Chapter I: D. B (3)

In South America, under Spanish rule, the bodily service to which every Indian from fifteen to fifty was liable. Those upon whom the lot fell had to work for six months in the mines, and such were the conditions of servitude that barely a fifth survived the ordeal. It is estimated that over eight millions perished from this cause in Peru alone.

Mitchelstown Riot.

A riot at Mitchelstown, co. Cork, at a Land League meeting in August, 1887. The Government reporter and his police escort endeavoured to force their way through the crowd to the platform, which the crowd resented. The police lost their heads and fired on the people. “Remember Mitchelstown” was for some time afterwards the watchword of the Land-leaguers.

Mixed Pickles.

The name given to the Liberal Imperialist party in the first Reichstag of the German Empire.

Model, The.

The Constitution of Carolina, prepared by John Locke in 1670. It was the only constitution in America providing for an hereditary nobility, and recognizing different classes of citizens. It was in some respects feudal in its character, as the small cultivator was _adscriptus glebæ_, and had no franchise. North Carolina objected to the model, rose in revolt, and formed itself into a separate colony.

Modern Gracchus.

A sobriquet of the Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1801).

Modern Messalina.

A name given to Catherine II of Russia (1762-1796), referring to her vicious and cruel character.

Moldavian Capitulation.

A treaty signed in 1512 between Bogdan, Voivode of Moldavia, and Selim I, Sultan of Turkey, by which Bogdan recognized the suzerainty of Turkey, and agreed to pay tribute.

Molinists.

The followers of Molina, the Spanish Jesuit, who was the principal antagonist of the Jansenists and Port Royal.

Mollahs.

In Turkey, the name given to the principal judges, who, the law being more ecclesiastical than civil, exercise functions of almost a priestly character. In less civilized Moslem communities, as in Arabia, and among the Afridis and Afghans, the mollahs are priests or holy men.

Molly Maguires.

An agrarian society formed in Ireland in 1843, to resist distraint for rent. They took their name, originally “Maguires,” from Cornelius Maguire, a leader in the Irish Rebellion of 1641, the word Molly being afterwards added because they usually dressed in women’s clothes when engaged in their raids.

Molly Maguires.

An Irish secret society, which terrorized the mining districts of Pennsylvania from 1867 to 1877. Its object was, apparently, to control the State and municipal politics. In the latter year, owing to informers, its leaders were discovered and convicted, and the society broken up.

Molokáni.

A Russian sect who model their institutions on the early Apostolic Church, as depicted in the New Testament. They are strong upholders of the right of private judgment, allowing considerable latitude to individual opinion within the fold.

Monastic Orders.

_See_ Benedictines, Carmelites, Carthusians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, Theatins.

Monçon, Treaty of.

A treaty between France and Austria, signed in 1626, after the French invasion of the Valtelline. It provided for a return in the Grisons and Valtelline to the _status quo_ before 1617. Only Catholicism was to be tolerated in the valley. The Valtelline was to have the right of electing her own magistrates, subject to the veto of the Grisons, and was to pay the Grisons an annual tribute. The forts in the Valtelline and Chiavenna were to be razed.

Monetary Conference, International.

A conference held at Brussels in 1892, to discuss the question of a bimetallic standard. Great diversity of opinion was shown by the delegates, and the conference dissolved without making any recommendations.

Monroe Doctrine.

A statement of policy in the message to Congress of President Monroe in 1825, to the effect that the United States could not regard with indifference any further territorial expansion on the part of European Powers on the American Continent. The occasion for the pronouncement was the suspected intention of the Holy Alliance to interfere on behalf of Spain in her struggle with her revolted colonies. Various interpretations have been given to this doctrine, some, like that of Mr. Olney, going much further than President Monroe’s words warrant, but it is now generally held to mean that the United States will consider her interests involved, if any European Power seeks territorial aggrandisement in any part of America, or interferes with the internal affairs of any American State.

Monsieur Véto.

A nickname of Louis XVI, referring to the power given him by the Constitution of 1791 to veto the acts of the Legislative Assembly. Marie Antoinette was known as Madame Véto, as it was believed that it was largely her influence which induced the King to exercise his right.

Montesa, Knights of.

A Spanish order of religious chivalry, established in 1317. They succeeded the Templars in Aragon.

Montpelier, Treaty of.

A treaty between Louis XIII and the Huguenots, after their last appearance in arms in 1622. The King undertook to observe the Edict of Nantes, and gave the Huguenots two towns. La Rochelle and Montauban, as places of safety.

Montrouge Club.

A club composed of friends of the Duc d’Orléans (Philippe Egalité), which was formed about 1789. Its object was to supplant the reigning dynasty by the Orleans branch. Among its prominent members were Mirabeau, Siéyès and Sillery.

Montsioa War.

In 1884 the Transvaal Boers attacked Montsioa, a Bechuana chief under British protection, and forced him to make a treaty with them, in defiance of the London Convention. In the following year a force under Sir Charles Warren occupied the disturbed territory, which was brought under the British administration, and the Boers were forced to withdraw.

Montt-Varistas.

The extreme reactionaries of the Pelucones, or Conservative party, in Chile in 1850. They took their name from President Montt, and his Secretary of State, Varas.

Moonlighters.

An agrarian secret society, similar in its constitution and methods to the Whiteboys, which was guilty of numerous outrages in Ireland in 1881.

Moors, Expulsion of.

The final overthrow of the Moorish power in Spain was accomplished by the capture of Granada in 1492, under Ferdinand and Isabella. The terms of capitulation provided that the Moors, while remaining under Spanish dominion, should preserve their own laws, language and religion, with the right to hold property free of molestation. The non-Christian Moors were, however, expelled from Spain by Philip III in 1610.

Morant Bay Riots.

An outbreak of negroes in Jamaica in 1865, which was promptly suppressed, and is only noteworthy as leading to the long controversy with regard to the action of Governor Eyre, whose repressive measures led to his recall. Several attempts were made to bring him to trial, but the case never got beyond the Grand Jury, who always declined to find a true bill.

Moravians.

A Protestant sect, having its origin in the Hussites, which was very numerous in Bohemia and Moravia in the sixteenth century. In 1627 they were expelled from these countries, and, later, settled in Saxony.

Morey Letter.

A letter purporting to be written by Garfield, on the eve of the Presidential Election in the United States in 1880, to a large employer of labour named Morey. It advocated free admission of Chinese labour, and it was hoped by the Democrats would seriously injure the Republican cause on the Pacific Slope. It was of course a forgery.

Mormons.

A sect founded by Joseph Smith, the son of a Vermont farmer, in 1830, at Fayette, New York State. The Mormons moved westward and, after several years’ wanderings, settled on the Great Salt Lake in 1847, under Brigham Young. Their advocacy of polygamy was for a long time a bar to the admission of Utah to the Union, but the enforcement of the Edmunds Act of 1882 led to the formal abandonment of polygamy as a tenet by the Mormons in 1890, and Utah was admitted a State in 1896.

Mortmain, Statute of.

A statute passed in 1279, to put a stop to the growing practice of giving landed property to the Church, and receiving it back as tenants, thus evading feudal obligations. To prevent land thus passing into a dead hand (_mortuum manum_), all such alienations were forbidden, except with the King’s consent.

Morton’s Fork.

The scheme devised by Morton, the Minister of Henry VII, to increase the revenues of the State. He exacted contributions from those who lived well on the plea that they were obviously rich, and from those who lived plainly on the ground that their economy had made them wealthy.

Mossbacks.

The name given to an old-fashioned section of the Democratic party in the United States, most numerous in Ohio. The word is derived from the popular name for the snapping turtle, which is so called from the growth of a species of aquatic moss on its shell.

Most Holy Synod.

A body charged with the administration of the Russian National Church. Its members are appointed and removed by the Czar, and its head, the Procurator, is practically an autocrat in all matters of Church discipline. It has however no jurisdiction over matters of dogma.

Mother Ann.

The leader of the Shakers in Sussex, at the end of the eighteenth century. Her name was Ann Lee.

Mother of Presidents.

The State of Virginia is so called, as having furnished no less than six Presidents of the United States.

Mother of States.

A name given to the State of Virginia, either as the oldest colony, or as having had five States, namely, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and West Virginia, formed out of her original territories.

Moujik.

The Russian peasant.

Moulins, Edict of.

An edict issued in 1566 by the Chancellor, de l’Hôpital, after a conference of Notables representing both the Huguenot and the Catholic parties. It dealt with the reform of judicial procedure.

Mountain.

The Jacobins, or ultra-revolutionary party in the Convention during the French Revolution. Its leaders were Danton and Robespierre. The Mountain came to an end with the fall of Robespierre and his followers on the 9th Thermidor (July 28, 1794). It was so called because its members occupied the upper tiers of seats in the Convention.

Mountain Meadow Massacre.

The massacre by Indians, under Mormon leadership, of a party of 140 emigrants, who were crossing Utah on their way to California in 1857. The Mormons had been for some time in difficulties with the United States Government, and Federal troops were in the neighbourhood of Salt Lake City, but no hostilities had taken place. The leader of the band, J. D. Lee, a Mormon Bishop, was executed for the crime on the actual site of the massacre in 1877.

Mountain Men.

A name given to the Cameronians.

Mugwumps.

A section of the Republican party in the United States who, in 1884, supported Cleveland, the Democratic candidate for President, owing to his advocacy of Civil Service Reform. The word is also applied to those who for various reasons decline to attach themselves definitely to either of the great political parties.

Mulmutine Laws.

A code of laws said to have been drawn up by Mulmutius, King of the Britons, circ. 400 B.C. They were translated by Alfred the Great, and remained the basis of English law until the Conquest.

Mundebunde or Mundium.

Among the Franks the protection afforded by the King or a feudal lord to an ecclesiastic or other person not being an ordinary vassal.

Municipal Reform Act.

An Act passed in 1835, dealing with 178 municipalities. In the majority of these the election to municipal offices had been entirely in the hands of the freemen, often a very small minority of the inhabitants. The Act instituted an electoral qualification of three years’ residence, and the payment of poor and borough rates. It also established town councils, and provided for an independent audit.

Mustafiz.

The second line of reserve, or militia, of the Turkish army.

Mutiny Act.

This Act was passed for the first time in 1689, for one year only, and has since that time been passed annually. It gives disciplinary powers to the officers of the army and navy, apart from the ordinary process of law, and neither service could be maintained without it.

Mutualists.

A secret association of the _chefs d’ateliers_, or middlemen, of the Lyons weavers, which ordered a strike of workmen in April, 1834. The strike resulted in a rising, which was promptly suppressed, and the leaders were prosecuted under the Associations Law.

N

Nag’s Head Controversy.

A controversy which arose over an allegation of the Roman Catholics, in 1599, that Archbishop Parker’s consecration, forty years previously, had taken place in the most informal manner at the Nag’s Head Tavern, in Cheapside. The statement was proved to be entirely devoid of foundation.

Nanking, Treaty of.

A treaty between Great Britain and China, signed in 1842, at the close of the Opium War. By its terms England secured Hong Kong in perpetuity, and Shanghai and other ports were opened to foreign trade.

Napoleon of Peace.

A sobriquet of Louis Philippe, whose peaceful reign of eighteen years was a marked contrast to the constant wars of the Napoleonic era.

Natal, Republic of.

A republic founded by emigrant burghers from Cape Colony in 1838. It stretched from the Drakensberg to the sea, and from the Tugela to the Umzimvubu river, while Zululand, under Panda, was tributary to it. The British Government never recognized the republic, and in 1842 steps were taken to obtain possession of the country, in which a regular colonial government was established in 1845.

Nation of Shopkeepers.

A phrase first applied to England by Samuel Adams, the American politician, in 1776. It is generally attributed to Napoleon, but was probably taken by him from a translation of the speech in which it occurs.

National Association for King William.

An association formed on the discovery of the Assassination Plot in 1696, at the suggestion of Sir Rowland Gwyn. The signatories declared their loyalty to the King, and bound themselves to take vengeance on all who might attempt his life.

National Debt.

The origin of the National Debt was a loan raised by Montague, afterwards Lord Halifax, in 1693. The lenders were life-annuitants, and as each died his annuity was divided among the survivors till only seven remained; after which, on the death of each of the seven, his portion was absorbed by the Government.

National Guard.

An urban militia raised in Paris in 1789 by Flesselles, Prévôt des Marchands. It took a leading part in the destruction of the Bastille.

National Guards.

A body of volunteers raised by Napper Tandy in Ireland in 1792. They were promptly suppressed by the Government.

National Scouts.

A force recruited from surrendered Boers, for service as scouts with the British Army, during the latter stages of the Boer War of 1899-1902.

Nationalverein.

An association formed in 1859, the declared object of which was to substitute for the Confederation the German constitution of 1848, under the hegemony of Prussia, and to the complete exclusion of Austria. Its founder was Baron Benigsen of Hanover.

Nations, Battle of the.

The Battle of Leipsic, fought on October 16, 17 and 18, 1813, is so called. Five nations--France, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden, were engaged.

Naturalia.

The contributions in kind exacted for the support of the royal household among the Franks.

Naturalization Act.

An Act of Congress passed in 1870, which, while authorizing the naturalization of the African negro, declined to admit to the citizenship Indians and Chinese.

Naundorff Claimant.

A claim was brought before the French courts in 1874 by the son of a clock-maker of Delft, named Naundorff. The claimant, who called himself Adalbert de Bourbon, demanded to be recognized as the grandson of Louis XVI, on the ground that his father, Naundorff, was in reality the Dauphin, who had been imprisoned in the Temple, and of whose escape he told a marvellous story. The courts dismissed his claim.

Navigation Act.

An Act passed in 1651, under the Commonwealth, prohibiting the importation of goods into England except in British ships, or in ships belonging to the country of origin of the goods. The Act was renewed in 1672, and, with the modifications then introduced, continued in force till the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, when the English Government agreed to suspend its operation so far as concerned vessels of the United States.

Neck Verse.

A verse of the Psalms, read by condemned criminals who claimed “benefit of clergy,” as a test of their clerkship. It was so called because those who succeeded in reading it in clerkly fashion were handed over to the ecclesiastical authorities, and saved their necks.

Negus.

The title of the King of Abyssinia or Ethiopia.

Nemours, Edict of.

An edict issued by Henri III in 1785, withdrawing all the privileges accorded to the Huguenots by previous edicts, and giving them six months to conform to the Roman Catholic Church or to leave the realm.

Nepaul Treaty.

A treaty signed in 1815, at the end of the Ghoorka war, between the British and Nepaul. By its provisions Nepaul relinquished all rights over the Hill Rajahs west of the Kali river, ceded the major portion of the Terai, restored the territory conquered from the Rajah of Sikkim, and agreed to receive a British resident at Khatmandu.

Neri.

_See_ Bianchi.

Nertchinsk, Treaty of.

A treaty between Russia and China signed in 1689, and notable as being the first convention between China and a European Power. This treaty put a stop for nearly 150 years to Russia’s eastward expansion in Siberia.

Nestor of Europe.

Leopold I, King of the Belgians (1831-1865) was so called.

Neuf Thermidor.

July 27, 1794, the day on which the Decree of Accusation was launched against Robespierre, Couthon, St. Just and the other extremists of the Revolution, thus putting an end to the Reign of Terror.

New Custom.

A system of granting to foreign merchants the privilege of trading with English ports in return for a subsidy. This system was introduced by Edward I in 1303, and is the origin of Customs Duties.

New Departure.

A change of programme on the part of a section of the Democratic party in the United States in 1871. They admitted that all, including negroes, were entitled to equal rights and full citizenship, but demanded a universal amnesty for the Southerners, condemned protective duties as levied solely in the interests of the Northern manufacturers, and strongly protested against the Force Bill of 1870.

New England Confederation.

A union of the four New England Colonies, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut, formed in 1643 for mutual protection against the Dutch and the Indians.

New Learning.

The name given in England to the revival of learning in the West, the first manifestation of which was the Italian Renaissance.

New Model.

The name given to the Parliamentary Army as reformed by the Self-denying Ordinance of 1645.

New Republic.

A republic formed in 1884 in what was later the Vryheid district of the Transvaal, the territory having been given by Dinizulu to certain Boers in return for their help in his war with Usibepu. Lucas Meyer was elected president, but the republic was short-lived, being absorbed by the South African Republic in 1887.

New Roof.

A nickname given to the Constitution of the United States shortly after its promulgation.

New Style.

The name given to the Gregorian Calendar, introduced into England by the Calendar Act of 1752.

New Tipperary.

A township started in 1890, under the Plan of Campaign, with the object of bringing to terms the owner of the land on which the town of Tipperary stands. The scheme was a complete fiasco, and collapsed in 1891.

New Unionism.

This form of trade unionism had its rise about 1884. It differs from the old unionism in that it is frankly Socialistic in its tendencies, and demands State interference between workmen and employers, whereas the old demanded only to be left alone and to be allowed the right of combination for the advancement of the interests of the workers.

New Zealand Centralization.

By an Act passed in 1876, during the premiership of Sir Julius Vogel, the nine provinces of New Zealand were united, with one Parliament sitting at Wellington. The nine provincial Parliaments were abolished, their administrative functions being entrusted to road boards in the country districts and municipalities in the towns.

Newcastle Programme.

The platform of the Liberal party at the general election of 1892, based on resolutions passed at the meeting of the National Liberal Federation at Newcastle in October, 1891. The “planks” of the platform were Abolition of the House of Lords, Home Rule, Disestablishment of the Church in Wales, Taxation of Ground Values, and One Man One Vote.

Newfoundland Fisheries.

_See_ French Shore.

Newport, Treaty of.

The final attempt of the Parliament to come to terms with the King in 1648. Negotiations were opened at Newport, but the King contested every demand of the Parliament, and the Independents, supported by the Army, lost patience, and confined the King in Hurst Castle.

Nicæa, Second Council of.

An Œcumenical Council held during the reign of the Empress Irene, at which the decrees of the Council of Constantinople with regard to image-worship were reversed.

Nichan-Sherif.

A decree of the Sultan Ahmed I in 1604, granting the Venetians certain trading and navigating facilities in the Ottoman dominions.

Nightmare of Europe.

A sobriquet of the Great Napoleon.

Nihilists.

The Russian revolutionary society, an important section of which is in favour of physical force. Their position is perhaps best explained by the manifesto issued after the assassination of the Czar Alexander II in 1881, in which they declare their object to be the amelioration of the condition of the peasantry, and the introduction of more civilized methods of government. They go on to say that Russia demands a new system, and that, their peaceful efforts having only met with repression, they have been driven to adopt violent means to gain their ends.

Nimeguen, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1678, following the five years’ war of Louis XIV against Holland and Spain. Louis obtained Franche-Comté and sixteen fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands.

Nîmes, Edict of.

An edict issued in 1629, shortly after the fall of La Rochelle, which, while confirming the religious freedom granted to the Huguenots by the Edict of Nantes, deprived them of their special political status, and thus broke up the Huguenot League.

Nine Articles, Constitution of.

A constitution drawn up at Winburg in 1837 by the emigrant burghers who had settled between the Orange and the Vaal rivers after the Great Trek. A Volksraad was elected, and the burghers bound themselves to observe the old Roman-Dutch law, except when inconsistent with the articles of the constitution.

Ninety-eight.

The Irish rebellion under Lord Edward Fitzgerald and Wolfe Tone in 1798. The rebellion had been carefully planned for some years before the outbreak, and, the sympathies of the French having been enlisted, a landing by Hoche was attempted at Bantry Bay. This was unsuccessful, and a little later Humbert, who landed at Killala, was forced to surrender to Lord Cornwallis. Horrible outrages were perpetrated by the rebels, and the consequent reprisals gave a most bloodthirsty character to the whole affair. The rebels were finally defeated at Vinegar Hill, which put an end to all organized resistance, though there were a few isolated risings from time to time. Wolfe Tone was captured and condemned to death, but escaped the scaffold by suicide. Fitzgerald was killed a few days before the outbreak, resisting the military who were about to arrest him.

Nine Worthies.

This title was given to nine members of the Privy Council of William III, namely, the Duke of Devonshire, the Earls of Nottingham, Dorset, Monmouth, Orford, Pembroke and Marlborough, Lord Caermarthen, and Sir John Lowther.

Nizam.

The regular infantry of the Turkish Army.

No Popery Agitation.

An agitation against the action of the Pope in creating Cardinal Wiseman Archbishop of Westminster in 1851. To appease the Protestant party the Government brought in the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill.

Nobles’ War.

The rising of Rhenish knights under Franz von Sickingen in 1522. They were bitterly hostile to the Suabian League and to the new institutions, such as the Reichskammergericht. The rising was suppressed in the following year.

Noces Vermeilles.

“The blood-red wedding” was the name given afterwards to the marriage between the Protestant Henry of Navarre and the Catholic Marguerite de Valois in May 1572, only three months before the massacre of the Huguenots on the eve of St. Bartholomew.

Noche Triste.

The night of June 20, 1520, when the Spaniards under Cortes were attacked by the Mexicans as they were evacuating Mexico, and suffered very heavy losses.

Noir, Code.

The code of laws promulgated by Louis XIV in 1685 to be enforced in the West Indian colonies of France. It had special reference to the treatment of negroes, whether slaves or freedmen.

Nomansland.

The district south of the Basuto country, now known as Griqualand East, was so called in 1860. It was settled in 1861 by the migration of Adam Kok and his tribe of Griquas from the country they had previously occupied between the Orange and the Riet Rivers.

Nomansland.

A district lying between Kansas, New Mexico, Texas, and the Indian territory, which now forms part of the territory of Oklahoma.

The same name is given to a strip of land in dispute between the States of Delaware and Pennsylvania.

Nominees, Assembly of.

Barebone’s Parliament is sometimes known by this name.

Non-Compounders.

_See_ Compounders.

Non-Jurors.

The clergymen, between three and four hundred in number, who refused to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy on the accession of William III in 1689.

Non-Resistance.

The doctrine that it was a deadly sin to oppose the will of the King as being sovereign by Divine right. This tenet was preached by the Anglican clergy in the times of the Stuarts. It was also called the “Doctrine of Passive Obedience.”

Nore, Mutiny at the.

The name usually given to the mutinies in the fleet at the Nore and Spithead, which broke out in 1797. The discontent, due to real grievances, first showed itself at Spithead, where Lord Howe, who was in command, succeeded by his tact in arranging matters satisfactorily, and nothing very serious occurred. At the Nore the mutiny assumed a political character, the men demanding a revision of the Articles of War and other impossible concessions. Their demands being refused the mutineers seized the fleet, but gradually yielded, and finally Parker, the ringleader, was arrested and hanged, with four or five others.

Norman Reconciliation.

_See_ Baiser de Lamourette.

North, Council of the.

A council established by Henry VIII in 1536, after the Insurrection of the North, to deal with questions arising out of that event. In the reign of Charles I it was reorganized by Wentworth on the lines of the Star Chamber, and it was finally abolished by Act of Parliament in 1641.

North, Society of the.

A Russian secret society. (_See_ December Rising.)

North German Confederation.

A confederation of twenty-two States north of the Maine, formed in 1867, after the signing of the Treaty of Prague, under the perpetual presidency of Prussia. Two assemblies were formed, one, the Reichstag, being representative of the people, the other, the Bundesrath, being composed of delegates from the Governments of the twenty-two States.

Northampton, Treaty of.

A treaty between England and Scotland, signed in 1328, by which Robert Bruce was acknowledged as King of Scotland, and the independence of Scotland was recognized, Edward III renouncing his suzerainty. Bruce agreed to pay compensation for damage in the North of England, and to reinstate the Scottish lords who had been dispossessed on account of their supporting Edward.

Nottingham, Peace of.

A treaty signed between Æthelred and the Northmen in 868, by which Mercia was saved from their depredations.

Noyades.

The Vendean refugees who had fled to Nantes in 1793 were, by order of Carrier, crowded into boats, which were towed out into the middle of the river and sunk. This wholesale murder is known as “The Noyades.”

Nuevas Ordenanzas.

A code of laws designed to ameliorate the condition of the Indians in the Spanish Colonies, promulgated at Madrid in 1543. They were largely due to the efforts of Las Casas.

Nullifiers.

The supporters of State Rights in the Southern States were thus called, from the action of South Carolina, in 1832, in declaring unconstitutional and “nullifying” an Act of Congress imposing import duties on textile fabrics.

Number Forty-five.

The famous number of the _North Briton_, which appeared on April 23, 1763, and attacked the King’s Speech at the close of the previous session. It led to the expulsion of John Wilkes from the House of Commons.

Nun of Kent.

Elizabeth Barton, a woman of humble birth, who claimed to have the gift of prophecy, and formed a rallying point for the discontented Catholics after the divorce of Catherine by Henry VIII. She was in correspondence with Catherine and with the Emperor, and although no treasonable practices could be proved against her, she was an undoubted danger to the State. She was arrested and executed in 1534.

Nutmeg State.

A name given derisively to the State of Connecticut in allusion to their supposed large trade in wooden nutmegs.

Nystad, Treaty of.

A treaty between Russia and Sweden, signed in 1721, at the conclusion of the prolonged war which had been commenced in 1700. Peter the Great secured for Russia the provinces, of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Carelia, and part of Finland.

O

O.P. Riots.

A series of riots which disturbed London in 1809, owing to Kemble having raised the prices at Covent Garden Theatre. The mob demanded the “old prices.” Clifford, a barrister, was charged with inciting to riot by appearing in the theatre with the letters “O.P.” in his hat, but was acquitted, whereupon Kemble gave way.

Oakboys.

An agrarian society in Ulster in 1763. It was formed to protest against the action of the Grand Juries, who had decided upon the construction of certain roads which the peasantry maintained were to be made solely in the interests of the great landowners.

Oath of Allegiance.

A formula drawn up after Gunpowder Plot in 1606, which asserted the supremacy of the Sovereign in ecclesiastical matters, and denied the power of the Pope to relieve his subjects from their allegiance, or to depose him.

Oath of Strasburg.

The oath of allegiance taken by Charles and Louis, the sons of Louis le Débonnaire, to their brother Lothair, the Emperor, after the battle of Fontenay in 841.

Oberstuhlherr.

The chief of the Westphalian Vehmgericht, as representative of the Emperor. The post was usually filled by the Archbishop of Cologne.

Oblivion and Indemnity, Act of.

A proclamation under the Great Seal in 1603, by which James I promised a complete amnesty to all those who had taken part in the rebellions in Ireland during the reign of his predecessor.

Occasional Conformity Bill.

A bill introduced into Parliament in 1703 to render illegal the practice of nonconformists receiving the sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England, in order to qualify for municipal office, and then returning to their own form of worship. The bill entailed heavy penalties on all those who held office under these conditions. The bill failed to pass, was reintroduced in the following session, and was again thrown out, while a further attempt to pass it in 1704 was defeated by the Lords. It at last became law in 1711.

O’Connell’s Tail.

The nickname given to the following of Daniel O’Connell in the House of Commons, after the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832.

October Club.

A club composed of Tories and Jacobites, formed in 1710. Among its members were Bolingbroke and his followers.

Odal.

A system of land tenure among the Norsemen, by which property in the land was absolute. It was probably land allotted to the warrior after conquest, to be held by him and his descendants, though according to the Gulathing’s law, it could not become Odal until it had been held for three generations. The udallers of Orkney hold under this tenure.

Odalsthing.

_See_ Storthing.

Œcumenical Councils.

The General Councils of the Church accepted by ecclesiastical authorities as genuinely Œcumenical are twenty-one in number, namely: two of Nicæa, four of Constantinople, Ephesus, Chalcedon, five Lateran Councils, two of Lyons, Vienna, Constance, Basle, Florence, Trent and the Vatican.

Œil de Bœuf.

The name given to the antechamber in the Palace of Versailles. It was so called from two bull’s-eye windows near the ceiling.

Ohio Company.

A company of Virginian settlers who colonised the Ohio Valley under a charter from the British Government in 1749.

Old Abe.

A nickname of President Abraham Lincoln.

Old Catholics.

A section of the Roman Catholics in Germany who, under the leadership of Dr. Döllinger, rejected the dogma of Papal Infallibility imposed by the Vatican Council in 1870.

Old Czechs.

The Conservative section of the Czech or National party in Bohemia.

Old Dominion.

A name given to the State of Virginia, as the original English Colony in America.

Old Glorious.

A sobriquet of William III of England.

Old Hickory.

Andrew Jackson, President of the United States from 1829 to 1837, was so called on account of his obstinacy of character.

Old Hunkers.

The Conservative wing of the Democratic party in New York, 1824-1848.

Old Line State.

The State of Maryland is so called with reference to the Mason and Dixon Line, which divides it from Pennsylvania.

Old Man of the Mountain.

_See_ Assassins.

Old Morality.

A nickname of Mr. W. H. Smith, leader of the House of Commons from 1887 1891.

Old Noll.

A nickname of Oliver Cromwell.

Old Pretender.

James Edward, son of James II, was so called by the adherents of the Hanoverian succession.

Old Rough and Ready.

General Zachary Taylor, President of the United States in 1849, was so called by his soldiers during the Mexican war.

Old Rowley.

A nickname of Charles II.

Old Style.

The old or Julian Calendar, superseded in England by the Gregorian in 1751, but still in use in Russia.

Oleron, Laws of.

A code of commercial and maritime laws founded on the Consolato del Mare, issued in the reign of Louis IX of France.

Olive Branch Petition.

An appeal to the King by the Second American Congress, 1775, expressing a desire for reconciliation, but offering no concessions. The King, however, refused to receive it, on the ground that it was issued by an unauthorized assembly.

Olmütz, Convention of.

Also called the Humiliation of Olmütz. A convention signed in 1850 between Prussia and Austria, by which the former Power renounced all her projects of union, and recognized the restoration of the old Germanic Diet, under the presidency of Austria.

Olney Doctrine.

An extension of the Monroe Doctrine put forward by Mr. Olney, President Cleveland’s Secretary of State, in a despatch on the Venezuela boundary question in July, 1895. He claimed that Great Britain had no right to interfere on the American Continent, and that, if force was necessary, British Guiana must rely on her own resources, without calling in aid from Great Britain. He further maintained that the United States had a right to insist upon all claims concerning questions of territory being submitted to arbitration unreservedly, and was justified in taking steps to satisfy herself that no territory had been or was being unwarrantably annexed. Lord Salisbury absolutely repudiated this doctrine, and refused in any sense to accept it as binding on Great Britain.

Omladina.

A secret society having its headquarters in Servia, whose object is the establishment of a Pan-Slavic confederation on a republican basis. It has from time to time caused Austria some trouble in Bohemia.

Open Door.

The declared English policy in China, as opposed to the policy of “Spheres of Influence.” It is defined in the Anglo-German agreement of 1900 as the free access, under equal conditions, of all nations to the ports, rivers and littorals of China.

Opium Commission.

A commission appointed in 1893 to inquire into the opium question in India. The commission reported in 1895, eight out of nine members signing the report, to the effect that the use of opium in India was strictly moderate, that native opinion made no demand for restriction, that any interference with the growing of opium in the native states would be unjustifiable, and that the Government of China was perfectly satisfied with the existing arrangements as to the opium trade. There was, therefore, in the opinion of the commissioners, absolutely no ground for legislative interference.

Opium War.

The war with China in 1840 is so called, because it arose out of the action of the Chinese authorities, who in their efforts to stop opium smuggling, insisted on the forfeiture of the stocks of opium in the hands of British merchants in China. It resulted in the cession to Great Britain in perpetuity of Hong Kong, and the opening of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai as treaty ports.

Opportunists.

A school, rather than a party, in French politics who, unlike the Doctrinaires, do not seek to enforce their views in season and out of season, but allow due weight to considerations of expediency. Among them may be named Gambetta and Jules Ferry.

Orange Peel.

A nickname given to Sir Robert Peel, when Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1812-18, on account of the strong anti-Catholic bias he is considered to have displayed.

Orangemen.

A society of the Protestants of Ulster, founded in 1790, originally in opposition to the Catholic Defenders. It has remained, however, a strong and important body in the north of Ireland, firmly attached to the Union, and bitterly anti-Catholic.

Ordainers, Lords.

A commission of twenty-one persons, to whom the Government of England was confided for a period of eighteen months (1309-1310) during the reign of Edward II. Their task was to propound a scheme for the reform of the Government.

Ordeal, Trial by.

This is of Norse origin, and was practised in England in Anglo-Saxon and early Norman times. The ordeal was of various kinds, one of the most severe consisting in the accused walking barefoot and blindfold over red-hot ploughshares. If within a given period the burns so caused were not healed he was adjudged guilty. The ordeal was forbidden by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215.

Orders in Council, 1807.

England’s reply to Napoleon’s Berlin Decree, establishing the Continental Blockade, was the issue of a series of Orders in Council. They forbade vessels to trade between any ports in France or the territories of the allies, granted the right of reprisals against Tuscany, Naples, Dalmatia and the Ionian Islands, declared a blockade against all ports from which the English flag was excluded, and finally declared the sale of ships by a belligerent to a neutral illegal. These orders had a very serious effect upon the American carrying trade, and the irritation caused thereby was one of the causes of the outbreak of war in 1812.

Ordinance of 1784.

An Act providing for the Government of the North-West Territory, passed by the United States Congress in 1784.

Ordinance of 1787.

An Act of Congress making further provision for the government of the North-West Territory, and decreeing freedom from slavery and religious toleration.

Ordinances.

The articles of reform prepared by the Lords Ordainers in the reign of Edward II and agreed to by the King and Parliament in 1311. They provided that no war should be undertaken without the consent of Parliament, that all customs duties imposed since the death of Edward I should be removed; that the great officers of state should be nominated with the consent of Parliament; that Parliament should meet annually, and that the King’s undesirable companions should be removed and his household reformed. Piers Gaveston in particular being banished from the kingdom.

Ordonnance de Mai.

An edict issued in May, 1413, by Charles VI of France, reforming the finances and abolishing numerous sinecures about the Court.

Ordonnances de Juillet.

The decrees issued by Charles X on July 24, 1830. The first suspended the liberty of the Press, the second dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, and the third ordained that the future Chamber should consist only of Deputies from the Departments. A revolutionary outbreak, fomented by the journalists, followed immediately on the promulgation of these ordinances, and Charles fled from Paris, and abdicated on August 3.

Oregon Treaty.

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1846, defining the frontier between Oregon and British Columbia. It involved the settlement of the claim to Vancouver Island in favour of Great Britain.

Organic Statute.

A Russian ukase, issued in 1832, withdrawing constitutional government from Poland.

Organizer of Victory.

Lazare Nicolas Carnot, the revolutionary leader, was so called during the wars of the French Revolution.

Oriflamme.

The ancient standard of France: a crimson flag attached to a gilded lance.

Orleanists.

The party among the French Royalists who supported the claims of the Orleans Branch of the French Royal Family to the throne of France. On the death of the last of the French Bourbons in 1883 the party was augmented by the adhesion of the majority of the Legitimists.

Orléans, Edict of.

An edict issued in 1561 by the Chancellor, de l’Hôpital, proclaiming certain reforms in the Church and the Justiciary. In the former category were included the abolition of annates and of the sale of benefices, and in the latter the abolition of all extraordinary Courts of Justice. It further authorized the Government to take possession of the surplus income of all religious communities, and to apply the sum thus obtained to educational purposes.

Ormée.

The name given to the insurrectionary government established at Bordeaux in 1652. It is derived from the fact of the leaders of the movement holding their meetings under a large elm near the Fort du Ha.

Orphan of the Temple.

Marie Thérèse, Duchess of Angouléme, the daughter of Louis XVI, was so called in allusion to her three years’ imprisonment in the Temple in Paris.

Orsini Bombs.

A conspiracy to murder Napoleon III by blowing up his carriage as he was on his way to the opera in 1858. The Emperor escaped unhurt, but ten persons were killed and 158 injured by the explosion of the bombs. Orsini, who was captured and executed, had been a refugee in London, where the plot was hatched, a fact which led to an intensely hostile feeling towards England on the part of the French.

Ostend Manifesto.

The outcome of a conference at Ostend in 1854 between Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soulé, the representatives of the United States at the Courts of Great Britain, France and Spain respectively. They were asked to advise on the Cuban question, and advised their Government that the proper course was purchase, or if Spain refused to sell, that the United States were fully justified in using force if they felt themselves sufficiently powerful.

Otokodaté.

In old Japan a friendly association of the Chônin, or wardsmen of the large towns. They were very particular as to the character of their members, their aim being mutual assistance against oppression and wrong-doing of every kind, while among themselves they were a sort of benefit society, aiding those of their members who through misfortune were in need of assistance.

Ottawa Conference.

A conference of delegates from the British self-governing colonies, held at Ottawa in 1894. The conference agreed to resolutions asking for Imperial legislation enabling the Colonies to enter into treaties of reciprocity with each other, and the denunciation of existing foreign treaties which prevented this. The delegates further pronounced in favour of preferential customs arrangements between the Mother Country and the Colonies, of a line of fast steamers between Canada and Australia, and of an “All Red” cable to Australia.

Oude Proclamation.

A proclamation issued by Lord Canning after the fall of Lucknow in 1858, confiscating all proprietary rights to land in Oude, with the exception of the estates of seven unimportant proprietors. All others must throw themselves on the mercy of the British Government, and clemency would be extended to them, if they had not been concerned in the murder of Englishmen. This proclamation was considered by Lord Ellenborough unduly severe, and a controversy arose which nearly led to Lord Canning’s resignation.

Our Lady of Mercy, Order of.

A Spanish Order of Knighthood, instituted in 1218 by James I of Aragon. Its special mission was to work for the deliverance of captives in the hands of the Moors.

Outlawry.

Among the Norsemen certain crimes, such as the violation of a temple, or secret or unprovoked murder, could not be atoned for by “weregild,” and were punished by confiscation of all property and loss of all rights, the criminal becoming an outlaw. A man was also outlawed if he or his family were unable to pay “weregild.”

Overton’s Plot.

An abortive conspiracy to overthrow the Commonwealth and murder Cromwell, Lambert and other leading men, in 1655. It was headed by Major-General Overton, one of the most successful of the Parliamentary generals.

Oxford Movement.

A movement, designed to bring the Church of England nearer to the Church of Rome, which took its rise at Oxford in 1841. Its leaders were Keble, Pusey and Newman, and their views were in the first instance published to the world in a series of papers called “Tracts for the Times,” whence it is also known as the Tractarian Movement. Its followers were generally called Puseyites by their opponents.

Oxford’s Assault.

The attempted assassination of Queen Victoria by Edward Oxford in 1840 is so called. He fired twice at the Queen, but missed. At his trial he was found to be insane, and was incarcerated in Bethlem Hospital, and afterwards in Broadmoor.

Oyer and Terminer.

A commission specially nominated to hear and determine specific cases, especially of high treason, in England. This legal form was extended to Scotland in 1709, after the abortive trial of the Stirlingshire Jacobites under the ordinary Scotch procedure in 1708.

P

Pacific, War of the.

The war between Chile on the one side and Peru and Bolivia on he other in 1879-83 is so called.

Pacta Conventa.

The agreement entered into between the nobles and candidates for the throne at the election of the Polish kings. The terms agreed upon at the election of Henry in 1573 included the following: Henry undertook not to influence the diet in the choice of his successor, not to declare war, to marry or to divorce without their consent, not to impose taxes nor to appoint ambassadors. These terms were known as the Articles of Henry, and similar disabilities were imposed upon subsequent kings of Poland.

Pacte de Famine.

_See_ Malisset.

Pahlen’s Conspiracy.

A conspiracy of Count Pahlen, Governor of St. Petersburg, in 1801, to dethrone Paul I. The Czarewitch gave his countenance to the plot, with the stipulation that no bodily harm should befall his father. Paul was nevertheless murdered by Pahlen and his accomplices.

Paix de Monsieur.

A treaty between Catherine de’ Medici and the Huguenots in 1576, whereby the Huguenots were allowed the exercise of their religion in certain towns which they held. Certain appanages were granted to their leaders, Condé, Henry of Navarre and others.

Paix des Dames.

The Peace of Cambray, so called because it was negotiated by Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I, and Margaret, aunt of Charles V.

Paix Fourrée.

The name of the Patched-up Peace is given to the Peace between Jean Sans Peur, Duke of Burgundy, and the Duc d’Orléans, the leader of the Armagnacs in 1407. It was a device of Jean to get the Duc d’Orléans into his power and three days afterwards Orléans was murdered by the Duke of Burgundy’s agents.

The same title is sometimes given to the Peace of Longjumeau, between Charles IX and the Huguenots in 1586.

Paladins.

A select band of knights in the service of Charlemagne, the most famous of whom was Roland or Orlando. Most of them were killed at the Battle of Roncesvalles, where Charlemagne’s troops were defeated by the Moors in 778.

Palatinate Catechism.

_See_ Heidelberg Catechism.

Palatines.

In Poland the generals of the forces raised in the various palatinates, or provinces, were so called.

Pale, The.

The portion of Ireland subdued and settled by Henry II in 1175, within which only the English law was in force.

Palisades, Burgesses of the.

_See_ Pfahlbürger.

Pallium.

The cloak or robe of office sent by the Pope to metropolitans and other high dignitaries of the Church, without which they could not enter upon the exercise of their functions.

Palmetto State.

A name given to the State of South Carolina, in allusion to the number of palmettos growing within its borders. The palmetto is in the arms of the State.

Pam.

The nickname of Lord Palmerston.

Pan-American Congress.

A congress of the various States of North, South and Central America, organized by James G. Blaine during the term of office of President Harrison, and held at Washington in 1890. Among the subjects discussed were reciprocity treaties, and a uniform standard of coinage, weights and measures for the American Continent. No practical results, however, accrued.

Pan-Germanism.

A movement in Germany and the German provinces of Austria, to unite the latter to the German Empire. The Austrian Pan-Germans make no secret of their desire to break up the Austrian Empire with this end in view.

Pan-Islamism.

A secret movement fomented by certain fanatical Mohammedans, for the freedom of all Moslems from Christian domination. It cannot be said to be in any way organized, but its emissaries are from time to time found at work in Mohammedan districts under Russian and British rule.

Pan-Slavism.

A Russian movement having for its ideal the confederation of all the Slavonic nations under the hegemony of Russia. The Pan-Slavists are naturally strong advocates of a forward policy in the political relations of Russia and Turkey.

Panama Canal Treaty.

A treaty between the United States and Colombia, signed in January, 1903, providing for the acquisition by the former Power of the canal rights of the new Panama Company. The United States secured a strip of territory, six miles wide, along the route of the canal, against a payment to Colombia of £2,000,000 and an annual subsidy. This is granted on a lease for a hundred years, renewable at the option of the United States. An arrangement is made for joint police and judicial control, but the subjects of the United States can claim to be tried by their own courts. The port dues are ceded by Colombia to the United States.

Panama Scandal.

During the investigation, in 1892, into the affairs of the Panama Canal Company, which had become bankrupt, it was discovered that large sums of money belonging to the shareholders were not properly accounted for. It appeared that in order to get the Panama Lottery Bill passed in 1888, the Baron de Reinach had distributed three millions of francs in bribes to deputies and senators, and that over one hundred had accepted bribes to vote for the bill. The directors of the company, including M. de Lesseps and his son, were tried and found guilty of malversation of the company’s funds, and several deputies and senators, including eight ex-ministers, were prosecuted for receiving bribes. The Parisians called this affair “La Lessive du Panama,” or the Panama dirty linen.

Panamino.

The bank scandal in Italy in 1893, in which several deputies were involved, was known as the Panamino, or Little Panama.

Pandours.

A corps of Hottentots and half-breeds, raised by the Dutch East India Company at the Cape in 1793.

Panthay Rebellion.

A rising of the Mohammedans of Yunnan against China, which broke out in 1855, under the leadership of Dow-Win-Sheou. The rising was successful, and the Viceroy of Yunnan finally signed a treaty by which Dow-Win-Sheou was given practically uncontrolled sway over Western Yunnan. After his death the Peking Government at last determined to restore the Imperial rule and dispatched a force for that purpose in 1867 which, after a long conflict, defeated and almost exterminated the Mohammedans.

Papal Infallibility.

This was made a dogma of the Roman Catholic Church by a decree of the Vatican Council in 1870. It is decreed that in all matters of faith and morals the Pope is infallible when he speaks _ex cathedrâ_, that is to say, officially as the vicegerent of God.

Paper King.

John Law of the Mississippi Scheme was so called from his issue of large amounts of paper money without an adequate reserve in specie.

Parc aux Cerfs.

The harem of Louis XV of France in the Park of Versailles.

Paris Fund.

A fund raised by subscriptions from America for the support of the Irish Home Rule agitation and of the evicted tenants. It was deposited in Paris, and was under the control of Parnell. After his death in 1891, a serious quarrel followed between the Parnellites and the anti-Parnellites as to the disposal of the fund. Eventually, in 1894, it was handed over to Mr. Justin McCarthy.

Paris Matins.

The name given to the massacre of St. Bartholomew.

Paris, Treaty of, 1763.

A treaty between England, France and Spain, at the close of the Seven Years War. England obtained the whole of the French possessions in America, except New Orleans and the territory west of the Mississippi, together with Florida, ceded by Spain in return for Havana, which was restored to her. The French fishing rights on the Newfoundland coast and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were formally recognized. Guadeloupe and Martinique were restored to France, who also obtained St. Lucia. England recovered Minorca, in exchange for which France ceded to Spain Louisiana west of the Mississippi. In India, France retained her factories, but agreed to withdraw her troops.

Paris, Treaty of, 1814.