Chapter V: Book III (2)

There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, called _cobita_[62] or _coie_, and are written together to form by their union a noun and an adjective. Thus, _ten_ mean 'heaven,' _xu_ means 'lord,' and _tenxu_ means 'lord of heaven.'

The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before nouns; e.g., _iogoreta te_ 'dirty hands,' where _iogoreta_ is the preterit of the verb _iogore,uru_ 'I became dirty.' _Caita qió_ means 'a written book' and _caita_ is the preterit of the verb _caqi,u_ I write.' The abstract (_abstracta_), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., {117} _facari_ means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb _facari,u_ 'I measure' while _fajime_ means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb _fajime,uru_ 'I begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle _mono_, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., _mono_ before _caqi_ makes _monocaqi_ 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., _caqimono_ 'a writing.'

The particle _goto_ placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., _mi_ is the root of the verb _mi,uru_ 'I see,' and _migoto_ is 'a visible thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while _qiqi_ is the root of the verb _qiqi,u_ 'I hear,' and _qiqigoto_ means 'a thing which can be heard, or is worthy of being heard.'

If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the meaning of the action; e.g., _foxi_ is the root of the verb _foxi,u_ 'to dry under the sun'; but, if _ivo_ 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of the expression _foxiivo_ becomes 'fish dried in the sun.'

When the particle _dógu_ 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., _varaidógu_ 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' _caqidógu_ 'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.'

The particle _me_ when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the terminus of the action; e.g., _avaxe_ is the root of the verb _avaxe,uru_ 'to unite or join two things,' and _avaxeme_ means 'junction.' The same is true of other forms.

An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in _i_ if the _i_ is changed to _sa_; e.g., _nagai_ means 'is long,' and _nagasa_ means 'length.' The adjectives ending in _na_ change the _na_ to _sa_ in order to form abstract nouns; e.g., _aqiraca na_ which means 'clear' will become _aqiracasa_ 'clarity.'

Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive (_quasi connotativus_), almost like an adjective or noun with a {118} genitive; e.g., from _qi_ 'wood' and _fotoqe_ 'idol' there results _qibotoqe_ 'wooden idol,' with the _f_ changed to _p_ [_b_]. But if the prefixed noun ends in _e_, this _e_ is changed to _a_ in the attributive of the compound; e.g., _tçumasaqi_ 'the tip of the nail,' _canacugui_ 'iron nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its first letter; if it is _f_ it becomes _b_ or _p_, if it is _s_ it becomes _z_, if it is _c_ it becomes _g_, if it is _tç_ it becomes _zz_, if it is _x_ it becomes _j_; e.g., _caribune_, _buppô_, (13 _nigorizaqe_, _soragoto_, _qizzumari_, and _sorajeimon_. See the dictionary.

_Pronouns_

In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as _meus,a,um_, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as _mei_, _tui_, etc., are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns.

Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say _von fumi_, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about mine I would not say _von fumi_ but only _fumi_, since the particle _von_, which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such particles as _mi_ which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is joined.

_First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc._[63]

There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They are _vatacuxi_, _soregaxi_, _vare_, _mi_, _varera_, _midomo_, _midomora_, _vare_.[64] The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other particles _mizzucara_, _varava_, and _vagami_ which are not used by men. The people in the countryside use two others, _vara_ [_vora_] and _vorara_, while priests {119} when speaking of themselves use _gusô_, that is to say 'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves use _guró_, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (_rex_) says _chin_ or _maru_ which means 'I, the King.' (14

To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles _domo_ or _ra_ are added; e.g., _midomo ga maitta toqi_ 'when we went.' To indicate the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken are suffixed.

_Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc._[65]

There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect, those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you'; _vare_, _vonore_, and _sochi_. If _me_ or _mega_ is added as in _vareme_ or _varemega_ it means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use one of the three particles _sonata_, _sonof[vo]_, or _varesama_. If we speak to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particles _conata_, _qixo_, _qifó_, _gofen_, _qiden_, _conatasama_, and _sonatasama_. When speaking to persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office before _sama_, it serves as a pronoun; e.g., _Padresama gozare_ 'will the Father come.'

_Conata_, _cochi_, and _conof[vo]_ mean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same way _sochi_, _sonofó_, and _sonata_ mean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.'

The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns according to the different degrees of honor. _Vonore domo_, _varera_, and _sochira_ mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors. _Vare tachi_ and _sonata domo_ mean 'you' with persons of the same rank. _Qifó tachi_, _vocatagata_, and _vono vono_ mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of these honorable expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles.

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_Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud_[66]

The two particles _care care_ and _are are_ mean 'this (_ille, illa, illud_)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles; _aitçu_, _aitçume_, _areme_, and _caitçume_ which mean 'this' when one wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is emphasized if one adds _ga_ to those forms that end in _me_; e.g., _aitçuga_ and _aitçumega_ 'this humble man.' _Cono_ means 'this (_hic, haec, hoc_),' _sono_ means 'that (_iste, ista, istud_),' and _ano_ means 'that (_ille, illa, illud_).' These words require a noun after them; e.g., _cono fito_ 'this man' with _cono mono_ having the same meaning but not being an honorific expression. _Sono coto_ means 'that thing,' _ano fito_ 'that person,' _conata_ or _conofó_ 'here,' _sonata_ or _sonofó_ 'there,' and _anofó_ 'there, yonder.' _Core_ means 'this (_hic_),' _sore_ 'that (_istud_),' and _are_ 'that (_illud_).' These forms are in the neuter gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are _corera_, _sorera_, and _arera_, while the others follow the common rules. _Cano_ means 'that which we have mentioned'; e.g., _cano fito_ 'that person.' The pronoun 'a certain (_quidam_)' is made with the particle _aru_; e.g., _aru fito_ 'a certain person,' _aru tocoro ni_ 'in a certain place.'

The pronoun 'each (_unusquisque_)' is formed with the particles _men men_ and _sore sore_.

The pronoun 'each and every (_universi & singuli_)' is formed with _tare mo mina_.

The pronoun 'anyone (_quicumque_)' is formed with _tare nite mo_, _tare nite mo are_, and _tare nari tomo_.

The particle _tare mo_, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun 'no one, or nobody'; e.g., _tare mo mairananda_ 'nobody went.' The particle _nani taru coto nari tomo_ means 'whatever happens, or whichever thing happens.' The particle _mei mei_ means 'to each, or everyone in particular.'

The particle _goto_ makes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language; i.e., _iomi_. The same results are achieved by placing the (16 particle _mai_ before vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e., {121} _coie_. For example, _fi_ means 'day,' and _figoto ni_ means 'daily.' _Nen_ is a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and _mainen_ means 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the repetition of the noun; e.g., _fito_ means 'person,' and _fitibito_ means 'all the people, or many people,' _fi_ means 'day,' and _fibi ni_ means 'all of the days, or every day.'

The indefinite pronoun 'some (_aliqui_)' is formed with _niiotte_; e.g., _toqi niiotte_ 'some times,' _fito niiotte_ 'some men.'

The pronoun 'the same (_idem_)' is formed with _vonaji_; e.g., _vonaji tocoro cara_ 'from the same place.' The particle _dôjen_ means the same thing but in the neuter ; e.g., _dôjen degozaru_ 'it is the same.' This word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc.

The pronoun 'himself (_ipse_)' is formed with the particles _nuxi_, _sono mi_, and _vaga_. The particle _vareto mi_ forms the pronoun 'himself (_ipsemet_)'; e.g., _vareto mi ni ata vo nasu_ (96) 'he brings harm to himself,' _mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru_ 'he forgets himself and saves others.' The particle _vatacuxi_ means 'a thing which belongs to oneself (_re propria_)'; e.g., _vatacuxi no coto_ 'ones own thing,' _vatacuxi ni ivareta_ 'he spoke for himself.'

The pronoun 'somebody (_aliquis_)' is made with the particles _tare zo_ and _taso_; e.g., _tare zo maittaraba_ 'if somebody were to come,' _taso sacana ga aru ca tói ni iqe_ [... _toi_ ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is food.'

The neuter pronoun 'something (_aliquid_)' is formed with the particles _nan zo_ and _nanica_; e.g., _nan zo ga araba cuvózu_ 'I would eat if there were something,' _ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô_ 'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.'

The interrogative 'who (_quis_)' is translated with the three particles _tare_, _taga_, and _taso_. The particles _taga_ or _tare no_ form the genitive; e.g., _taga mono ca_ 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to the door and knocks, he says _mono mó_.[68] To this one responds _taso_, _taga_, or _tare_ 'who is it?' _Nani_ means 'what (_quid_)'; e.g., _nani vo suru_ (17 _ca_ or _nani goto vo suru ca?_ 'what are you doing?' _nani ni sore vo totte iqu ca?_ 'for what reason do you bring this to me?'

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_Relative Pronouns_

The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with which there is a relative (_relativum_), after the verb; e.g., _ten ni maximasu varera ga von voia_ 'Our Father who is in Heaven,' _deta tocoro va_ 'the place from which he came out,' _te ni sumi no tçuita fito_ (88) 'a man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (_oratio_) requires a nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles which indicate the nominative; _ga_, _no_, or _iori_. For example, _vatacuxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' _conata no vôxerareta coto_ 'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, _iori_, is used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., _Deus iori ataie cudasareta gracia_ 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' _ano tocoro ni amata no qió atta vo torareta_ (87v.) 'he brought what many books there were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g., _qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie ni aru vo motte coi_ 'bring the book which is on the desk (_sedila_) at which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence _qió ga_, which is the first relative, comes after the verb _móxita_; and the _vo_ which stands for the second relative comes after the verb _aru_. When we want to be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particle _tocoro no_ between the thing itself and the verb; e.g., _vare to dôxin xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta_ 'all those who agreed with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in understanding it, is expressed by expositions (_per exponentes_). Thus, in place of _ima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia_ which means 'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say _ima Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru_.

Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g., _sono tocoro de no dancó_ 'the consultation at that place,' (18 _Marsella ie no fune_ 'the ship to Marseille,' _maire to no móxi goto dearu_ [ ... _gia_] 'it is said that I should go.'

{123}

_Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta_ 'it was resolved that he not go,' _maitte nochi no dancó_ 'the consultation he arrived after,' _varambe cara no catagui_ 'a custom from youth,' _xô tame no chôgui gia_ (22) 'this is the plan (_ars_) according to which it will be done,' _anofito no vo toró_ 'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative pronouns.

_The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation_[70]

The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same number of negative.

The root (_radix_) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses.

All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in _gi_ or _ji_, together with _xi_ and _maraxi_, although they end in _i_, are also in the first conjugation. If the root ends in _de_ or _gi_, the present form is made by changing them to _zzuru_; e.g., _fagi_ forms its present in _fazzuru_ and means 'to blush,' _de_ becomes _zzuru_ and means 'to leave.' If the root ends in _je_ or _ji_ it changes in the present to _zuru_; e.g., _maje:mazuru_ 'to mix,' _anji:anzuru_ 'to consider.' If they end in _xe_ they change to _suru_; e.g., _avaxe:avasuru_ 'to join.' _Xi_ and _maraxi_, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72] change _xi_ to _suru_; e.g., _xi:suru_ 'to do,' _maraxi:marasuru_ which also means 'to do.' If the root ends in _te_ it changes to _tçuru_; e.g., _sodate:sodatçuru_ 'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end in _e_ change, in their separate ways, the _e_ to _uru_; e.g., _ague:aguru_ 'to offer,' _nigue:niguru_ 'to run away.'

There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g., _cocoroieta_ 'to understand,' _qicoieta_ 'to hear,' _voboieta_ 'to remember,' _qiqiieta_ 'to understand,' _zonjita_ 'to know,' and there may {124} be many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If the present tense of these forms does not change the _i_ to _uru_ they are exceptional; e.g., _abi,uru_ 'to wash oneself,' _fotobi,uru_ 'to become soft,' _focorobi,uru_ 'to become unstitched,' _cabi_ [_cabi,uru_] 'to be moldy,'[74] _sabi_ [_sabi,uru_] 'to rust,' _deqi_ [_deqi,uru_] 'to be finished, or ended,' _cuchi:cutçuru_ 'to rot,' _michi:mitçuru_ 'to be filled in by the sea,' _ini,uru_ 'to leave,' _nobi:nobiru_ or _noburu_ 'to be spread out,' _tçuqi,uru_ 'to be used,' _vori:uru_ 'to descend from above,' _xij:xijru_[75] 'to invite to dine, by compulsion,' _ni:niru_ 'to resemble,' _mochij:mochiiuru_ 'to evaluate,' _ni:niru_ 'to cook,' _mi:miru_ 'to look at,' _cori,uru_ 'to correct,' _vochi:votçuru_ 'to fall,' _i:iru_ 'to exist, or be present,' _fugui,uru_ 'to pass, as time passes,' _vabi,uru_ 'to beg for mercy,' _carabi,uru_ 'to become dry,' _iqi:iquru_ 'to live,' _fi:firu_ 'to become dry,' _qi:quru_ 'to come,' _qi:qiru_ 'to dress oneself,' _voqi,uru_ 'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] _ataie_ has _atóru_ 'to give,' _vaqimaie_ has _vaqim[vo]ru_ 'to discriminate,' _tonaie_ has _tonóru_ 'to bless,' _sonaie_ has _sonóru_ 'to place in a high position.'

_The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect_

In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing _ta_ to the root of a verb ; e.g., _agueta_ is the preterit of the verb _ague,uru_ 'to offer.' The second is by suffixing _te_ to the root and to that adding _gozari,u_ or _ari,u_ which is then conjugated in the present or the preterit of the second conjugation; e.g., _aguete gozaru_ or _aguete gozatta_, or _aguete aru_ or _aguete atta_ 'offered, or had offered.' If the particle _fáia_ [_faia_] is placed before the verb the expression is strengthened; e.g., (20 _fáia aguete gozatta_ [_faia_ ...] 'I had already offered it.' When the verb _ari,u_ is suffixed to the perfect it is not as elegant a way of speaking as {125} when _gozari,u_ is used. Therefore when speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves.

_The Future of the First Conjugation_

If the root of the verb ends in _te_ this syllable is changed to _teô_ or _chô_ to form the future; e.g., _tate,uru_ will become _tateô_ or _tachô_ 'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in _ji_ the future is formed by changing _ji_ to _jô_; e.g., _xenji_ becomes _xenjô_ 'I shall prepare, or brew, the medicine.' If the root ends in _xe_ [_xi_] it changes to _xô_; e.g., _xi_ becomes _xô_, and _maraxi_ becomes _maraxô_ 'I shall do.' If it ends in _ie_ it is changed to _io_ [_iô_]; e.g., _voxiie_ becomes _voxiio_ [_vaxiiô_] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in _e_ suffix the particles _ô_, _ôzu_, or _ôzuru_; e.g., _agueô_, _agueôzu_, or _agueôzuru_ 'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78] even when the roots end in _i_; e.g., _deqiôzu_ 'I shall be finished.'

The future is also formed by taking the syllable _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and putting in its place the particle _baia_. Thus, by taking _nu_ away from _aguenu_ and putting in its place _baia_, we obtain _aguebaia_ 'I will offer.' For _minu_ if you take away the _nu_ and put in its place _baia_ it will become _mibaia_ 'I will see, or behold.'

The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles _te arózu_ or _tarózu_ to the root; e.g., _aguete arózu_ or _aguetarózu_ 'I shall already have offered.' The same results are obtained if _faia_ is placed before the simple future; e.g., _faia agueôzu_.

(21

_The Imperative of the First Conjugation_

The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb alone, or with the addition of the particle _io_; e.g., _ague_ or _ague io_ 'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the future absolute _agueô_ or _agueôzu_. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by taking the _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and {126} putting in its place the particle _sai_. Thus, if one takes the _nu_ from _aguenu_ and replaces it with _sai_ it becomes _ague sai_ which means 'offer!' If the particle _tai_ is placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an elegant imperative; thus _mizzu fitotçu nomitai_ 'I would like to have a drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation, affirmative or negative; e.g., _Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga aru_ [_Christian ni_ ...] 'it is the law of the Sh[=o]gan (_imperator_) that no one should become a Christian,' _Padre core vo coxiraie io to voxerareta niiotte_ [... _vôxerareta_ ...] 'because the Priest told me to do it.'

_The Optative of the First Conjugation_

The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the imperative with the particles _negavacu va_ or _avare_ placed before it and the particles _gana_ or _caxi_ placed after it. Sometimes it is formed by adding the particle _gana_ without any prefix; e.g., _negavacu va ague io caxi?_ or _avare aguei gana_[80] 'would that you were to offer?' _avare icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe io caxi!_ (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particle _gana_ when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing specified by the noun; e.g., _saqe gana_ 'oh! sake'; and if (22 one is asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is _nani gana_ 'would that I had some.'

The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by the particle _mono vo!_; e.g., _niqueozu mono vo!_ [_nigueôzu_ ...] 'would that I had fled!' The same is achieved by _niguetaraba iocaró mono vo_. Sometimes they say only _niguetaró va_ or _niguete aró ni va iocaró mono vo_.

{127}

_The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation_

The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ in which the present indicative ends to _eba_; e.g., _aguru_ becomes _agureba_ 'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by adding _ni_, _de_, _vo_, or _va_ to the particle _tocoro_ according to the case requirements of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun; e.g., _aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite_ (16v)[82] 'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he was drunk,' _nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni_ (16v)[83] 'since they were separated and divorced,' _có aru tocoro ni_ 'since things are this way,' _ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta_ (16v)[84] 'when he went outside, he was killed by someone,' _go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi coroita_ (121)[85] 'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a general rule which applies to all conjugations.

The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle _reba_; e.g., _agueta reba_ 'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking away _gozaru_ from the preterit pluperfect and putting in its place _atta reba_ or _atta_; but, when _atta_ is used, the particles _ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ must be added according to the requirements of the following verb, just as with _tocoro_ in the present tenses; e.g., _aguete atta reba_ or _aguete atta ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ 'since I had already offered it.'

The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _toqi_ to the future indicative; e.g., _agueô toqi_ 'since he would offer it later.'

The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (_vox_) which signify that which comes after a completed action, is formed by (23 placing _cara_, _nochi_, or _igo_ after the pluperfect indicative, minus _gozaru_; {128} e.g., _aguete cara, nochi_, or _igo, mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has offered it.' This is like _aguetaró toki mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has already offered it.' _Agueôzuru ni_ or _agueôzuru tocoro ni_ means 'since he was already prepared to offer it.' _Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni_ means 'a little while before he offered it.'

The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The first is by changing the _u_ of the present indicative to _edomo_; e.g., _aguredomo_ 'although I could offer it.'

The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta redomo_ 'although he had offered it.' The future permissive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the second form of the future indicative; e.g., _agueôzu redomo_ 'although he would be able to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _tomo_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru tomo_ 'although he could offer it.' The particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ may also be added to the present tense; e.g., _sore vo voxiiuru mamaio_ or _sore vo voxiiuru madeio_ 'although he could teach this.'

The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing _ritomo_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta ritomo_ 'although he had offered it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta mamaio_ or _agueta madeio_; or by adding _tote_ to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., _aguetareba tote_.

The future permissive is formed by adding _tomo_ to the second form of the future indicative; e.g., _agueozu tomo_ [_agueôzu tomo_ 'although he would offer it']. It is also formed by adding _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the same future form. If the particle _tatoi_ is placed before the forms of the permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g., _tatoi vôxeraruru tomo_ 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning is obtained by removing the verbs _gozaru_ or _aru_ from the pluperfect indicative and replacing it with the particle _mo_; e.g., _aguete mo_ 'although he may offer it.' The same _mo_ when placed after the present indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu_ 'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentences _ague mo xeio caxi?_, _aguete mo xô madeio_, and _nanto mo ague caxi?_ {129} [... _aguei caxi?_][86] 'although he offers.' _Aguru ni saxerarei_, (24 _agueta ni saxerarei_, or _agueo ni saxerarei_ [_agueô_ ...] have the meanings of 'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.'

_The Infinitive_

The present infinitive is formed by adding _coto_ or _to_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru coto_ or _aguru to_ 'to offer.'

The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta coto_ or _agueta to_ 'to have offered.' The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future indicative; e.g., _agueô coto_ or _agueô to_ 'to be about to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by adding _ióni_ to the present, preterit, or future indicative; e.g., _nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita_ (22v) 'I think and others believed me to have been favored by you with many benefits,' _qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru ióni gozaru_ (117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,' _agueta ióni gozaru_ 'he is said to have offered it.'

To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb which follows; e.g., _nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?_ 'did you fall into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way.

Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with _gozaru_ or _aru_ removed; e.g., _Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró_ 'it is good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative plus _ga_ replaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g., _sore vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró_ 'it will be bad to say that,' _maitta ga maxi gia_ (21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.'

When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle _coto_ is not required; e.g., _cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai_ (23) 'to drink sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,' _core coso caqu de gozare_ 'this we are able to say, or better, write,' _caqu de gozatte coso_ 'this is not the way for it to be written,' _sore va aguru devanai_ 'that is not to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations but the general rule applies to all. The idea of the {130} infinitive is also obtained by the following means of expression; _ague va_, _aguredomo_ 'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say _qiqi va tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu_ 'although I have listened, or done everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say _aguru vo motte_ 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru iori_ 'from the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru nitçuite_ 'about the fact that he is to offer.'

The gerund in _Di_ is the present or future indicative followed by the particle _jibun_, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time'; e.g., _aguru jibun_ 'the time for offering,' _agueô ni qivamatta_ 'he made the decision that it be offered,' _niguru jibun gia_ 'it is time to flee,' _corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte ar[vo]zu_ (13) 'it will have been decided that he will be killed, or will have to be killed.'

The gerund in _Do_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding the particles _ni_ or _tote_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguruni_ or _agurutote iurusareta_ 'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is by removing the verb _gozaru_ from the pluperfect; e.g., _aguete cutabireta_ 'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say, 'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to form the gerund in _Do_. It is done by placing the root of the verb in front of another verb making a compound; e.g., _fiqi iosuru_ 'to approach, pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect to their function. The gerund in _Do_ is also used to express purpose _taixó to xite_ 'since he was a commander (_dux_), or was fulfilling the function of a commander,' _von rei to xite_ 'giving thanks,' _r[vo]tai nomi ni xite_ 'since he was an old man,' _tçucai xite ivaruru_ 'he said it as a messenger.'

The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by adding the particles _tame_ or _tote_ to the present or future indicative; e.g., _aguru tame_ or _agueo tote_ [_agueô tote_] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by _aguru ni fatto ga aru_ 'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be considered a gerund in ni [_Di_].

The supine in _Tum_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding _ni_ to the root. The second is by adding _tameni_ to the present indicative; {131} e.g., _tazzune ni maitta_ or _tazzunuru tameni maitta_ 'I came in order to obtain it.'

The supine in _Tu_ is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same meaning they also use _mósu ni voiobanu_ 'it is not necessary to (26 speak.'

The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the particles _fito_ or _mono_ to the indicative. When _fito_ is used the result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., _aguru fito_ or _aguru mono_ 'he who offers,' _agueta fito_ 'he who offered,' _agueô mono_ 'he who will offer,' _Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va_ (73v) 'as for those who devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,' _von vo xiru vo fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie_ (96v). In this last sentence the _vo_ takes the place of the participle, and the sentence therefore means 'those who know kindness (_beneficia_) are correctly called men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding _te_ ['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., _aguete_ 'one who offers.'

_The First Negative Conjugation_

The negative root is formed by adding _zu_ to the affirmative root; e.g., _aguezu_.

The present tense is formed with _nu_ instead of _zu_; e.g., _aguenu_ 'I do not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only exceptions are _xi_ and _maraxi_ which form the negative present in _xenu_ and _maraxenu_ 'I do not do.' The roots that end in _ji_ change the _ji_ to _je_ and then suffix the particle _nu_ to the present; e.g., _zonji_ in the negative present becomes _zonienu_ [_zonjenu_] 'I do not know.' In some areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the final _u_ from the negative root and adding _ari,u_, which is then conjugated according to the required tense; e.g., _aguezaru_ 'I do not offer,' _aguezatta_ 'I did not offer,' _aguezatta reba_ 'since I did not offer.' They also say _aguezu xite_ 'by not offering.'[87]

{132}

The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the particle _nanda_ instead of _nu_; e.g., _aguenanda_ 'I did not offer,' _zonjenanda_ 'I did not know,' _vorinanda_ 'I did not descend.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the last _a_ of the preterit to _e_ and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the preterit; e.g., _aguenande gozaru_ or _aguenande gozatta_ 'I have not offered.' It is also formed by adding _ide gozaru_ or _ide gozatta_ instead of (27 _nande gozaru_; e.g., _agueide gozaru_ or _agueide gozatta_ 'I had not offered,' _zonzeide gozaru_ [_zonjeide_ ... ][88] 'I had not known,' _vochiide gozatta_ 'I had not fallen.'

The negative future is formed by adding _mai_ or _maji_ to the affirmative root or the affirmative present tense; e.g., _ague mai_ or _aguru maji_ 'you will not offer.'

The imperative is formed by placing _na_ after the present indicative; _aguru na_ 'do not offer.'

It is also formed by placing _na_ before the root and _so_ after it; e.g., _na ague so_ 'do not offer.'

It is also formed by placing _na_ after the root; e.g., _ague na_ 'do not offer,' _mixe na_ 'do not show,' _mesare na_ 'do not do.' The roots which end in _xi_ or _ji_, but are in the first conjugation,[89] change the _i_ to _e_ to form the negative imperative; e.g., _s[vo] xe na_ or _só maraxe na_ 'do not do that,' _s[vo] zonze na_ [_só zonje na_] 'do not think that.'

The optative is formed by placing _negavacuva_ or _avare_ before the negative imperative and placing _caxi_ or _gana_ after it; e.g., _avare aguru na caxi_ 'oh! if only you would not offer,' and _negavacuva na ague so gana_ with the same meaning.

The preterit of the optative is formed by placing _mono vo_ after the negative future; e.g., _aguru mai mono vo_ 'oh! if only you would not have offered.'

The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ which ends the negative present to _eba_; e.g., _agueneba_ 'since he did not offer.'

The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _reba_ to the negative preterit of the indicative; e.g., _aguenanda reba_ 'since he had not offered.'

{133}

The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding _qereba_ to the negative future; e.g., _niguru mai qereba_ 'since he is not going to escape.'

The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _domo_ to the negative present after changing the final _u_ of the verb to _e_; e.g., _aguenedomo_ 'although he cannot offer.' They also say, and this usage is preferred, _aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'even if he not offer.'[90]

The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing _redomo_ after the negative preterit; e.g., _aguenanda redomo_ 'although he had not offered.' _Aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he would not be allowed to offer,' is also said.

The permissive future is formed by adding _qeredomo_ to the negative future; e.g., _aguru mai qeredomo_ 'although he is not going to be allowed to offer.' (28

Another way of forming the permissive subjunctive is to place the particle _tomo_ after the negative root; e.g., _aguezu tomo_ 'although he is not going to be able to offer.' It is also formed by placing _tote_ after the [negative] present subjunctive; e.g., _agueneba tote_. A third way is to add _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the negative present; e.g., _aguenu mamaio_ or _aguenu madeio_ 'although he cannot offer.'

The preterit is formed by placing _ritomo_ after the negative preterit; e.g., _aguenanda ritomo_ 'although he had not offered.' It is also formed by placing _tote_ after the negative preterit of the subjunctive; e.g., _aguenanda reba tote_, or better, _aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he does not offer, or had not offered.'

The future is formed by placing _tomo_ after the negative future; e.g., _aguemai tomo_ 'although he is not going to offer,' _vochiidemo_ 'although he will not fall.'

The present, preterit, and future infinitives are the present, preterit, and future negative indicative present tenses followed by _coto_ or _to_; e.g., _aguenu coto_ 'not to offer,' _aguenanda coto_ 'not to have offered,' _aguru mai coto_ 'not to be going to offer.'

Sometimes they use the negative present instead of the preterit in all the conjugations; e.g., _mi maraxenu_ 'I did not see.'

{134}

The negative gerund in _Di_ is the same as the negative present or future; e.g., _aguenu_ or _aguru mai_ 'of not offering.'

The gerund in _Do_ is formed by placing _ni_ after the negative root or the negative present tense; e.g., _aguezuni_ or _aguenuni_ 'by not offering.' The same meaning is obtained with _agueide_, _aguenaide_ or _aguezu xite_.

The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by placing _tote_ or _tame_ after the [negative] present or future of the indicative; e.g., _aguenu tame_ or _aguru mai tote_ 'in order not to offer.'

The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding _fito_ or _mono_ to the negative of the present, preterit, and future indicatives; e.g., _aguenu fito_ 'he who is not offering,' _aguenanda mono_ 'he who did not offer,' _aguru mai mono_ 'he who will not offer,' _aguenaide cara_ or _agueide nochi_ 'after he had not offered, after they did not offer, or after it was not offered.'

(29

_The Second Affirmative Conjugation_

All the roots of the second conjugation end in _i_ and form their present tense by changing _i_ to _u_; e.g., _iomi:iomu_ 'I read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it changes its ending to _tçu_ e.g., _machi:matçu_ 'I wait.' If the root ends in _xi_ it changes to _su_; e.g., _coroxi:corosu_ 'I kill.'

For the preterit, if the root ends in _ami_ it changes to _óda_; e.g., _cami:códa_ 'I ate, or chewed.' If it ends in _ebi_ or _emi_ it changes to _eôda_; e.g., _saqebi:saqeôda_ 'I am injured,' _sonemi:soneoda_ [_soneôda_] 'I envied, or I had envy.' If it ends in _obi_ or _omi_ it changes to _ôda_; e.g., _corobi:corôda_ 'he fell,' _comi:côda_ 'it enclosed itself.' If it ends in _umi_ it changes to _únda_ [_unda_]; e.g., _casumi:casunda_ 'it is cloudy.' The same change is made for roots ending in _imi_; e.g., _canaximi:canaxúnda_ [_canaxunda_] 'he became sad.' If it ends in _gui_ it changes to _ida_; e.g., _fegui:feida_ 'it is divided.' _Xini,uru_ has the preterit _xinda_ 'he is dead,' and _ini:uru_ has the preterit _inda_ 'he left.' While in this respect they [_xini_ and _ini_] are in the second conjugation, in the other tenses they are in the first. A root ending in _chi_ or _ri_ changes in the preterit to _tta_; e.g., _mochi:motçu_ in the preterit becomes _motta_ 'he received,' _chiri,u:chitta_ 'it is scattered.' Those which end in _xi_ or _qi_ change to _ita_; e.g., _coroxi,u:coroita_ 'he killed,' _qiqi,u:qiita_ 'he heard,' _xiqi,u:xiita_ 'he stretched it out.' {135}

The future is formed by changing the _i_ in which the root ends to _ó, [vo]zu, ózuru_; e.g., _iomó_, _iom[vo]zu_, or _iomózuru_ 'you will read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it changes to _tó_; e.g., _machi:mató_ 'I shall wait.' A root ending in _xi_ changes to _só_; e.g., _móxi,u:mósó_ 'I shall say, or speak.'

The imperative is formed by changing the _i_ in which the root ends to _e_; e.g., _iomi:iome_ 'read! or may you read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it changes to _te_; e.g., _machi:mate_ 'wait!' The imperative is also formed by changing the _nu_ in which the negative present ends to _ai_; if you remove the _nu_ from _iomanu_ and replace it with _ai_ it gives you _yomai_ 'read!'[91] This is a common rule for the third conjugation, but this imperative is used only when addressing inferiors.

The future of the imperative is the future absolute; e.g., (30 _iomó_ 'you will read.' This is used when addressing very low people.

The remaining tenses of the optative, subjunctive, gerund, and infinitive are formed in the same way and with the same particles as are used for each in the first conjugation.

_The Second Negative Conjugation_

The root of the negative second conjugation is made by changing _i_, in which the affirmative root ends, to _azu_; e.g., _iomi:iomazu_ 'not reading.'

If the root ends in _chi_ the present tense is formed by changing it to _tanu_; e.g., _machi:matanu_ 'I do not wait.' If it ends in _xi_ it changes to _sanu_; e.g., _coroxi:corosanu_ 'I do not kill.' If they end in any other way change _i_ to _anu_; e.g., _corobi:corobanu_ 'I do not fall.'

The preterit is formed by changing the _nu_ of the present tense to _nanda_; e.g., _corobanu:corobananda_ 'I did not fall,' _iomananda_ 'I did not read.' The other tenses are formed in the same way as the negative first conjugation.

_The Third Affirmative Conjugation_

The roots of the third conjugation end in _ai_, _oi_, or _ui_. Those ending in _ai_ change to _ó_ to form the present; e.g., _narai:naró_ 'I learn.' Those {136} ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _vomoi:vomô_ 'I think.' Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _cui:cú_ 'I eat.'

The preterit is formed by adding _ta_ to the present tense; e.g., _naróta_ 'I learned,' _vomôta_ 'I thought,' _cúta_ 'I ate.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the final _a_ of the preterit to _e_ and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the past, in the same way as we have described for the first conjugation; e.g., _naróte gozaru_ or _nar[vo]te gozatta_ 'I have already learned.'

The future is formed by changing the final _i_ of the root to _vó_, _vózu_, or _vózuru_; e.g., _naravó_, _narav[vo]zu_, or _naravózuru_ 'I shall learn.' If the root ends in _oi_ it is changed to _vô_, _vôzu_, or _vôzuru_ [_v[vo]_, _v[vo]zu_, (31 or _v[vo]zuru_]; e.g., _vomoi:vomouô_, _vomovozu_, or _vomovôzuru_ [_vomoi:vomov[vo]_, _vomov[vo]zu_, or _vomov[vo]zuru_] 'I shall think.'[92]

The imperative is formed by placing _e_ after the root; e.g., _naraie_ 'learn!' _toie_ 'ask!' _cuie_ 'eat!'[93] It is also formed by removing the syllable _nu_ from the negative present tense and replacing it with the letter _i_; e.g., _naravai_ 'learn!' _tovai_ 'ask!' _cuvai_ 'eat!' This form is used when addressing inferiors, as are those of the other conjugations.

_The Third Negative Conjugation_

The root of the third negative conjugation is formed by changing the _i_ of the affirmative root to _vazu_; e.g., _naravazu_, _tovazu_, and _cuvazu_. The present tense is formed by changing the _i_ to _vanu_; e.g., _naravanu_ 'I do not learn,' _tovanu_ 'I do not ask,' _cuvanu_ 'I do not eat.'

The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ of the root to _vananda_; e.g., _naravananda_ 'I did not learn,' _tovananda_ 'I did not ask,' _cuvananda_ 'I did not eat.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the final _a_ of the preterit to _e_ and adding the verb _gozaru_ or _gozatta_; e.g., _cuvanande gozatta_ 'I had {137} not eaten,' or _naravanande gozaru_ 'I had not learned.' The remaining forms are like the other conjugations.[94]

If the substantive verb is placed after the gerund in _Do_ for all the affirmative and negative conjugations, it means that the action signified by the gerund is or is not done; e.g., _aguete aró_ 'it will already be offered,' _cono qió ga caite gozaranu_ 'this book is not written,' _agueide arózu_ 'he will not yet have offered.' The substantive verbs are _gozaru:gozaranu_, _voru:vori nai_, _dea_ or _gia:devanai_, _aru:aranu_ or _gozaranu_, _voru:voranu,_ and each of these verbs follows the general rules for its conjugation.[95]

If the substantive verb from any of the conjugations is placed after the infinitive form it means that whatever is signified by the infinitive is, was, or will be; or the negative thereof; e.g., _aguru coto aró_ 'it will be that he offers,' that is to say 'he will offer,' _naróta coto gozaru mai_ 'he will not learn.' All these substantive verbs are conjugated in the second conjugation to which they belong by virtue of the fact that their (32 roots end in _i_; _ari,u:gozari,u_.

_The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb_

The negative substantive verb is _nai_, _gozanai_, or _vori nai_ which means 'not to be.' Its root is _naqu_, _gozanaqu_, or _vori naqu_.

The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ in which the present tense ends to _c_ and then adding the preterit of _ari,u_ which is _atta_; e.g., _nacatta_ or _gozanacatta_ 'he was not.' The other tenses are conjugated, as is _ari,u_, in the second conjugation.

The imperative is _nacare_, _nanaiso_, or _nai na_ 'be not!'

{138}

The subjunctive is formed by changing the _i_ of the present tense to _qereba_; e.g., _naqereba_ or _gozanaqereba_ 'if it be not.'

The permissive subjunctive is formed by changing the _i_ of the present to _qeredomo_; e.g., _gozanaqeredomo_ 'although he is not.'

The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the preterit of the indicative; e.g., _nacatta redomo_ 'although he was not.'

The substantive [verb] with the particle _tomo_ is formed with the root; e.g., _naqu tomo_ 'even if it were not.' The gerund is _nó_, _nóte_, _naqu xite_, or _nacatte_ 'since it is not.' The remaining are formed as above, with the verb _ari,u_ added, and are conjugated in the second conjugation.

Adjectives, when they do not precede verbs, are conjugated in the same way as the negative substantive verb. The adjectives, which have been said above to end in _ai_, _ei_, _oi_, _ui_, and _ij_, form their roots by changing the final _i_ to _qu_; e.g., _fucaqu_ is the root of 'deep,' _ioqu_ the root of 'good,' _xiguequ_ the root of 'dense,' _varuqu_ the root of 'bad,' and _vonajiqu_ the root of 'the same.'

The present tense is the form (_vox_) of the adjective itself; e.g., _ioi_ 'good,' _fucai_ 'deep,' _varui_ 'bad,' _vonaji_ 'the same.'[96]

The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ of the adjective to _c_ or _q_ and adding _ari,u_. This form is then conjugated according to (33 the tense required by the sentence.

The permissive subjunctive with _tomo_ is _fucaqu tomo_ or _fucai tomo_ 'although deep.'

The gerund in _Do_ is _fucóte_ 'since it was deep,' _ióte_ 'since it was good,' _canaxiúte_ [_canaxúte_][97] 'since it was sad,' _xingueote_ [_xigeôte_][98] 'since it was dense.' It also takes the form of _fucó xite_, _fucaqu xite_, or _fucacatte_, or again _iô xite_, _ioqu xite_, or _iocatte_.

The adjectives which end in _na_ are not conjugated. There is, however, a gerund in _Do_. For example, _aqiracana_ has for its gerund _aqiracani xite_ 'since it was clear,' and with the same meaning there is _aqiraca de_. _Arisóna_ has _aris[vo]ni xite_ 'since it became apparent, or easy to believe.' _Ióna_ has _ióni_ as in _ióni xite_ 'since it is in a good way, or since it has a good manner.' _Cava ga fucóte vatarananda_ 'because the {139} river was deep, I did not cross it,' _xeb[vo]te irarenu_ 'since it was narrow, he was unable to enter,' _varúte cuvarenu_ 'it is inedible, or it cannot be eaten, because it is bad.' The other tenses of the adjective, as has been said, are formed with the verb _ari,u_ and conjugated according to the requirements of the sentence. The negative conjugation is also formed with _ari,u_; e.g., if the root is _fucacarazu_ the present tense is _fucacaranu_ 'it is not deep.' The preterit is _fucacarananda_ 'it was not, etc.'

_The Conditional Particles_[99]

There are five particles which make an utterance (_oratio_) conditional; _naraba_, _ni voite va_, _raba_, _va_, and _ba_. When the first two are placed after any verb, affirmative or negative, present, preterit, or future, the result is that the verb becomes conditional. For example; _niguru naraba_ 'if you flee,' _iôda ni voite va_ 'if you had read,' _naravó naraba_ 'if you will learn,' _cuvazu ni voite va_[100] 'if you do not eat.' Sometimes _voi_ [_voite_] is removed from _ni voite va_; _agueô ni va_ 'if you would offer,' _aguetaró ni va_ 'if you would have offered.' Sometimes _voite_ [_voite va_] is removed, leaving only _ni_; e.g., _mairó ni coso, nen goro ni m[vo]s[vo]zure_ (19) 'if I go, or if I shall have gone, I will tell him so in a friendly way,' _xitaró ni coso, saisocu tçuqu maji qere_ (19) 'if I (34 had done it, it would not have been done with diligence and persuasion.'

The particle _raba_ is placed after the preterit;[101] e.g., _naróta raba_ 'if I would have learned,' _naravananda raba_ 'if I would not have learned.'

The particle _va_ is added to the negative roots of all three conjugations; e.g., _aguezu va_ 'if I not offer,' _iomazu va_ 'if I not read,' _naravazu va_ 'if I not learn,' _naqu va_ 'if it not be,' _fucacarazu va_ 'if it be not deep.'

The particle _ba_ has the same effect and is, like _va_, joined to the root; _aguez[~u]ba_, _iomaz[~u]ba_, _naravaz[~u]ba_.[102] If the particle _ba_ replaces the negative _zu_, an affirmative conditional is formed; e.g., _agueba_, 'if I offer,' _iomaba_ 'if I read,' _naravaba_ 'if I learn,' and _iocaraba_ 'if it be good.' The particle _va_ is not only added to the negative roots of adjectives, but also to the affirmative; e.g., _fucaqu va_ 'if it be deep,' _vonajiqu va_ 'if it be the same.' Sometimes they use this expression to give the idea 'if it be not {140} too troublesome, will you do it.' They also say _aguemajiqu va_ 'if you would not offer.'

The particle _ni voite va_ is joined to nouns in such a way as to substitute for the substantive verb; e.g., _jójó ni voite va uqe toró_ (121v)[103] 'I shall get it, if it be very good, or the best,' _curuxicarazaru gui ni voite va_ 'if it would not have been unpleasant, or if it had not been an unpleasant thing.'

If the particle _saie_ is placed in a clause (_oratio_) in which there is already a conditional particle, it adds strength to the meaning; e.g., _fune saie mairu naraba_ 'if only a ship were to come,' _sonata saie vocutabire naku va_ (118) 'if he be not tired,' or it might be said 'as for me, or as far as it depends upon me, I am not tired.'

The particle _saie_ alone sometimes forms a conditional; e.g., _Niffon no xôcocu ni saie caióna coto gozaru fodo ni_ [_Nifon_ ...] (118) 'if in the small kingdom of Japan things of this kind be found, or exist,' that is to say 'how much more there will be in a large one,' _coco moto no tocai ni saie meivacu itasu ióni gozaru fodoni, etc._ (118) 'on the voyage here I suffered very much, and so ...,' _fito saie côquai suru mono vo iurusu ni ivan ia, Deus ni voite voia?_ [... _va?_] (118v) 'if one forgives one who repents, how much more will God,' _core fodo xei vo iruru saie coto naricanuru ni; ucato xite va, incadeca banji canav[vo]zo?_ [... _icadeca_ ...] (119) 'if gathering all one's strength this can be done only with difficulty, how could it be done if it were done without any strength?,' _core saie xinicui ni_ 'if this be difficult to do,' _fune de saie ioio tçuita_ (35 _ni, cachi va nananaca naru mai_ [... _nacanaca naru mai_] (119v) 'if I arrived by ship with such difficulties, without doubt I could not have done it on foot.'

_The Potential Verb_[104]

The placing of the particle r[vo][105] after the present or future tense makes a potential; e.g., _aguru r[vo]_ 'he perhaps offers,' _nigueozur[vo]_ [_nigueôzur[vo]_] 'he will perhaps escape.'