs and to do nothing opposed to
existing order, brought about the overthrow of this ministry in
September, 1880, by the machinations from other motives of the
president of the chamber and latent dictator, Leon Gambetta. At
the head of the new ministry was Ferry, who held the portfolio of
instruction, and under him the carrying out of the second March
Decree began on October 16th, 1880. Up to the meeting of the
chamber in November 261 monasteries had been vacated; the rest,
as from the first all female congregations, were spared, so that
France with its colonies and mission stations still number
4,288 male and 14,990 female settlements of spiritual orders,
the former with about 32,000, the latter with about 166,200
inmates.--The expulsion of the Jesuits, as well as the more
recent of the other orders, was, however, stoutly opposed. The
police told off for this duty found doors shut and barricaded
against them or defended by fanatical peasants and mobs of
shrieking women, so that they had often to be stormed and broken
up by the military. Still more threatening than this opposition
was the reaction which began to assert itself at the instance
of the almost thoroughly ultramontane jurists of the country, a
survival of the times of Napoleon III. and Macmahon. An advocate
Rousse, who publicly stated the opinion that the March Decrees
were illegal and therefore not binding, was supported by 2,000
attorneys and over 200 corporations of attorneys and by many
distinguished university jurists. More than 200 state officials
and many judiciary and police officers, together with several
officers of the army, tendered their resignations so as to avoid
taking part in the execution of the decrees. When it became clear
that unfavourable verdicts would be given by the courts invoked
by the Jesuits against the executors of the decree, as indeed was
soon actually done by several courts, the government lodged an
appeal against their competence before the tribunal of conflicts
which also actually in regard to all such cases pronounced them
incompetent and their decisions therefore null and void; but the
complainers insisted that their complaints should be taken to a
Council of State as the only court suitable to deal with charges
against officials, which, as might be expected, was not done.

§ 203.7. In the future course of the French “Kulturkampf” the
most important proceedings of the government were the following:
The abolition of the institute of military chaplains, highly
serviceable in ultramontanizing the officers, was carried out
in 1880, as well as the requirement that the clergy and teachers
should give military service for one year, and subsequently also
military escorts to the Corpus Christi procession were forbidden.
In 1880 the Municipal Council of Paris, with the concurrence of
the prefect of the Seine, forbad the continuance of the beautiful
building of the church of the Heart of Jesus begun in 1875 on
Montmartre (§ 188, 12), confiscating the site that had been
granted for it. In 1881 the churchyards were relieved of their
denominational character, and the following year the right of
managing them, with permission of merely civil interment without
the aid of a clergyman, was transferred from the ecclesiastical
to the civil authorities. By introducing in 1880 high schools
for girls with boarding establishments an end was put to the
education of girls of the upper ranks in nunneries, which had
hitherto been the almost exclusive practice. Far more sweeping
was the School Act brought in by the radical minister of worship,
Paul Bert, and first enforced in October, 1886, which made
attendance compulsory, relegated religious instruction wholly to
the church and home, and absolutely excluded all the clergy from
the right of giving any sort of instruction in the public schools,
and demanded the removal of all crucifixes and other religious
symbols from the school buildings. In December, 1884, a tax was
imposed on the property of all religious orders, also the state
allowance for the five Catholic seminaries with only thirty-seven
students was withdrawn, and many other important deductions made
upon the budget for Catholic worship, which at first the senate
opposed, but at last agreed to. The Divorce Bill frequently
introduced since 1881, which permitted parties to marry again,
and gave disposal of the matter to the civil court, got the
assent of the senate only in the end of July, 1884. The clericals
were also greatly offended by the decree passed in May, 1885,
which closed the church of St. Genoveva, the former Pantheon,
as a place of worship and made it again a burial place for
distinguished Frenchmen. This resolution was first carried out
by placing there the remains of Victor Hugo. Amid these and many
other injuries to its interests the Roman curia, concentrating
all its energies upon the German “Kulturkampf,” endeavoured to
keep things back in a moderate way. Yet in July, 1883, the pope
addressed to president Grévy a friendly but earnest remonstrance,
which he treated simply as a private letter and, without
communicating it officially to his cabinet, answered that apart
from parliament he could not act, but that so far as he and
his ministry were able they would seek to avoid conflict with
the holy see. And in fact the government, especially after the
overthrow of the Gambetta ministry in 1882, often successfully
opposed the proposal of the radical chamber, _e.g._ the
separation of church and state, the abrogation of the concordat,
the recall of the embassy to the Vatican, the abolition of
religious oaths in the proceedings of the courts, the stopping of
the state subvention of a million francs for payment of salaries
in seminaries for priests, etc.