Chapter I: D. B (6)

Prior to the emancipation of the serfs by Alexander II. in 1861, the Russian peasants were serfs, either of the State, or of a great landowner. The State serfs were practically free, with the exception that they could not change their domicile, but they were permitted, on payment of a small fee, to leave their villages, subject to the due payment of their share of the village taxes. The serfs of the nobles were more like slaves. Some of them were taken as house servants, others remained in the villages and rendered certain services to the lord in return for the land which he surrendered to the village commune. The house serfs were practically chattels, and were not infrequently sold.

Seringapatam, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1792 at the close of the third Mysore War, by which Tippu Sahib surrendered Dindigul, Baramahal and Malabar, and agreed to pay a war indemnity of three crores of rupees to the British and thirty lacs to the Mahratta States.

Serrar del Consiglio.

A measure passed in Venice in 1298 providing that no citizens should be eligible for election to the Grand Council except the families of senators then in office. The Government was thus established on purely aristocratic lines.

Servian Capitulation.

A treaty signed in 1375 between Mourad I, Sultan of Turkey, and Lazar, Despot of Servia, by which Servia acknowledged the suzerainty of Turkey and agreed to pay an annual tribute.

Settled Lands Act.

An Act passed in 1882, introduced by Lord Cairns, removing many of the restrictions and difficulties existing in dealing with entailed estates.

Settlement, Act of, 1652.

An Act passed by Cromwell, providing for the banishment of all the officers of the Catholic army in Ireland, who, with their followers, withdrew to the Continent, to the number of some 30,000; the confiscation of a portion of the property of the remaining Royalists, and the distribution of their lands among the English adventurers. It further confined the Catholics to the right bank of the Shannon.

Settlement, Act of, 1661.

An Act passed after the Restoration, by which, and a supplementary Act passed in 1665, restitution was made to the dispossessed Royalist officers and some others, partly out of lands which had not been alienated by Cromwell, and partly out of land surrendered, to the extent of one-third of their estates, by the adventurers. The majority of the claims for compensation were disregarded, with the result that by far the larger part of Ireland remained in Protestant hands. This Act was repealed by the Irish Parliament summoned by James II in 1689.

Settlement, Act of, 1700.

The Act settling the succession after the death of Queen Anne upon the Electress Sophia of Hanover and her descendants. It provided for various limitations of the royal prerogative; among its provisions being that the sovereign should be a member of the Church of England; that Great Britain should not be called upon to defend any territories not being British territory, without the consent of Parliament; that the sovereign should not quit the realm; that no person born out of the realm should be capable of holding office under the Crown, and that no person holding office or enjoying a pension should sit in the House of Commons.

Settlement, Law of.

A law passed in 1662, providing that a labourer not born in the parish or resident therein for forty days, might be removed to the parish of his birth or former residence, on complaint of the overseers that he was likely to become chargeable to the rates. The object was that each parish should be compelled to support its own paupers, under the Poor Law of Elizabeth.

Settlement of India Act.

An Act passed in 1858, transferring to the Government of the Queen all the territories hitherto governed by the East India Company.

Seven Bishops, Petition of the.

A petition signed by the Archbishop of Canterbury and six bishops against the Declaration of Indulgence of James II in 1687. The bishops were brought before the Council and ordered to find bail, and on refusing were committed to the Tower.

Seven Cantons, League of the.

The Siebenkonkordat, a league of the liberal Cantons, Lucerne, Zurich, Berne, Soleure, St. Gall, Aargau and Thurgau, formed in 1832, with the object of protecting the constitutions of these Cantons and promoting Federal reforms.

Seven Days Battle.

A series of battles fought during the Peninsular Campaign of the American Civil War, from June 25 to July 1, 1862, between the Federals under McClellan and the Confederates under Lee. McClellan was driven back to the James River.

Seven Days King.

Masaniello was so called after his brief rule in Naples in 1647.

Seven Earls.

The dignitaries next in importance to the king in mediæval Scotland. In the time of Alexander I they formed the Council of the Kingdom, and they claimed the right of appointing the king.

Seven Pillars.

The seven men chosen in 1639 by the Puritan colonists of New Haven to organize the Government of the colony. The most prominent among them were Eaton and Davenport.

Seven Points.

A document published in 1871, purporting to be an agreement between certain prominent Conservatives and the delegates of the Council of Skilled Workmen, on the subject of social reform. As the “points” included a statutory eight hours’ day, free places of amusement and full local self-government in all towns and villages, it is not surprising that the document was repudiated by most of those who were said to have signed it, including Lords Salisbury, Lorne and Carnarvon.

Seven Weeks War.

The war between Prussia and Austria in 1866 is so called.

Seven Years War.

The war maintained by Frederick the Great, with some aid, chiefly naval and financial, from England, against the combined forces of France, Russia, Austria, Sweden and Saxony. It lasted from 1756 to 1763, but early in 1762 Frederick succeeded in detaching Russia from the allies and received her aid till the end of the struggle.

Seville, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1729 by England, Spain and France, and subsequently Holland, thus detaching Spain from the Austrian alliance concluded by the Treaty of Vienna of 1725. Spain revoked all the concessions made to Austria under that instrument, again confirmed the Asiento, and in return received the support of the other signatories to the succession of Don Carlos to the Duchies of Tuscany and Parma.

Shakers.

A sect founded in England about 1757 by a body of seceders from the Quakers, under Ann Lee, known as Mother Ann. They emigrated to America in 1772, where they are found chiefly in New York State.

Shays’ Rebellion.

A rising in Massachusetts in 1786, headed by an ex-officer named Daniel Shays, in opposition to a decision of Congress to apportion the National Debt of the United States among the various States of the Union. The rising was quickly suppressed by the militia, and the ring leaders arrested.

Sheriff’s Tourn.

The Hundred Court, when occupied with the View of Frank pledge, was known by this name.

Sherman’s March.

The famous march of General Sherman during the American Civil War from Atlanta to Savannah, a distance of 300 miles, which he accomplished in about a month, reaching Savannah in December, 1864.

She-wolf of France.

Isabel, daughter of Philip the Fair, and Queen of Edward II of England, was so called.

Sheyk-ul-Islam.

The chief of the Ulema of Constantinople.

Shiah.

One of the two great Mohammedan sects. It rejects the Sunni, or body of tradition, accepting the Koran only.

Shimonoseki, Treaty of.

A treaty, closing the Chino-Japanese War, signed April 10, 1895. China agreed to cede to Japan Formosa, the Pescadores and the Liao-Tung Peninsula, including Port Arthur, and to pay an indemnity of 200 million taels. However, Russia, France and Germany intervened and forced Japan to surrender the Liao-Tung peninsula, receiving as compensation an additional 30 million taels.

Shinto.

The ancient and also the State religion of Japan. It is in its origin a form of ancestor and hero worship, but has been much corrupted by the interweaving of many of the grosser Buddhistic superstitions.

Ship-money.

A tax imposed by Charles I in 1634, first on the maritime counties, but later on the whole kingdom, ostensibly to protect the country from the incursions of the Algerine pirates and from Dutch aggression, but in reality to provide himself with funds without having recourse to Parliament. It was in resisting the payment of this tax that Hampden first became prominent. The House of Commons declared it illegal in 1641, and at the same time impeached the six judges who had pronounced in favour of the right of the Crown to impose it.

Shôgun.

The _de facto_ ruler of Japan prior to the Revolution of 1868. The title signifies Commander-in-Chief, and his relations with the Tenno or Mikado, the legitimate sovereign of Japan, were analogous to those of the Maire du Palais and the Merovingian Rois Fainéants. The title of Tycoon or Great Prince was assumed by the Shôgun to impress the Western nations with his dignity when diplomatic relations were first opened with Japan. The title of Shôgun was first borne by Minamoto-no-Yoritomo in 1192.

Short Parliament.

A Parliament summoned by Charles I in 1640 in the hope of obtaining supplies to meet the threatened renewal of hostilities with Scotland. The Parliament met on April 13, but finding it more intent on the redress of grievances than on the grant of supplies, Charles dissolved it on May 5 following.

Short-lived Administration.

The name given to the Ministry formed by William Pulteney, Earl of Bath, in February, 1746. It held office for two days only.

Sicilian Vespers.

A rising in Sicily in 1282, when the adherents of Don Pedro of Aragon, a claimant to the Sicilian throne, annihilated the French garrison of his rival Charles of Anjou. The first outbreak took place at Palermo, and the insurrection spread rapidly through the island till not a Frenchman was left alive in Sicily.

Sick Man of the East.

A phrase commonly applied to the Turkish Empire. It was first used in its present form by Nicholas I of Russia in 1854, but Montesquieu (1689-1755) in the _Lettres Persanes_ speaks of the Ottoman Empire as “Ce corps malade” (This sickly body).

Siebenkonkordat.

_See_ Seven Cantons.

Siete Partidas.

The famous code of laws compiled by Alfonso (surnamed the Wise), of Leon and Castille (1252-82). The code became the basis of the law of Spain.

Sieve Oultagh.

The name given to the head of the Whiteboys, an Irish Secret Society in Munster in 1761.

Silent, The.

The sobriquet of William I, Prince of Orange (1533-84).

Silk Riots.

An outbreak of the Spitalfields weavers in 1765 owing to their disappointment at the rejection of a Bill prohibiting the importation of foreign silks. They were, after serious rioting, quieted by the promise that the Bill would be reintroduced.

Silly Billy.

A nickname of William IV.

Silver Coinage Act.

An Act of Congress, passed in 1890, by which the Treasury is obliged to purchase four and a half million ounces of silver monthly at market price, such price not to exceed 371¼ grains of silver per dollar.

Sikhs.

A religious sect in Northern India, founded in the sixteenth century by Babu Nának. They profess a reformed form of Hinduism, rejecting caste and various Brahminical superstitions. Under Govind Rai, towards the end of the seventeenth century, they formed a strong military organization, which reached its zenith under Ranjit Singh early in the nineteenth century. Their power was finally crushed by the British in 1851.

Sikkim Treaty.

A treaty between Great Britain and China, signed in 1890, by which China recognized the British rights in Sikkim.

Simla Manifesto.

A proclamation issued by Lord Auckland in 1838 setting out the British policy with regard to Afghanistan. It declared that Dost Mahomed and his brother had shown themselves unfriendly to England by supporting the Persian designs on Herat and by attacking Ranjit Singh. That in consequence the British Government had decided to support the claim of Shah Sujah-ul-Mulk to the throne of Afghanistan and maintain him thereon by force if necessary.

Simple Repeal.

A controversy in the Irish Parliament, which arose in 1782 immediately after the establishment of Grattan’s Parliament. A party headed by Flood held that the abnegation by England of her former legislative control was not sufficient, as she might at any time re-enact the obnoxious controlling laws. He held that England should expressly renounce all controlling rights. Grattan held that the repeal of these enactments was sufficient, and carried Parliament with him, but the masses continued to hold the opposite opinion.

Sindhia.

The title of the Mahratta rulers of Gwalior.

Sinope, Massacre of.

The destruction of a Turkish squadron by the Russian fleet at Sinope in 1853. It seems clear that no quarter was given, and it is said that of the crews of nine Turkish men-of-war only 400 survived, almost all of whom were wounded.

Sirji Arjengam, Treaty of.

A treaty between the British and Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwalior, signed in 1803 at the close of the second Mahratta War. Sindhia ceded to the British all his territory between the Jumna and the Ganges, all north of Jeypur, Jodhpur and Gohad, and all between Adjanta Ghât and the Godaveri, together with the town and district of Ahmednaggar.

Sistova, Treaty of.

A treaty between Austria, Prussia, and Turkey, signed in 1791, by which Leopold of Austria surrendered all his conquests, in consequence of the mediation of Prussia and England. By a separate convention the Porte agreed to cede to Austria Old Orsova and a small district in Croatia.

Sitvatorok, Treaty of.

A treaty between Austria and the Porte, signed in 1607. The Porte abandoned the tribute hitherto paid by Austria, recognized the Austrian Sovereign as Emperor, instead of only King of Vienna, as the Turks had hitherto styled him, and agreed that the future diplomatic intercourse should be carried on on a footing of equality between the two nations. This treaty may be said to mark the turning point in the fortunes of the Ottoman Empire.

Six Acts.

A series of enactments passed in the autumn session of 1819 to strengthen the law against sedition, in view of the numerous risings of the past few years. They were as follows: (1) An Act to prevent delay in the administration of justice; (2) an Act to prevent the training of persons in the use of arms; (3) an Act for the prevention of blasphemy and seditious libel; (4) an Act authorizing Justices of the Peace to seize and retain arms; (5) an Act subjecting certain publications to the newspaper stamp duty; and (6) an Act to prevent seditious assemblies.

Six Articles, Act of the.

An Act passed in 1539, at the instance of the Anti-Reformers headed by Norfolk, by which the acceptance of six cardinal articles of the Catholic faith was made obligatory under heavy penalties. It was repealed by an Act passed in 1547, on the accession of Edward VI.

Six Circles.

By a decree of the Diet of Augsburg in 1500, Germany was divided into six circles--Bavaria, Franconia, The Rhine, Saxony, Suabia and Westphalia.

Six Cities, League of the.

A league formed in 1346 by the German towns of Bautzen, Görlitz, Kamenz, Lauban, Löbau and Zittau for mutual protection against the marauding barons.

Six Edicts.

A series of edicts of a liberal character issued by Turgot, the minister of Louis XVI in 1776. They provided for the suppression of (1) the Caisse de Poissy; (2) duties on grain in the markets; (3) harbour dues; (4) statutes of apprenticeship and incorporation; (5) the corvée, and for (6) the diminution of market dues. They met with much opposition, and were not registered without recourse to a Lit de Justice, while they eventually led to Turgot’s downfall.

Six Nations.

The five tribes of North American Indians known as the Five Nations admitted into their confederacy, in 1715, the Tuscaroras, and were afterwards known as the Six Nations.

Sixpenny War.

The O.P. riots were so called, as being caused by the decision of the managers of Covent Garden Theatre to raise the prices by sixpence.

Sixteen.

A society formed about 1584 by the more violent partisans of the League. It was so called because its proceedings were directed by a committee of sixteen, each of whom took a district of Paris under his special charge.

Sixteen, Council of.

A council provided by the will of Henry VIII, to act as regents until Edward VI came of age. They were also called the Executors.

Skanderbeg.

_See_ Iskander Beg.

Skinners.

Bands of American marauders who infested the east bank of the Hudson during the American War of Independence.

Skirmishing Fund.

The name given to a fund raised by the Fenians about 1880, for the purpose of procuring the commission of dynamite outrages in England.

Skoptsi.

A Russian sect of schismatics, who practise self-mutilation. They interpret the Scriptures literally, and act on the injunction: “If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out.”

Skuptschina.

The Servian National Assembly.

Slachter’s Nek, Insurrection of.

An insurrection of burghers in the Graaf-Reinet district of Cape Colony in 1815, arising out of an attempt to bring a certain Jan Bezuidenhoot to justice for ill-treating a Kaffir. He and his relations and neighbours rose against the Government, but were overpowered, after a short resistance, at Slachter’s Nek. Bezuidenhoot fled, but was killed by his pursuers a few days later. Six of the leaders were condemned to death, but at the execution four of the ropes broke. Notwithstanding the remonstrances of the spectators, who considered this to be a Divine intimation of their innocence, the sentence was duly carried out. This execution is still looked upon by the Dutch as one of the crimes of the British Government.

Slave Kings.

The third Dynasty of the Mohammedan Kings of India, founded by Kutb-ud-Din, the favourite slave of Mohammed of Ghor, who ruled as Mohammed’s viceroy from 1186 to 1206, and on his master’s death, without issue, ascended the throne. The dynasty lasted till 1288.

Slave Trade.

The trade in slaves was made a felony by an Act passed in 1807. The Act abolishing slavery in the British Dominions, known as the Emancipation Act, was not passed till 1833.

Slavery.

_See_ Abolitionists, Anti-Slavery, Compromise Act, Dred Scott, Emancipation, Freesoilers. Fugitive, Harper’s Ferry, Kansas, Missouri Compromise, Squatter Sovereignty, Underground Railroad, Wilmot Proviso.

Slavophils.

A band of educated Muscovites who led the reaction against the indiscriminate adoption of Western ideas, and the abandonment of ancient Russian customs. They were especially active about the period of the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, when the village communal system was threatened by the reforming party.

Sliding Scale.

A system of graduated duties on imported corn, based upon the prices ruling for home-grown wheat, first adopted in the Corn Law of 1804.

Smithfield, Treaty of.

A treaty between the Orange Free State and Moshesh, paramount chief of the Basutos, signed in 1855. It was designed to prevent friction between the Basutos and the farmers living along their borders, but Moshesh clearly had no intention of observing its provisions, and took no trouble to enforce them on his subjects.

Snow King.

A nickname given by the Viennese to Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1611-32).

Snow Queen.

A sobriquet of Christina, Queen of Sweden (1633-54).

Sobranje.

The Bulgarian National Assembly.

Societies, Secret.

_See_ Alumbrados, Barn-burners, Boxers, Burschenschaft, Camorra, Carbonari, Clan-na-Gael, Consistoriali, Danites, Fenians, Gran Reunion, Great Triad, Hintchak, Human Leopards, Illuminati, Invincibles, Ku Klux, Lautaro, Levellers, Mafia, Molly Maguires, Moonlighters, Mutualists. Nihilists, Oakboys, Omladina, Orangemen, Patrons of Husbandry, Philike Hetairia, Ribbonism, Right, Rock, Saisons, Sanfedisti.

Socinians.

A sect founded by Lælius Socinus in 1560, which numbered many adherents in Poland. Their doctrines were similar to those of the modern Unitarians. In 1658 they were proscribed by the Diet of Warsaw, and the sect gradually faded out of existence.

Soft-shell Democrats.

The anti-slavery section of the Democratic party in New York from 1848 to 1854.

Soissons, Constitution of.

The earliest existing French edict. It had reference to the preservation of the public peace, and required the consent of the great feudal lords, who swore to obey it.

Sokmen.

In Saxon times, freemen who owed suit to the Lord’s court, or Sok.

Soldiers’ Battle.

The Battle of Inkerman is so called, as having been for the most part a series of detached combats, in which regiments were broken up and officers separated from their men, owing to the dense fog that prevailed.

Solemn League and Covenant.

An agreement between Scotland and the Long Parliament in 1643, by which the former undertook to join forces with the Parliament against Charles I, on condition that the Oath of the Covenant was taken by the English.

Solid South.

A phrase used to express the consistency of the Southern States of America in their support of the Democratic Party. It appears to have been first applied during the presidential campaign of 1876. In 1896 the Solid South showed signs of breaking up, four Southern States being carried by the Republicans.

Solidité.

A system of taxation in France in the seventeenth century, by which a peasant was held responsible for the taxes of his neighbours, though he might himself have paid all that was due from him.

Solomon of France.

A sobriquet of Louis IX of France (1226-70).

Son of the Last Man.

The title given by the Parliamentarians to Charles II, after the execution of his father. Charles I, was styled the Last Man, as implying that he was the last who would sit on the English throne.

Sonderbund.

_See_ Sarnen, League of.

Sons of Liberty.

A society of Americans, pledged to work for liberty in the American colonies, which was founded in New York in 1765. It derived its name from a phrase used by Isaac Barré, in a speech in the House of Commons during the debate on the Stamp Bill in 1765. The last achievement of the Society was the convening of the Continental Congress in 1774.

Sonthal Revolt.

A rising of the Sonthal hillmen in India in 1855, due to dislike of the procedure of the courts of justice in enforcing the claims of Bengali moneylenders. They raided the European stations, and were not subdued without considerable difficulty.

Sound Dues.

A tax payable to Denmark by all foreign ships entering or quitting the Baltic. It was abolished in 1857.

South Sea Bubble.

A scheme professedly for trading to the Pacific, originally launched in 1711. In 1720 Sir John Blount, one of the directors, negotiated an arrangement with the Government, by which the Company took over the National Debt, amounting to some sixteen millions, the Government paying a lower rate of interest than they had been paying to the annuitants. The Company then persuaded the holders of Government Annuities to exchange them for shares in the Company. The plan was fairly successful, but led to a wild inflation in the value of the shares, and in the subsequent collapse thousands were ruined.

Southampton, Treaty of.

A treaty of alliance between England and Holland, signed in 1625, pledging the contracting parties to support each other against Spain, so long as she occupied any part of the Palatinate. England, however, reserved to herself the right to claim compensation from Holland for the massacre of Amboyna.

Spanish Fury.

The name given to the sack of Antwerp by the Spaniards under Sancho d’Avila, in 1576. It is estimated that over 7,000 of the inhabitants perished.

Spanish Main.

Properly the mainland between the mouth of the Orinoco and the Isthmus of Panama, but often improperly employed to denote the Caribbean Sea.

Spanish Marriages.

The question of the marriage of Isabella, the young Queen of Spain, nearly led to a rupture between England and Spain in 1846. Louis Philippe proposed as her husband the Duke of Cadiz, believing that such marriage would prove unfruitful. At the same time the Queen’s sister, the Infanta, was to be married to the Duc de Montpensier, with the object of eventually placing the Crown of Spain on the head of a French Prince. Palmerston proposed that the second marriage should be postponed until the Queen had issue, to which the King feigned assent, but meanwhile he and his minister, Guizot, worked on the Queen Regent to consent to the marriages taking place at once, and they were duly solemnized, causing great indignation in England.

Spanish Succession, War of the.

A war arising out of the bequest of the Spanish Crown to Philip, Duke of Anjou, in 1700, by Charles II of Spain, who had left no direct heir. The Grand Alliance of England, Holland and the Empire was promptly formed to oppose this, while Louis XIV supported his grandson. Marlborough’s campaign in Flanders, and the overrunning of Spain by the Archduke Charles followed, but in 1713 Philip was recognized by the Allies as King of Spain, and the war ended.

Specie Circular.

A circular issued by the United States Treasury in 1836, directing collectors of revenue to accept nothing but coin in payment of customs and other dues. It caused the bankruptcy of many well-known American business houses.

Speenhamland Act.

The name given to a proclamation issued in 1795 by the magistrates of Buckinghamshire and some other counties, fixing the amount of outdoor relief to be afforded according to the price of wheat and the number of children in the family. The practical result in the agricultural districts was the substitution of relief for wages.

Spires, Diet of.

A diet of the German Empire, held in 1529, which repealed the Act of Toleration passed at the previous Diet. The Lutheran Party, headed by the Elector of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg and the Landgrave of Hesse, signed a protest against the action of the Diet, whence the reforming party became known as Protestants.

Spurs, Battle of the.

This name is given to two battles: (1) The Battle of Courtrai, when the Flemings defeated the French, July 11, 1302. It is said that 7,000 gilt spurs were picked up on the field of battle; (2) the Battle of Guinegate, where Henry VIII defeated the French, August 18, 1513. The name is derived from the headlong flight of the French cavalry.

Squadrone Volante.

A party under the leadership of Tweeddale in the last Scottish Parliament (1705), which attempted to hold the balance between the supporters and the opponents of union with England.

Squatter Sovereignty.

The principle of leaving the slavery question to the decision of the settlers, first applied on the admission to the Union as territories of the districts acquired from Mexico in 1848. It was afterwards extended, in defiance of the Missouri Compromise, to Kansas and Nebraska in 1854.

Stabbing, Statute of.

An Act passed in the reign of James I, by which, for the first time in England, it was made a capital offence to draw sword or dagger on a man whose sword was not drawn, if within six months he died from wounds thus received. The Act was passed to put a stop to the constant brawls between the English courtiers and James’ Scottish followers.

Stalwarts.

A section of the Republican Party in the United States, led by Senator Conkling of New York, who were opposed to President Garfield in 1881 on the question of Civil Service Reform. Guiteau, the assassin of Garfield, was a Stalwart, and gave as his reason for the crime that he could see no other way to bring about a reunion of the Republican Party.

Stamford, Statute of.

A statute of reform forced upon Edward II by his nobles in 1309. It renewed the first Statute of Westminster, checked the abuses of constables and others exercising the royal authority, and repealed certain unauthorized taxes upon wool and hides.

Stamp Act.

An Act passed in 1765, for the purpose of raising revenue from the colonies. It was even more unpopular in America than the American Customs Act, and proved almost impossible to enforce. It was repealed in 1766.

Standard, Battle of the.

The name given to the Battle of Luton Moor, between the English and the Scots in 1138. The standard displayed on this occasion was that of St. Cuthbert of Durham, which was always thought to secure victory.

Stannaries.

The tin mines of Cornwall are so called. Their administration is in the hands of the Warden of the Stannaries, an official of the Duchy of Cornwall. The Stannaries are technically the property of the Crown, and are worked under Royal License.

Staple.

A term applied to the chief products of England, and also to certain towns in Flanders where alone these commodities were permitted to be sold. These transactions were carried out under the surveillance of Government officers, and it was obligatory on the vendor to bring back a certain proportion of the proceeds of the sale in coin. Edward III, however, named nine English towns as the Staple towns, and made it a penal offence for an Englishman to carry any of the staple commodities beyond the seas.

Staples, Statute of.

A statute of 1353, regulating foreign trade and the privileges of the Merchant Guild.

Star Chamber, Court of.

A court established by Henry VII in 1487, to check the power of the great feudal houses by the suppression of maintenance, which, by providing them with large bodies of armed retainers, enabled the more powerful nobles to foment disturbances and insurrections. Later the Star Chamber became an instrument in the hands of the Sovereign for the suppression of free speech, and its arbitrary and corrupt decisions became notorious. It was abolished by Act of Parliament in 1641.

Star of the North.

A name given to Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden by the German Protestants during the Thirty Years War.

Stars and Stripes.

The flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen stripes, being the number of the original States of the Union, and a number of stars equal to the number of States in the Union for the time being, an additional star being added for each State admitted.

Start, The.

An excursion of Charles II into the Highlands in 1650, with the object of escaping from the Scottish Presbyterians, of whose loyalty he was somewhat doubtful, and also of raising a force in the Highlands to support him, in which he was entirely unsuccessful.

States-General (France).

An assembly of the three estates of the realm, nobles, clergy and commoners, first summoned in 1302 by Philip the Fair.

States-General (Netherlands).

The general congress of the estates of the various provinces forming the Netherlands. Its chief business was financial, as through it alone could the Sovereign legally obtain supplies.

States’ Rights.

A political doctrine in the United States, which maintains that the Federal State is not a sovereign state, but that its acts require ratification by the individual States forming the Union, who are thus at liberty to disregard its enactments if they consider them unconstitutional. Thus South Carolina, in 1832, “nullified” an Act of Congress relating to import duties, and the doctrine was held in 1860 to justify the secession of the Southern States.

Status quo ante.

A term used to express the return after a war to the position occupied by the belligerents before the war broke out.

Statutes.

_See_ Apparel, Apprentices, Carlisle, Donis, Drogheda, Fines, Hæretico, Kilkenny, Labourers, Liveries, Mercatoribus, Præmunire, Provisors, Quia Emptores, Rhudlann, Stabbing, Stamford, Staples, Submission, Tallagio, Treason, Uses, Wales, Westminster, Wills, Winchester.

Steelboys.

An Irish agrarian society, formed in 1772 in Down and Antrim, chiefly on the estates of the Marquis of Donegal, where there had been wholesale evictions. Very serious outrages were perpetrated, and it was found necessary to try prisoners in Dublin.

Steelyard, Merchants of the.

A guild of German merchants established in England in the fourteenth century. They were formed into a guild in order that they might be kept under Government supervision.

Stellaland.

A republic in South Africa, formed by a party of Boer adventurers who had supported Massouw, a Battapin chief, against Mankoroane, in 1882. Two years later it was annexed by Great Britain, and incorporated in British Bechuanaland.

Stockenström Treaties.

A series of treaties made by Sir Andries Stockenström with the Gaika and Fingo chiefs in 1836, after the sixth Kaffir war, by which the boundaries were fixed between British territory and the Kaffir country.

Stockholm, Treaty of, 1719.

A treaty between Great Britain and Sweden, by which Sweden surrendered the Duchies of Bremen and Verden to George I, in return for a payment of one million rix-dollars.

Stockholm, Treaty of, 1812.

A treaty between Great Britain, Sweden and Russia, whereby Sweden undertook to provide 30,000 men to act with the Russian troops against Napoleon. Great Britain engaged to pay Sweden a subsidy of one million sterling annually, to cede to her Guadeloupe, receiving in return certain commercial privileges, and to accede to the convention between Sweden and Russia, relative to the cession of Norway to the former Power.

Stockholm, Treaty of, 1855.

A treaty signed by Great Britain, France, Norway and Sweden, by which Sweden undertook not to cede or make any grants of pasturage, fishery or any other rights to Russia, Great Britain and France agreeing to guarantee Sweden from Russian aggression.

Stolbova, Treaty of.

A treaty between Russia and Sweden, signed in 1617, after the successful campaign of Gustavus Adolphus. By this instrument Sweden retained possession of Ingermanland, Karelia and part of Livonia, restoring to Russia the rest of her conquests.

Stonewall Jackson.

A nickname given to Thomas J. Jackson, the Confederate General, during the American Civil War.

Storthing.

The Norwegian Parliament. On first assembling, one-fourth of the members of the Storthing are chosen to form an Upper House, known as the Lagthing, the remaining three-fourths forming the Lower House, or Odalsthing. In the event of the Lagthing twice rejecting a Bill sent up by the Odalsthing, the two houses sit together.

Stranniki.

A sect of ascetics in Russia, which sprang up in the reign of Catherine II. They believe the Czar to be Antichrist, and are opposed to military service, the payment of taxes, and any recognition of secular authority.

Strasburg, Oath of.

The oath of mutual fidelity taken by Louis and Charles, sons of Louis the Débonnaire, and their followers, at Strasburg, in 841.

Strelitzi.

A body of regular infantry established, to repel the Tartar incursions, by Ivan IV (The Terrible), circ. 1535. They were disbanded and many of them killed by Peter the Great after their rebellion in 1698.

Strelitzi, Conspiracy of the.

A conspiracy of Sophia, half sister of Peter the Great, aided by the Strelitzi, to murder Peter, and rule the State in the name of her imbecile brother Ivan, in 1689. Peter was warned, seized Sophia, and shut her up in a convent.

Strongbow.

A nickname of Richard de Clare, Count of Strigul, who became King of Leinster in 1170, in succession to Dermot, his father-in-law.

Stundists.

A Russian dissenting sect, who object to the ikon-worship of the Orthodox Church.

Sturm und Drang Zeit.

The end of the eighteenth century, when the French Revolution had rendered many thinking men discontented with existing institutions, was known in Germany as the period of Storm and Stress.

Suabian League.

A league of the cities of Suabia formed in 1376, for mutual defence against the depredations of the Counts of Würtemberg.

Subinfeudation.

The practice of making grants of land by the holders of hereditary fiefs to sub-vassals, to be held on terms similar to those on which the grantor held from his overlord. This is the real origin of the feudal system in its fullest development.

Submission of the Clergy, Statute of.

A Statute passed in 1534, embodying an agreement forced upon Convocation by Henry VIII in 1532. It enacted that no new canons should be issued without the royal sanction, and that the power of summoning Convocation should be vested in the King, who should also be entitled to appoint commissioners to revise the Canon Law.

Subsidiary System.

A system introduced by Warren Hastings in his dealings with Oude, and extended by the Marquis of Wellesley. Under this system native states acknowledged the paramountcy of the British Government, which in return guaranteed their integrity and independence. They were bound not to make war without the consent of the Government, and undertook to maintain a force to be at the Government’s disposal when required.

Subsidy.

A tax imposed by Parliament in the reign of Charles I to meet the King’s demands for money. It amounted to 4s. in the £ on real property, and 2s. 8d. in the £ on personalty, aliens and Popish recusants paying double.

Succession, Act of, 1534.

An Act declaring Henry VIII’s marriage with Catherine of Aragon null and void, and setting the succession on the issue of his second marriage, with Anne Boleyn.

Succession Act, 1701.

An Act restricting in certain directions the royal prerogative, and settling the succession upon the Electress Sophia of Hanover. One of its clauses forbade the sovereign to leave the kingdom, but it was repealed in 1716, at the instance of George I, to enable him to visit his kingdom of Hanover.

Sucker State.

A name derisively applied to the State of Illinois, U.S.A., by the inhabitants of other Western States.

Sudras.

The fourth or servile caste of the Hindus.

Suez Canal Treaty.

A treaty between England and France, signed in 1887, guaranteeing the neutrality of the Suez Canal. The Canal is to be at all times free to the ships of all nations, but in war time no belligerent is to be permitted to land troops or munitions of war in the Canal or its ports of access. The Khedive is charged with the carrying out of these stipulations. Practically all the Powers concerned have given their adhesion to this instrument.

Sunni.

One of the two great Mohammedan sects. They accept the Sunna, a collection of laws and precepts, as well as the Koran.

Supplicants.

Those who signed the Supplication against the use of Archbishop Laud’s Service Book in 1637. In 1638, the Supplicants having signed the Covenant, became known as the Covenanters.

Supplication of William of Orange.

A letter addressed to Philip of Spain by William of Orange and the Estates of Holland and Zeeland in 1573, demanding the restoration of their privileges, and the recall of the Duke of Alva.

Suppression of Papacy, Act for the.

One of the Irish Penal Laws, passed in 1704. It provided that no Catholic could be a guardian or trustee, take land on a longer lease than thirty-one years, or inherit land if there were a Protestant heir living. It forbade Catholics settling in Galway or Limerick. The Act was in fact a deliberate attempt to bribe the younger generation of Catholics into apostasy.

Supremacy, Act of.

An Act passed in 1534, conferring on Henry VIII the title of Supreme Head of the Church of England. It was made high treason to question the title. The provisions of this Act as to treason were repealed in the reign of Edward VI, and re-enacted under Elizabeth.

Surat, Treaty of.

A treaty between the British and Raghoba, signed in 1775, by which it was agreed to support Raghoba for the office of Peshwa, in return for the cession of Salsette and Bassein.

Suspects, Loi des.

A law passed by the French Convention in 1793, declaring suspect: (1) all persons who had shown themselves enemies of liberty; (2) all who could not show that they had regular means of livelihood; (3) those who refused to take out certificates of civism; (4) all suspended public functionaries; (5) ci-devant nobles and their families; and (6) emigrés. All such persons were to be arrested, and kept in confinement at their own expense.

Suttee.

The ancient Hindu custom of burning the widow on the pyre with her deceased husband’s body. It was put down during the Viceroyalty of Lord Dalhousie, circ. 1856.

Swainmote.

In early Norman times the court of the forest freemen was so called. It was arranged on the lines of the Shiremote, or County Court.

Swaziland Convention, 1890.

A convention between Great Britain and the Transvaal, agreeing to preserve the independence of Swaziland, and to appoint a committee of three persons, one each to be named by the contracting parties and one by the Swazis, to rule the white residents. It was further stipulated that the Transvaal might acquire a railway belt through Swaziland, and thence through Amatongaland to the sea.

Swaziland Convention, 1893.

A convention between Great Britain and the Transvaal, by which it was agreed that, subject to the consent of the Queen Regent of the Swazis, Swaziland should be under the protection of the Transvaal. All British subjects in Swaziland were to be at once admitted to full burgher rights in the South African Republic. No railway was to be built beyond the eastern frontier, without the consent of Great Britain.

Swaziland Convention, 1895.

The Queen of Swaziland having refused her consent to the Convention of 1893, a further convention was made similar to that of 1893, but omitting the clause requiring the Queen’s consent.

Swing, Captain.

_See_ Barn-burners.

Sword in Hand Address.

An address presented to Queen Anne, in 1713, by the Highland Chiefs who had been the recipients of her gift of money, which they seem to have looked upon as payment for services rendered to the Stuart cause. In the address they refer to the sacred house of Stuart, and express the hope that in the Queen’s successor they may find one who shall obtain “both the hereditary and the parliamentary sanction.”

Szatmar, Peace of.

The peace concluded in 1711, after Rákóczy’s Rebellion. Austria granted the Magyars a complete amnesty, restoration of all forfeited property, and the free exercise of the Protestant religion.

Szegedin, Peace of.

The peace which ended in 1444 the invasion of the Turkish dominions by Hunyadi Janos of Hungary, and George, Despot of Servia, who penetrated as far as the Balkans. The Sultan Amurath restored Servia to George, against payment of a tribute of half the revenue of the State, and placed Wallachia under the protection of Hungary.

Szell Formula.

_See_ Ausgleich.

T

Taal.

The corrupt form of Dutch spoken in the Dutch portions of South Africa. Its corruption is due principally to the large proportion of foreigners among the early immigrants, and to their intercourse with the native races.

Tables, The.

A board or committee established in Scotland in 1637, chosen by the Supplicants with the object of bringing about an agreement between Archbishop Laud and the Presbyterians. It consisted of four members of each of the four classes: nobles, lesser barons, burgesses and clergy.

Taborites.

The Hussites under John Zisca were so called, from the name he gave their stronghold--Tabor, a camp or tent.

Tackers.

A section of the extreme Tories in 1704, who were anxious to secure the passage of the Occasional Conformity Bill through the Lords by tacking it on to the Land Tax Bill, which the Lords could not reject without stopping supplies. They were unsuccessful, however, in carrying their point.

Taeping Rebellion.

A rebellion under Hung Hsiu Chwan, which broke out in the province of Canton in 1851. The rebels marched northward, and after capturing Nanking, established their headquarters there in 1853. They then invaded Honan, Shansi and Chihli, but were driven back. They held out, however, against the Imperial troops until 1864, when Nanking was captured by General Gordon, and the rebellion was finally suppressed in the following year.

Tafna, Treaty of.

A treaty between the French and Abd-el-Kader, the Algerian chief, signed in 1847, and assuring the French domination in Algeria.

Tahiti Question.

A serious difficulty which arose between Great Britain and France in 1844, owing to the action of the French in arresting Mr. Pritchard, a missionary, who was the British Consul in Tahiti, and was very obnoxious to the Roman Catholics. He was only released on his undertaking to leave the Pacific. Great indignation was felt in England at this outrage, but after lengthy negotiations the matter was smoothed over, and compensation given to Mr. Pritchard.

Taille.

A tax levied in France on the produce of the soil, paid exclusively by the cultivator, the landowner being exempt. It was abolished in 1791.

Taille.

A method of warfare introduced by the Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1228, in his attempt to bring to terms Count Raymond of Toulouse. It consisted in the systematic cutting down of vines and fruit trees, and the destruction of houses and enclosures.

Tallage.

That portion of the feudal dues levied by the Norman Kings which was paid by the towns. Its arbitrary exaction was held to be illegal in the reign of Edward I.

Tallagio non Concedendo, Statute de.

A Statute passed in 1297, declaring the exaction of tallages illegal.

Talukdar.

An hereditary contractor for land revenue in Oude. The Talukdar collected rents over a certain district, and paid the taxes for the district to the Government. He often had no proprietary right whatever in the land. By the new land system introduced into Oude by Lord Dalhousie in 1856, under which the British Government entered into direct relations with the villages, most of the Talukdars were dispossessed, and much discontent was occasioned thereby.

Tammany Ring.

The Democratic party in New York City, who have for years kept the absolute control of public affairs in the city. As a party organization it grew out of the Tammany Society, an organization founded in 1805, ostensibly as a charitable institution, and for the promotion of an extended franchise. In 1871 the connexion of its leaders with the notorious Erie Ring led to a crusade against the party, headed by the _New York Times_, and an inquiry disclosed wholesale jobbery and corruption in the administration. As a consequence Tammany was totally defeated at the polls in 1872, but returned to office at the following election, and remained in power until 1902, when they were again driven from office.

Tamworth Manifesto.

A statement of policy issued by Sir Robert Peel in 1835, after the dismissal of the Melbourne Ministry. It promised considerable concessions to the Dissenters, and was in many respects a departure from the old Toryism, and a recognition of the necessity for reform along cautious lines. Those who followed Sir Robert Peel in his new departure were known as Peelites.

Tanistry.

The ancient law of succession in Ireland, by which the chieftainship of a sept descended to the eldest and most worthy of the same blood.

Targowitz, Confederation of.

A confederation of Polish nobles formed in 1792, under the auspices of Catherine of Russia, to oppose the new constitution established in 1791, and to promote a return to the old order of things. They compelled Stanislas Augustus to give way and abrogate the 1791 constitution.

Tartar Invasion.

The invasion of Russia by the Tartars under Genghis Khan in 1237. They overran Russia up to the Carpathians, burning the chief towns, and carrying off the inhabitants as slaves. After subjugating the country, the Tartars contented themselves with demanding an oath of allegiance and a tribute from the Russian Princes, allowing the free exercise of the Christian religion, and interfering in no way with the institutions and customs of the country.

Tattooed Man.

A nickname of James G. Blaine, derived from a political caricature, in which he was represented as Phryne before her judges, tattooed with the names of the various scandals with which his name had been connected.

Tchinovniks.

The holders of Russian official appointments. They are mainly drawn from the ranks of the nobles and the clergy, and in particular from certain noble families, who may be said to be the real rulers of Russia. There are fourteen classes of officials, which classes are called “Tchins.” Every official, whatever his birth, has to enter in the lowest Tchin, and promotion is nominally by merit only.

Tea-Party.

The Boston tea riots are so called.

Tea-room Party.

A party of advanced Radicals who opposed Mr. Gladstone’s amendment to Lord Derby’s Reform Bill of 1867. This amendment would have restricted the borough franchise to those occupiers whose names were on the rate book, but would have drawn a line of value below which no house should be rated. This small party not only defeated Mr. Gladstone, but succeeded in forcing upon the Government household franchise pure and simple.

Temperance, Apostle of.

The name given to Father Mathew, the Irish Temperance advocate, circ. 1838.

Templars, Knights.

An order of knighthood established in Palestine in 1118, and confirmed by Honorius II in 1128. Its functions were the protection of pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, and its headquarters were on the site of Solomon’s Temple. During the thirteenth century, the order, which had become very powerful, and spread widely over Europe, was accused of heresy and other crimes, and was proscribed by Clement V in 1312, and its property confiscated.

Ten Articles.

A profession of the Protestant Doctrine as then held in England drawn up by a Convocation held in 1536, and based upon the Confession of Augsburg.

Ten, Council of.

The Supreme Council of Venice, established in 1310. It really consisted of seventeen members, as to the ten were added the Doge and his six councillors. It controlled the magistracy and the senate, and had charge of the foreign relations of the Republic. It is, however, best known as an arbitrary secret tribunal, trying and condemning for all classes of offences against the laws and the State, without appeal.

Ten Jurisdictions, League of the.

A league formed in the eastern part of Rhætia in 1436, in the territories of the Counts of Toggenburg. It afterwards amalgamated with the Graubund and the Gotteshausbund.

Ten Minutes Bill.

The Reform Bill of 1867, as first introduced, is so called. At a Cabinet Council held on the day that Mr. Disraeli was to introduce the Bill, it was found that Ministers were not in agreement, and there were only ten minutes left to decide what was to be done. It happened that a Bill had been prepared, proposing a milder measure of reform, and this it was decided to introduce. It met with little approval from any section, and was ultimately withdrawn in favour of the original Bill. The story was some time afterwards told by Sir John Pakington to his constituents, and the makeshift Bill was promptly christened the Ten Minutes Bill.

Tenmannetale.

The name by which the system of Frankpledge was known in the northern parts of England.

Tenth of August, Massacre of the.

The massacre of the Swiss Guards at the Tuileries, on August 10, 1792, is known by this name. It is estimated that 5,000 persons perished at the hands of the Paris mob.

Tenure of Office Act.

An Act passed by the United States Congress in 1867, to prevent the removal from office by the President, without the consent of the Senate, of any person holding a Government position. It was enacted in consequence of the action of President Johnson in removing Mr. Stanton in what was held to be an unconstitutional manner.

Teplitz, Treaty of.

A treaty of alliance between Russia, Austria and Prussia, signed in 1813, and directed against Napoleon.

Terreur Blanche.

The name of the White Terror was given to the excesses of the counter-revolutionists in the French provinces, especially in the South, in 1795, after the fall of Robespierre.

Terror, Reign of.

The culmination of the French Revolution, lasting from the fall of the Girondins, in October 1793 to that of Robespierre, in July 1794. During this period the only limit to the number of executions was the time at the disposal of Fouquier-Tinville and the Revolutionary Tribunal for the trial of prisoners.

Terrorists.

The extreme revolutionary party in Paris in 1848. They demanded, not work, but the spoliation of the rich, and were prepared to adopt the methods of 1793 to secure their object. They attempted to coerce and dissolve the National Assembly, and set up a Revolutionary Government at the Hôtel de Ville, but were overpowered by the Garde Mobile.

Terry Alts.

An Irish rebel society which was guilty of numerous outrages in Clare during the years immediately following the Union.

Teschen, Peace of.

A treaty signed at the conclusion of the Bavarian War of Succession in 1779, by which Austria withdrew her opposition to the reunion of Anspach and Bayreuth with Prussia. Certain territorial changes were made in Bavaria, and the Treaty of Westphalia was renewed.

Teshu Lama.

The second spiritual ruler of Thibet, who exercises the functions of the Dalai Lama between the death of one occupant of that position and the enthronement of his successor.

Test Act.

An Act passed in 1673, ordaining that all holders of temporal offices under the Crown must receive the Sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England, and renounce the doctrine of Transubstantiation. James II endeavoured to bring about its repeal, but without success, and it remained on the Statute Book till 1828.

Tetrapolitan Confession.

The profession of faith of the Reformed Non-Lutheran German Church, drawn up by Bucer, and issued in 1530.

Teutonic Knights.

An order of knighthood founded by Henry, King of Jerusalem, during the third Crusade, its original members being followers of Frederick Barbarossa. In 1230, under their Grand Master, Hermann von Salza, the Teutonic knights marched against the Pagans of the Baltic shore of what is now known as Prussia. This country, which was a fief of Poland, they held until 1526, when Albert of Brandenburg, then Grand Master, made a treaty with Sigismund of Poland, by which Prussia was erected into a Grand Duchy, with Albert as Grand Duke. The order was dissolved by Napoleon in 1809.

Thaba Bosigo, Treaty of.