Chapter VI: Book III (3)

The preterit is made by changing _ta_ to _tçu_ and adding r[vo]; e.g., {141} _aguetçur[vo]_ 'he perhaps offered.' But if it is added to the negative preterit, the _da_ must be changed to _zzu_; e.g., _aguenanzzur[vo]_ 'it has perhaps not been offered, etc.'

The present potential is also formed by adding _ar[vo]zu_ [_mo ar[vo]zu_] or other future verbs to the infinitive; e.g., _aguru coto mo ar[vo]zu_ or _ague mo xôzu_ 'he will perhaps offer.'

The preterit is formed by adding this same future to the preterit infinitive; e.g., _agueta coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'he perhaps offered.'

The future is _agueô coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'he will perhaps offer.' The negative is formed in the same way; e.g., _aguenu_, _aguenanda_, or _aguru mai coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'he perhaps does not offer, he perhaps did not offer, or he will perhaps not offer.' When we wish to say that something is perhaps the case we use _mono_ instead of _coto_; e.g., _noxenanda mono de arózu_ 'they perhaps did not place it aboard ship,' _iqi chig[vo]ta mono de ar[vo]zu_ 'they seem not to have met along the way,' _moreqicoieta mono de gozar[vo] ca to zonzuru_ 'I believe it is perhaps as it has been said.'

To express the meaning 'become' the verb _nari,u_ is added to the adjective and then conjugated according to the requirements of the adjective taken adverbally; e.g., _fuc[vo] naru_ 'it becomes deep,' _var[vu] natta_ 'it became bad.' Also they say _fuc[vo] aru_ 'it is deep,' and sometimes _fuc[vo] nai_ 'it is not deep.' They obtain this same meaning by conjugating _nai_ according to the tense required by the sentence. They also use _fuc[vo] nai coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'perhaps it will be that this is not deep.' (36

_The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs_[106]

The verb _qi,uru_ 'to come' has _quru_ 'I come,' _qita_ 'I came,' _côzu_ 'I shall come,' _coi_ or _coio_ 'come!' _qitareba_ 'since he will have come, or would have come,' _qitaredomo_ 'although he came.' The negative root is _côzu_ [_cozu_] and the negative present is _conu_ 'I do not come.' _Mede_, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to enjoy,' has a present in _mezzuru_ and its gerund in _Do_ is _medete_ 'by enjoying.' _Cui_, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to be mournful,' has its present in _cuiuru_. {142} Its gerund in _Do_ is _cuite_ 'by mourning,' its negative root is _cuizu_, and its negative present is _cuinu_. _Araie_, which is the root of the verb 'to be,'[107] has a present in _araiuru_ or _ar[vo]ru_ 'it is.' _Furi_, which is the root of the verb 'to become old,' has a preterit in _furita_ 'he became old,' and a gerund in _Do_ which is _furite_ 'by becoming old.' _Fe_, the root of the verb meaning 'to cross over,' has a present in _furu_ 'he crosses over,' and a preterit in _feta_ 'he crossed over.' _Tari,u_ is a verb which signifies that a thing is complete or entire. It has a present in _taru_ 'it is complete,' a preterit in _tatta_ 'it was complete,' and a future in _tari maraxo_ [_maraxô_] 'it will be complete.' Its negative root is _tarazu_, its negative present is _taranu_, its preterit is _tarananda_ 'it was not complete,' its future is _taru mai_ 'it will not be complete,' and its imperfect subjunctive is _taraneba_ 'since it has not been completed.'

The [negative] permissive is _taranedomo_, the infinitive is _taranu coto_, and the gerund in _Do_ is _taraide_ or _tarazu xite_. The verb _taxi:tasu_, which means 'to complete, or finish,' has a future in _taxi maraxô_ 'I shall finish.' _Tasanu_ is the negative present. _Tari_ [_Tarai_] is the root of the verb _tar[vo]_ which has the meaning 'to be completed.' In the negative the preterit is _taravananda_ 'it was not completed,' the subjunctive is _taravaneba_ 'since it is not completed,' the permissive is _taravanedomo_, the infinitive is _taravanu coto_, and the gerund in _Do_ is _taravaide_ or _taravaxu xite_ [_taravazu xite_]. _Vocotari_ is the root of the verb _vocotaru_ 'to be negligent.' It has an infinitive in _vocotaru coto_, a negative root in _vocotarazu_, and a negative present in _voicotaranu_ [_vocotaranu_]. _Voi_ is the root of a verb which has a preterit in _voita_ 'he was old.' (37 _Voitaru_ has the same meaning. The negative present is _voinu_ and the gerund in _Do_ is _voite_. _Urei_ is the root of the verb 'to be sad.' It has a present in _ureô_, an imperative in _ure io_ [_ureie io_][108] an infinitive in _ureoru coto_ [_ureôru_ ...].[109] Its gerund in _Do_ is _ureite_. _Tomi_ is the root of the verb _tomu_ or _tomeru_ 'to become rich.' Its preterit is _tonda_, its gerund in _Do_ is _tonde_, and its negative root is _tomazu_. _Saiguiri,u_ means 'to go before, or anticipate.' Its preterit is _saiguitta_ and its gerund in _Do_ is _saiguitte_.

{143}

_The Aforementioned Verbs--Their Formation and Diversity_[110]

In this language there are simple active, causative active, passive, neutral, and impersonal verbs.[111] All are conjugated by the three conjugations according to the way in which their roots terminate.

From certain adjectives come (_procedo_) certain verbs; e.g., from _catai_ 'hard' comes _catame,uru_ 'I make hard' which is active, _catamari,u_ 'I become hard' which is neutral, _catamerare,uru_ 'I am made hard' which is passive. From the adjective _canaxii_ 'sad' comes _canaximi,u_ which means 'to be sad.'

The causative verbs (_verba faciendi facere_) are formed with the particles _saxe_ or _xe_. The first is added to the roots of verbs in the first conjugation,[112] while the second is [not] added to the roots of the second and third conjugation, but rather to the negative present after the _nu_ has been removed; e.g., _aguesaxe,uru_ 'I make him offer,' _iomaxe,uru_ 'I make him read,' _naravaxe,uru_ 'I make him learn.' All of these forms are in the first conjugation because the particles end in e. Sometimes, but rarely, _saxe_ follows verbs of the second and third conjugation, but this is to make the verbs more elegant. It is used with the particle _rare_ to honor someone; e.g., _iomasaxe rare,uru_ ['he makes him read']. _Padre va dojucu ni cathecismo vo naravasaxeraruru_ 'the priest orders his servant to learn his cathecism,'[113] _mono no fon vo fito ni_ (38 _iomasaxeraruru_ (162v.) 'he makes him read his book.'

The passive verbs (_verba passiva_) are made with the particles _rare_ and _re_. The particle _rare_ is added to the active verbs, according to the way explained before, after removing the _nu_ from the negative form; e.g., _aguerare,uru_ 'I am offered it,' _iomare,uru_ 'I am read to,' _naravare,uru_ 'I am taught.' They use these passive forms to mean 'to be read to by someone,' or 'to be, or not to be legible.' There are other passive forms which come from neutral verbs or verbs which have neutral meanings. They are also formed with the particles _rare_ and _re_, but when they are so formed they do not govern the cases common to {144} the passive (for which see below) but rather the cases of the verbs from which they come; e.g., from _agari,u_ comes _agarare,uru_; and, since _agari,u_ 'I ascend' requires the accusative, this verb also requires the accusative. For example; _cono iama ie agararenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to climb this mountain, or this mountain is unable to be climbed,' _xiro cara derarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to leave the castle,' _xebóte irarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to penetrate because it is too narrow, or confined,' _cono michi va arucarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to walk this street,' _natçu va coco ni irare mai_ 'it will not be possible to live here during the summer,' _cono fude de va cacarenu_ (102) 'it cannot be written with this pen,' _fima ga nóte cacarenanda_ (102) 'it cannot be written because of the lack of time,' _cono bun ni coso cacaruru mono de gozare_ (69v) 'it will indeed be well written in this way,' _axi ga itóte arucarenu_ (102) 'it is impossible to walk because of painful feet.' All of these passive verbs are of the first conjugation.[114] The neutral verbs (_verba neutra_) are those which have a neutral meaning; i.e., being initiated by oneself, and not by others. For example; _ivo ga toruru_ 'the fish are caught,' _caje ga toruru_ 'the wind ceases,' _ito ga qiruru_ 'the string is cut,' _ji ga iomuru_ (100) 'the letter [Chinese character] is well read,' _aqi,u_ 'I am uncovered.' _Qiri,u_ 'I cut' is active, _qirare,uru_ is passive, and _qire,uru_ 'I am cut' is neutral. This last form is used when a sword cuts well because it is sharp. _Qiraxe,uru_ is a causative verb which means 'I make someone cut.' _Ague,uru_ means 'I raise,' _aguerare,uru_ 'I am raised' passively, _aguesaxe,uru_ 'I make someone raise,' _agari,u_ 'I am raised' neutrally, _agarare,uru_ 'to be ascendable,' _agaraxe,uru_ 'I cause something to be raised, or I cause him or it to raise himself or itself.' If to these verbs are added the particles which indicate honor (see below) other combinations are made. The adjectives when they are conjugated have a neutral meaning; e.g., _fidarui_ 'I am thirsty,' _fucacatta_ 'it was deep.'

The impersonal verbs (_verba impersonalia_) do not name or refer to a person; e.g., _mi vo fatasu tomo itçuvari vo ivanu mono gia_ (39 (69v) 'even if one were to die, one should not tell a lie,' _mono mo tabezu saqe mo nomaide ichinichi fataraqu mono ca?_ (69v) 'is it possible to work all day without eating anything or drinking any wine?', _xujin no_ {145} _maie de sono ióna coto vo iú mono ca?_ 'is it possible to speak this way in front of ones lord?' Concerning the conjugations for these verbs they follow the rules according to their roots.

The root of any verb of whatever conjugation can be taken from its conjugation and changed to another conjugation by adding one of the particles of honor (_honor_). The resulting form will belong to the conjugation determined by the final letter of the particle. These particles are: _maraxi,uru_, _ari,u_, _saxerare,uru_, _xerare,uru_, _nasare,uru_, _saxemaxi,u_, _tamai,ó_, _rare_ and _re_.[115]

The particle _maraxi_ does not add honor to that which is talked about, but rather it is used to speak honorably to those in front of us. For example; _cui,u_ means 'I eat,'[116] but a servant in front of his master will not say _nezumi ga cúta_ 'the mice ate the cheese'; he will rather say _nezumi ga cui maraxita_. By itself _cui,u_ is in the third conjugation because its root ends in _ui_, but if _maraxi_ is added it becomes a verb in the first conjugation. When we refer to something about a people (_natio_) we do not show honor to that word but only pay attention to the person we are speaking to by adding _maraxi_ or not. For example, if we are addressing an inferior we say _Nan ban jin va core vo cuvanu_; but if we are addressing a person of nobility we say _Nan ban jin va core vo cui maraxenu_ 'Europeans do not eat this.' When _ari,u_ is added to the root of any verb it attaches a middling (_mediocris_) degree of honor; e.g., _modori aró ca?_ 'are you going to come back?' If you add _vo_ in front of the verb it is honored moderately (_satis_); e.g., _vomodori aró ca?_ 'Your Lordship is going to come back?' _Tono sama vo xini atta toqi_ 'when the master died,' _Deus cono xecai vo gosacu atta_ 'God created the world.'[117] We use these particles when we are speaking with honored persons whom we like and with whom we are on friendly terms.

The particle _nasare,uru_ gives the highest (_supremus_), or moderately great (_satis magnus_) honor and is placed after the root of the verb; e.g., _Deus cono xecai vo gosacu nasareta_ 'God created the world.'

The particles _rare_ and _re_ add a middling and not a great amount {146} of honor to the verbs to which they are added. The particle _rare_ is added mainly when we are talking about someone who is absent. It is formed by taking the _nu_ from the negative present and replacing (40 it with this particle; e.g., _aguerare,uru_ means 'I offer' when the person to whom the offering is made requires a middling degree of honor and respect (_reverentia_). This verb coincides letter for letter with the passive but is distinguished from it by the cases which it governs. The particle _re_ is placed after verbs of the second and third conjugation only; e.g., _iomare,uru_ 'to read' and _naravare,uru_ 'to learn,' said of a person having a good reputation. We speak in this way when speaking of those who are equal to us and the servants of our lord, but not of other servants, or nobles.

The particles _saxemaxi_ and _xemaxi_ give the same degree of honor as _ari,u_ and _rare_ or _re_. These particles are added to the root of a first conjugation verb,[118] or to the negative present from which the _nu_ has been removed; _aguesaxemasu_ 'he offers.' _Maxi,u_ [_Xemaxi,u_] is added to the negative present of the second and third conjugation verbs after taking away _nu_; e.g., _iomaxemasu_ 'he reads,' and _naravaxemasu_ 'he learns.'

The particles _saxerare,uru_ and _xerare,uru_ attribute great honor. The first is added to the negative present of verbs in the first conjugation[119] after the _nu_ is removed, and the second is added to the [other] negatives in the same way; e.g., _aguesaxeraruru_ 'I offer,' _iomaxeraruru_ 'I read,' _naravaxeraruru_ 'I learn.' Because these forms coincide letter for letter with the honorific causative, the particle _ari,u_ may be placed after the verb and the particle _vo_ may be placed before to avoid confusion; e.g., _yomaxe aru_ [_vo iomaxe aru_] 'I read' and _naravaxe aru_ [_vo naravaxe aru_] 'I learn.'

The passive verb, concerning which see below, also permits the particle _saxerare,uru_; e.g., _viamavaresaxeraruru_ (99v) 'I am honored.'

The particle _tamai,ó_ bestows the highest honor. We use it when speaking of God, saints, kings, or generals. It is added to the roots of verbs and conjugated in the third conjugation. It is placed after the root of the passive form when referring to God; e.g., _Deus filio, umare_ {147} _tam[vo] toqi_ 'when the son of God was born,' _Deus agamerare tam[vo]_ 'God is honored.'

The particle _tate matçuri,u_ makes the meaning of the verb to which it is added humble. It is placed after the root of affirmative verbs; e.g., _Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tate matçuru coto va ichi sugureta jen gia_ 'to love God is the supreme virtue.' This particle permits some degree of honor if _re_ is added to it after the final _e_ [_i_] has been changed to a. Thus, when speaking of the saints in respect to God, one says, (41 _Sancto Domingo, Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tatematçurareta_ 'St. Dominic loved God.'

The particle _maraxi_ [_mairaxi_][120] is able to elevate to honor the particle _rare_; e.g., _tono iori cono coto vo Padre ni vataximairaxerareta_ 'the lord gave it to the priest.'

_Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor_[121]

_Mesare,uru_ indicates any act which can be done, or which is properly done by a noble person (_persona nobilis_). This includes such things as eating, drinking, sailing, riding a horse, etc. _Vôxerare,uru_ means that a noble person speaks. _Vomaraxi,uru_ and _vomaraxi ari,u_ mean that a noble person gives. _Voxe,uru_ [_Vôxe,uru_] and _vôxe ari,u_ mean that a middling person (_persona mediocris_) says or declares.

Verbs preceded by _vôxe_ or _mexi_ are given the same degree of honor by either; e.g., _vôxe tçuqerare,uru_ 'I declare,' _mexi tçucavare,uru_ 'I serve,' which have the same meanings as _tçuqerare,uru_ and _tçucavare,uru_. To call someone we use _coi_ with an inferior, with someone not quite as inferior we use _iorai_, with someone a little better we use _vaxei_, while _vogiare_ is the superior way to call. _Gozare_, which means that your Lordship should come, and _gozar[vo]_ in the future tense are even more honorable ways to indicate the imperative. _Voide nasarei_, _voide nasareô_, or _voide nasarei caxi_ mean 'might your Lordship come,' or 'Oh! would that your Lordship come.' _Cudasare,uru_ means that a noble person gives. _Tamavari,u_ means that a noble person gives to an inferior. _Tamóri,u_ means that a middling person gives. _Mizzu vo nomaxete tam[vo]re_ 'Give me a drink of water.' _Cudasare,uru_ and _tamóri,u_ mean {148} that a humble person eats honoring his food. _Coximexi,u_ and _qicoximexi,u_ mean that a noble person eats and hears. _Voboximexi,u_ and _voboximesare,uru_ mean that a noble person thinks. _Saxerare,uru_ means that a noble person does. _Nasare,uru_, _asobaxi,u_, and _asobasare,iuru_ [_asobasare,uru_] mean that a noble person does what is proper to him such as hunting, writing, reading, or reciting. _Ii,ú_ is used when the person addressed is humbler than the person or thing spoken to; (42 and _mexi,u_ [_móxi,u_] means the person or the thing spoken to is addressed with honor. Therefore I would be incorrect were I to say _mi ni móxe_ 'tell me!' I should rather say _mi ni iie_. I should not say _tono ni iie_ 'tell it to the lord,' but rather _tono ni móxe_. _Mairi,u_ means to go to a place to which honor should be shown; e.g., _iglesia ie maire_ 'go to church!' _Cure,uru_ and _toraxe,uru_ mean to give in a way that humbles the person to whom the thing is given. _Cui,ú_ means 'to eat' without showing respect (_respectus_); _mexi,u_ also means 'to eat' but it is cultivated (_urbanum_); e.g., in addressing those deserving respect I will not say _mexi vo cui maraxita_ but rather _mexi vo tabe maraxita_ 'I ate.' _Mairi,u_ or _vomairari,u_ [_vomairi ari,u_] means that a middling person eats, while _agaraxerare,uru_ and _voagari ari,u_ are nobler ways to say this. _Qiqi,u_ means to hear and _uqetamavari,u_ and _uqetamóri,u_ mean to hear in a way which honors the person heard; e.g., _goiqen vo uqetam[vo]tta_ 'I heard your advice.' _Móxi ague,uru_ means to speak in a way which humbles oneself while bestowing honor on the person being addressed. _Móxi ire,uru_ means to speak between equals (_equales_). _Chómon xi,uru_ means to listen to the word of God. _Goranji,zuru_ or _goranjerare,uru_ is to look at a noble thing. _Xi,uru_ means to do in common way, _itaxi,u_ means to do in a cultivated way, and _tçucamatçuri,u_ means to do in a humble way.

_Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb_[122]

The particle _nama_ placed before any verb in any tense means that the action has been done poorly or in an incomplete manner; e.g., _nama aró_ 'I wash poorly,' _nama iaqu_ 'I am incompletely broiled.'

{149}

If the particles _tçui_, _cai_, _uchi_, _faxe_, _voi_, _ai_, and _tori_[123] are placed in front of a verb they do not change the meaning, but they add emphasis; e.g., _uchi cobosu_ has the same meaning as _cobosu_ 'I pour,' _faxe noboru_ is the same as _noboru_ 'I ascend,' _voxi comi,u_ is the same as _comi,u_ 'I enclose,' _ai cavari,u_ is the same as _cavari,u_ 'I am changed,' _tçui mavari,u_ is the same as _mavari,u_ 'I go around,' and _tori firogue,uru_ is the same as _firogue,uru_ 'I spread out.'

The particle _qitte_ is the gerund in _Do_ for the verb _qiri,u_ and when it is placed after the roots of certain verbs it gives them great emphasis; e.g., _tanomiqitte_ 'imploring with great prayers,' _vomoiqitte_ (43 'assuming a strong resolution.' The verbs _tanomiqiri,u_ and _vomoiqiri,u_ are also used.

The particle _ma_, when placed in front of certain verbs and nouns, gives them a stronger meaning; e.g., _mamucai_ 'quite present,' _macuroi_ 'completely black.'

The particle, or better root of the verb, _macari,u_, when placed before verbs of motion, makes the verbs modest and a bit more cultivated; e.g., _macari noboru_ 'I ascend,' _macari cudari,u_ 'I descend,' and _macari i,iru_ 'I am present.'

The particle _va_ placed after a sentence confirms what has been said before, as one might boast of making a prediction; e.g., _fune va cuchinotçu ie iru va_ 'the ship calls at Kuchinotsu; and, if he says so or not, I say so,' _aru va_ 'see if it is not as I have said.'

The particle _aidani_ means 'between' in the sense of the time consumed in performing an action; e.g., _agura aidani_ [_aguru aidani_] 'while offering,' _iôda aidani_ 'while he read,' _naravózuru aidani_ 'while he will learn.'

The particle _ga_ means 'but;' _só iú ga; nanto aró ca?_ 'they say so, but will it be so?' or 'it may be so, but I don't know for certain,' _furi va furu mai ga, fune no dasu coto naró ca xiranu_ 'it's not raining any more, but I still don't know if it will be possible to launch the boat or not,' _sono qinpen ni va gozaru mai ga; doco cara toraxeraruru zo?_ (20)[124] 'there are probably none in the neighborhood, or in the surroundings, so from where can they be gotten?'

{150}

The particle _gotoqu_ is added to the present, preterit, and future tenses meaning 'in the same way'; e.g., _coxiraiuru gotoqu_ 'in the same way as you furnish or carry out,' _qiita gotoqu_ 'as I heard.' The form is sometimes _ga gotoqu_; e.g., _móxita ga gotoqu_ 'as he said,' _caracavózu ga gotoqu_ 'as in jest I will tease or laugh at.' This same meaning is obtained with _i[vo]ni_; _Nifon no catagui vo xirareta i[vo]ni, vôxeraruru_ (122v) 'he speaks as one who knows the customs of Japan,'[125] _mósu ióni_ 'as I say.' The particle _furi_ is also used for the same purpose; e.g., _toza no chijocu vo nogareôzuru tameni catana vo saita furi vo mixerareta_ (123) 'he showed himself wearing his sword in order to avoid the danger of infamy.' _minu furi vo saxerareta_ (123) 'he made it known that he did not see.'

The particle _saie_ is used [with the negative] to mean 'not at all'; e.g., _mma saie nacatta_ (118)[126] 'there are not any horses at all,' _cotoba saie xiranu mono_ (118) 'he does not know how to speak at all,' _ji saie mixiranu mono_ 'he does not know any letters at all.' This same particle is used for emphasis; e.g., _qiden to saie m[vo]xeba_ (119) 'it would (44 suffice if you were to say that you are,' _Padre no tçucavaruru to saie móxeba_ 'if only he had said that this was useful to the priest,' or one might say 'it would suffice if, etc.'

The particle _qere_ is a confirmative particle which comes at the end of a sentence with the meaning 'therefore'; e.g., _maitta qere_ 'therefore he came,' _sate só aru qere_ 'finally this is the situation.'[127]

The particle _coso_ is of great importance among the Japanese for they use it first in an adversative sense (_in sensu adversativo_); _core coso ió gozare_ [... _iô_ ...] 'he is truly good.'[128] If the sentence in which this particle is found ends in a verb, that verb ends in _e_, as in the example above. If the verb is in the preterit it ends in _re_; e.g., _yô coso gazattare!_ (117) 'you are welcome! (_bene veneris!_).' The exceptions to this rule are when the sentence does not end in a verb or an adjective; e.g., _core coso xixó yô_ [... _io_] (116) 'he is a true teacher,' when after the particle _coso_ there is in the sentence a gerund in _e_, a permissive in _tomo_, or a {151} potential preterit in _tçuró_ or _zzuró_;[129] e.g., _vare coso iro iro xinro tçucamatçutte cutatireba toxiiórini nari maraxita_ [... _cutabireba toxiiorini_ ...] (117) 'suffering many and various hardships, I became an old man,' _vare coso corosaruru tomo_ 'if I be killed,' _fara coso tattçur[vo]_ (117) 'he was perchance quite angry,' _sato chicaqereba coso fi ga miiure_ (116) 'the fire is already seen because the village is so near.' This [last] sentence ends in _e_ because it does not contain an exception to the rule. _Vóxerareta coto domo vo go côquai de coso gozarózure_ (97) 'without doubt you will do penance for what you have said,' _catajiqe n[vo] coso gozare_ (97) 'I congratulate you very much and thank you.' If someone says, 'Who did that?' the answer is _Patre coso_ [_Padre coso_] 'the Priest did.' If someone asks, 'is there anyone who did that?' and if he does not hear, or does not understand the answer, and asks again, the person who answered will say _Juan coso_ 'I have already said it was John.'

When someone is careless about what was said, or when he has not heard something and asks again, the answer is; e.g., _tovoru na to iieba_ 'I have already told you not to pass through,' _iome to iieba_ 'I have already told you to read,' _Padre coso to iieba_ 'I have already told you that it is the Priest.'

Adding the particles _maieni_ and _saqini_ to the negative present tense makes the construction affirmative; e.g., _iglesia ie mairanu maieni_ (141v) 'before he goes to church.' They are also added to the affirmative future tense; e.g., _mair[vo]zuru tote no saqini_ 'a little before (45 I come.'

The particle _tocoro_ signifies the time during which the action indicated by the verb is done. It is placed after the verb; _taburu tocoro ni_ 'when I was eating,' _tabeta tocoro ni_ 'after dinner,' _tabeôzuru tocoro ni_ or _tabeôzuru ni_ 'when I will be eating.' It also serves as a reduplicative particle which denotes a reduplication to the degree possible; e.g., _jesu christo humanidad no von tocoro va_ (121v)[130] 'Jesus Christ in so far as he was a man,' _vonore ga foxxezaru tocoro vo fodocosu coto nacare_ (121) 'as you do not want done to you, do not do to others,' _fudai no tocoro vo vo iurusu_ [... _tocoro vo iurusu_] (120v) 'I gave him his freedom,' _fito no acu no tocoro ni va dôxin xenu_ (121v) 'I do {152} not consent to the sins of man,' _utagó tocoro mo nai_ (120v) 'there remains no place to doubt, or for doubt,' _nocoru tocoro mo nai_ 'it does not remain any more,' _tçuini, sono tocoro ie mairózu_ (121v) 'finally he will arrive at this place,' _fumbet ni voiobanu tocoro gia_ (121v) 'there are some things which are not understood, or to which one's comprehension does not extend,' _nani mo nai tocoro vo iô qicoximexe_ (120v) 'will your Lordship kindly eat from this littleness which is nothing.' From these examples it is possible to see the force of this particle.

The particles _tocoro_, _made_, and _made de gozaru_ are often added to an utterance (_cadentia_). They do not have any special meaning and are the same as _coto de gozaru_; e.g., _naranu made_ or _naranu coto de gozaru_ mean the same as _naranu_ 'it is not possible.' _Guijet tçucamatçur[vo] to zonzuru coto va cacugo itasanu coto gia_ (10v) 'the breaking of this friendship does not come to mind.' Here the _itasanu coto gia_ is the same as _itasanu_ alone.

The particle _madeio_ is used to confirm what has been said; e.g., _caita madeio_ 'that which I wrote, I wrote.'

The particle _toqi_ when added to the present tense, forms a preterit imperfect; e.g., _jennin tachi va saigo ni voiobi tamó toqi va buji ni gozatta_ 'when saints arrive at the time of their death, they are peaceful and quiet.'

Changing the _ta_ of the preterit to _tçu_ and the _da_ of the negative to _zzu_[131] the meaning becomes 'I do it this way and then that way'; e.g., _mono vo caitçu, iôzzu, nando xite curasu bacari gia_ 'I spend my life reading, writing and doing other things,' _tattçu itçu vocu iori zaxiqi ie ide zaxiqi iori vocu ie iri xitten batt[vo] xeraruru_ (11v) 'standing and sitting, entering and departing, he stands up and falls down.' The particle _ri_ gives the same meaning after the preterit; e.g., _xeqen no mono va netari voqitari n[vo]dari curasu bacari gia_ (11) 'men of the world spend their lives sleeping, arising, and drinking,' _mazzu_ (46 _ite niva vo mo facaxetari, cusa vo mo ficaxetari iroiro no xigoto vo ateg[vo]te cosó mair[vo]zure_ [... _coso_ ...] (10v) 'I shall go and sweep out the courtyard (_atrium_), pull up the weeds, and then having dispensed with these things I shall go,' _ima cono io fuqe iuqeba nome ia, utaie ia fito bito motçu, ut[vo]tçu sacamori suru_ (129) 'when it already is late at {153} night, urging themselves on to drink and sing, the men enjoy themselves dancing and singing.'

The particle _ie_, which is the root of the verb _ie iuru_ [_ie:uru_][132] 'I can,' signifies, when placed before negative verbs, that the action expressed by the verb cannot be done; e.g., _ie iomanu_ 'I cannot read.' This particle is also placed after the infinitive; e.g., _iomanu coto vo ienu_ 'I cannot read.' _Iomi va ieide_, or _iomi mo ieide_ 'since I could not read, or not being able to read' is also said. The infinitive sometimes acts as a substitute verb (_suppositum verbum_); e.g., _xinuru coto va vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to die.'

The particle _tai_ 'I want' is added to the roots of verbs and signifies the desire to do the thing indicated by the verb; e.g., _mizzu vo nomi tai_[133] 'I want to drink some water,' _mizzu vo nomi tó gozaru_ or _mizzu vo nomi tó zonzuru_, but these last two forms are more noble. Here is an example of the noble form in the negative, _t[vo] mo nai_; e.g., _mizzu vo nomi t[vo] mo nai_ 'I do not want to drink water,' and _mizzu vo nomi t[vo] mo gozaranu_. _Mairu tó mo zonjenu_ means 'I do not want to go.' When the particle _tai_ is added to adjectives, or verbs indicating a sensory act (_actionem sensitiuam_) in the first person,[134] the _i_ is changed to _c_; and the verb _ari,u_ is added and conjugated in the tense required by the sentence; e.g., _cuitacatta_ 'I wanted to eat.' If the verb is in the second or third person, the _i_ is changed to _g_ and again the verb _ari,u_ is added, or an honorific particle depending upon what the person deserves, or without it as an absolute form. But if the person is inferior, the _i_ is changed to _c_ as said before.

The particle _de_ sometimes gives a subjunctive sense when it is added to nouns; e.g., _varãbe de xinda_ 'he died a child, or when he was a child,' _vare ga buchófó de tofó mo gozanai_ (163v)[135] [... _buchôfó_ ...] 'since I am clumsy and not careful, nothing will work out in a way that will be harmonious.'

The particle _ió_ 'way' is added to the roots of verbs and also to the {154} verbs themselves. When the root governs the genitive, the verb governs the same case; e.g., _cono qi[vo] no iomi ió va_ 'the way of (47 reading this book,' or _cono qió vo iomu i[vo] va_. In the first sentence _qi[vo]_ is in the genitive with the particle _no_; in the second sentence it is in the accusative with _vo_ because _yomu_ governs this case. _Tei_ signifies an extraordinary and marvelous way of doing something; e.g., _machicanuru tei vo goron jerarei_ (122)[136] 'might your Lordship observe the way that they are expectant.' Also, _arisama_ means 'way,' _me mo aterarenu arisama gia_ 'it is a way, or a form (_figura_), which is unable to be seen.'

_Sama_ indicates the time of the action of the verb to which it is added while governing the case required by the verb. It is added to the root of the verb; e.g., _saqe vo nomi sama ni_ (105) 'when he actually drank the wine,' _iado ie caieri sama ni_ (105) 'when he returned home,' _fune iori agari sama ni_ (105) 'when he actually disembarked from the ship,' _fune ni nori sama ni_ 'when he actually boarded the ship.'

When there are in a sentence two verbs whose actions form a single action, the first verb is put into the form of the gerund in _Do_; e.g., _mizzu vo motte coi_ 'bring some water, or come bringing water,' _fune vo voite coi_ 'bring the boat here, or come poling the boat,' _core vo totte iqe_ 'take this, or carry this and go.'

The gerund in _Do_ when added to verbs of asking, giving, or doing, means that one is asking to know or to acquire the thing which is indicated by the verb to which it is added; e.g., _nifon guchi vo voxiiete cure io_ 'teach me Japanese,' _s[vo] voxerarete cudasaruru na_ [_s[vo] vôxerarete_ ...] 'your Lordship ought not say that,' _Deus no coto vo catatte tam[vo]re_ 'do me the favor of relating to me those things which pertain to God.'

The particle _mo_ placed after the gerund in _Do_, whether it ends in _te_ or _de_, means 'although'; e.g., _s[vo] m[vo]xite mo_ 'although you say so,' _ica fodo susumete mo, corobu mai_ 'no matter how much you try to persuade me, I will not deny the faith.' They also use _s[vo] m[vo]xeba atte mo_ 'even if you say that,' _d[vo]xitemo c[vo]xitemo_ (134v) 'what ever you do.'

If the particle _coso_ (see above) is added to the affirmative gerund in _Do_; and, if the sentence ends in this particle, the sentence becomes {155} negative; e.g., _mite coso_ 'I did not see anything,' _atte coso_ 'there is no way.' But if the sentence does not end in _coso_, it becomes affirmative (48 and emphatic; e.g., _mite coso gozare_ (116) 'I certainly saw.' The verb ends in _e_ according to the rule explained above when the particle _coso_ was being discussed.

When the negative gerund in _Do_, which ends in _e_, is followed by _va_, _naranu_, or _canavanu_ it expresses necessity or the impossibility of the contrary; e.g., _mairaide canavanu_ (106v)[137] 'it is necessary to go,' _ivaide va no coto naredomo, nanto xô ca?_ 'and if the thing which is said to be necessary happens, what shall I do?' _xitagavaide naranu_ 'it is necessary to obey.' The same meaning, but with less strength, is obtained with the future of the affirmative or negative infinitive and the permissive subjunctive in _domo_; e.g., _mair[vo] coto de gozatta redomo_ (18)[138] 'although I should have gone,' _mairu mai queredomo_ [... _qeredomo_] (18)[139] 'although I should not be going,' _mair[vo] coto de gozanacatta redomo_ (18) 'although I did not have to go.' They also use the negative gerund in _Do_ to obtain the meaning of 'if not'; e.g., _òracio vo m[vo]saide cú na_ 'do not eat unless you have said your prayers.'

The gerund in _e_ indicates an action already done; e.g., _mexi cúte coi_ 'come after eating!' _cono qió ga caite gozaru_ 'this book was written,' _chichi ni fumi vo cacaide cuiaxiú gozaru_ [... _cuiaxú_ ...] 'I am ashamed that I did not send a letter to your father,' _cono qió ga caite gozaranu_ 'this book was not written.'

The particle _nagara_, when added to the root of a verb, forms a gerund in _Do_ if it is followed by a verb indicating a repugnant or contrary action; e.g., _toganin Deus iori bacutai no go von, o uqetatematçuri nagara; caietta somuqi tatematçuru_ [... _go von vo uqe_ ...][140] 'sinners receiving, or even if sinners receive, benefits from God, they will offend him rather than be grateful,' _Jesu Cristo Deus de gozari nagara, fito ni taixite cruz ni cacaraxerareta_ 'while Jesus Christ was a God, he was crucified for man.' _Nagara_ is also added to nouns; e.g., _quantai nagara_ (136v) 'although there was some lack of education,' _sannin nagara_ (137) 'three at the same time, or even if there are three' _aqiraca_ {156} _nagara_ (136v) 'although he is famous.' In this instance _aqiraca na_ loses its _na_ as do all the other adjectives that end in _na_.

The particle _iasui_ is added to the roots of active and passive verbs to form the supine in _Tu_; e.g., _iomi iasui_ 'easy to read,' _corosare iasui_ 'easy to be killed.' The same thing is achieved by the following way of speaking; _iúte va vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to say,' _mite va_ (49 _fuxiguina_ 'it is admirable to see,' _iú vo mo vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to say.'

The Adverbs

_First Section_[141]

Adverbs are formed from adjectives ending in _ai_ by changing the _ai_ to _ó_; e.g., _fucó_ 'deeply,' for those ending in _oi_ by changing the _oi_ to _ô_; e.g., _caxico_ [_caxicô_] 'wisely,' for those ending in _ei_ by changing the _ei_ to _eô_; e.g., _xigueo_ [_xigueô_] 'densely,' for those ending in _ui_ by changing the _ui_ to _ú_; e.g., _ai[vu]_ 'in danger,' and for those ending in _ij_ by changing the _ij_ to _iú_; e.g., _cavaiú_ 'unhappily.'

_Adverbs of Place_[142]

The interrogative pronouns are eight in number; _izzucu_[?], _izzucata_[?], _donata_[?], _doco?_, _dochi?_, _dochira?_, _dono tocoro_[?], and _dono f[vo]?_, and they signify 'which place?' To these adverbs are added the particles _va_, _no_, _ni_, _ie_, _vo_, _cara_, and _iori_ according to the case required, such as 'from where,' 'whither,' 'through which place,' 'in what place,' etc. _Made_ can also be added to them with the meaning of 'to the limit of which'; _doco made ie iqó ca_[?] 'up to where will you go?' The interrogative particle, _ca?_ or _zo_[?], is added to these questions but it is better to use _zo_ rather than _ca_ in sentences with an interrogative particle; e.g., _izzuru ie maitta zo_ 'where did you go,' _dono tocoro vo tovotta zo_ 'at which place did you cross,' _doco iori itta zo_ 'through where did he enter,' _dochi cara qita zo?_ 'from where did he come?', {157} _donata va Pedro no iado zo_[?] 'which is Peter's house?', _doco ni voru zo_[?] 'where, or in what place is he?' One may respond in many ways; _cono tocoro_, _coto moto_, [_coco moto_], _core_, _conata_, _cochi_, _cochira_, _coco_, _cocora_, _cono cata_, _cono f[vo]_, which mean 'here (_hic_)'; _sono tocoro_, _soco moto_, _sore_, _sonata_, _sochi_, _sochira_, _soco_, _socora_, _sono cata_, _sono f[vo]_ (50 which mean 'there (_istic_)'; _ano tocoro_, _asoco moto_, _are_, _anata_, _achi_, _achira_, _asoco_, _asocora_, _ano cata_, _anofó_, which mean 'there (_illic_).' To these particles are added the case particles. The interrogative adverbs with the case particles and _mo_ added mean 'everywhere,' 'through every place,' or 'to every place,' e.g., _dono tocoro ie mo tovor[vo]_ 'I shall go everywhere,' _doco ni mo_ 'everywhere,' _doco cara mo_ 'from everywhere.' However, if, instead of _mo_, _nari tomo_ is added the meaning becomes 'any place,' in a distributive sense; e.g., _doco ie nari tomo mair[vo]_ 'I shall go to each place individually.' The same meaning is obtained by _doco zo_ with the case particles placed between the _doco_ and the _zo_; e.g., _doco ni zo aru fodo ni_ 'if someone is any place.' _Coco caxico_ means 'here and there.' _Doco mo caxico mo_ means 'the whole place.' The case particles are placed before _mo_; e.g., _doco ni mo caxico ni mo_ 'in the whole place,' but after the adverb; e.g., _coco caxico ni_ 'here and there,' _coco caxico ie doco_, _caxico iori_ [_coco caxico ie_ 'to here and there,' _coco caxico iori_ 'from here and there'], etc.[143]

The particle _uie_ means 'above.' The genitive case is placed before it; e.g., _fandai no uie ni voqe_ 'place it on the table,' _cono uie va gozaru mai_ 'it will not be above this,' that is to say 'it will not be better than this,' _sono uie ni_ 'about that,' _sono uie no sata vo catari are_ 'tell me about that,' _core va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru_ 'one will not discover anything better than his,' that is to say 'this is the best.' _Xita_ means 'below.' It governs the genitive; e.g., _fandai no xita ni voqe_ 'place it under the table,' _micotoba no xita iori_ (141v) 'when the king finishes speaking,' _voxita vo cudasarei_ (141v) 'would your Lordship be so kind as to give to me that which remains of your drink.'

The particle _soba_ means 'side' and governs the genitive; e.g., _fito no soba vo fanaruru_ 'he separates himself from the side of another.'

The particle _maie_ means 'before' and governs the genitive; e.g., _fito no maie vo tovoru_ 'I pass in front of someone else,' _cacugo no maie_ {158} (141v) 'according to ones disposition,' _funbet no maie_ (141v) 'as I believe, or think, or according to the sense (_iuxta sensum_).'

The particle _mavari_ means 'around' and governs the genitive; e.g., _iglesia no mavari ni tçuchi vo nague sutçuru na_ 'do not put earth around the church.'

The particle _uchi_ means 'within,' and the noun which precedes it must be in the genitive; e.g., _iglesia no uchi_ 'in the church,' _ano fito va, fito no uchi de va nai_ 'that man is not among men,' that is (51 to say 'he is not a man,' _futacuchi cúta coto va, cúta uchi de va nai_ (142v)[144] 'to eat two mouthfuls is not to eat.'

The particle _foca_ means 'outside,' and the genitive is placed before it; e.g., _igelsia no foca ni_ 'outside the church,' _foca ie iqe_ 'go out, or go outside.' Sometimes the genitive particle is replaced by _iori_; e.g., _Deus vonago ichinin iori foca tçucuri tamavanu_ (142v)[145] 'God did not create but one woman,' that is to say 'he created just one,' _Tengu fito ni acu vo susumuru iori foca va, nai_ (142v) 'the Devil does nothing if he is not persuaded by man to sin,' _gox[vo] vo tasucaru tame baptismo vo sazzucaru iori foca bechi no michi ga nai_ 'there is no other way to save men than by baptism,' that is to say 'without baptism we cannot be saved.' _Deus no gracia iori foca_ 'without the grace of God.'

The particle _naca_ means 'in the middle.' It is used when the material is either dense or defuse; e.g., _qi no naca ni_ 'in the wood,' _fito no naca ni_ 'among the men.'

The particle _nacaba_ means 'in the midst of things' when referring to a sequence. It follows the genitive; e.g., _dangui no nacaba ni_ 'in the midst of the sermon,' _sore vo qijte, nacaba va vosore; nacaba va aqirete ita_ (145v) 'hearing that, he feared and was afraid,' that is to say 'he spent most of his time being afraid.'

The particle _ato_ means 'behind' and governs the genitive; e.g., _sonata no ato cara mair[vo]_ 'I shall come after you' that is to say 'I shall follow you.'

The particle _vaqi_ means 'near' and governs the genitive; e.g., _Pedro no vaqi_ 'near Peter,' _misa no vaqi_ 'the mass is ended,' _cono vaqi_ 'in the last few days.' All of these adverbs require after them the cases that are required by the verb which follows.

{159}

_Adverbs of Interrogation and Response_[146]

There are many ways to ask 'why?' or 'for what reason[?]'; e.g., _najeni_[?], _najoni_[?], _nani xini?_, _nani tote ca?_, _nani no iuie ni?_, _nanto xita coto ni?_, _nani no xisai ni iotte?_. The question 'how?' is said; _nanto xite?_, _nanto i[vo] ni_[?], _icani to xite?_ The answer is 'because' or 'for the reason that'; e.g., _sono iuie va_, _najeni to iúni_. 'Because' is also said; _tocoro de_, _fodo ni_, _ni iotte_, or _sacai ni_. The first expresses (52 the greatest degree of causality, the second not so much, and the third the least.

_Uie va_ means 'since (_cum_ or _si quidem_)'; e.g., _toganai uie va qizzucai ga nai_ (40v)[147] 'I am not afraid because I have no fault.' The same meaning is achieved by the particle _cara_; e.g., _cai[vo] ni iro vo misuru cara va; cacusu coto va iranu_ 'since you have thus shown your feelings (_iro_), you can't hide them.' 'Since (_si quidem_)' means approximately the same as _toqi va_ and _xicaru toqi va_. _Sari nagara_ means 'but,' _sari tote va_ means 'until,' _saru tote va_ means 'since the thing is this way,' _saru tote va, qicoienu coto gia_ 'since it is so, it is unbearable.'

_Adverbs of Time_[148]

One asks 'when' with _itçu_ or _itçugoro_. One asks 'from what day' with _icca saqi_ or _icca maie_, 'from what month' with _icutçuqi saqi_, and 'from what year' with _nannen maie_. Usually _ni_ is added when it is required by the verb, and the interrogatives _ca_ or _zo_ are always put at the end of the sentence, with _zo_ preferred.

One answers 'now' with _ima_ or _tada ima_, and 'already' with _m[vo]_, e.g., _m[vo] iqe_ 'be already gone!' 'Sometimes' is said with _toqi ni iotte_ or _jibun ni iotte_. 'Afterwards' is _nochi_. _Sore cara_ or _sore iori_ means 'after that,' _core cara_ or _core iori_ means 'after this,' and _are iori_ or _are cara_ means 'after that.' 'Immediately' is said with _iagate_. 'Afterwards' or 'again' is _ima iori nochi_, _ima iori xite va_, or _ima iori igo_. 'This morning' is said with _qesa_. _Connichi_ or _qio_ [_qiô_] is 'today,' and _asu_ or _miônichi_ [_miónichi_][149] is 'tomorrow.' 'Tomorrow morning' is _asa_, _axitatô_, or {160} _asatocu_, and 'tomorrow night' is _mionia_ [_mi[vo]ia_]. 'Before' is _ijen_ or _saqi ni_. 'Yesterday' is _qinô_ or _sacujit_. 'The day before yesterday' is _vototoi_ or _futçuca saqi ni_. 'Several days in the past' is _cono gi[vu]_. _Cono fodo_ and _xenjit_ have the same meaning, as does _xendo_. _Condo_ means 'several days in the future.' 'The day after tomorrow' is _asatte_ or _miógonichi_. 'Three days hence' is _xiasatte_ or _miómiógonichi_. _Qiônen_ [_Qionen_] or _cozo_ means 'last year.' 'This year' is _cotoxi_. 'Two years ago' is _vototoxi_ or _votodoxi_. 'Three years ago' is _sanuruvotodoxi_ [_sannuru votodoxi_].[150] 'Immediately' is _tachimaqi_ [_tachimachi_] (53 or _socuij ni_ [_socuji ni_]. _Sunavachi_ is also 'immediately.' _Tanteqi_ is 'in a moment.'

_Itçumade?_ means 'until when?' _Itçumademo_ means 'always.' _Itçu cara_ means 'after what time.' _Itçu iori_ means 'from what time.'

_Adverbs of Negation_[151]

_Iia_ or _iia_ [_iia iia_][152] means 'not.' _Só devanai_ means 'it is not so.' _Iccana_ or _iccanagueni_ means 'by no means,' _iume iume_ means 'not even in a dream,' _sarani_, _ichiien_, _catçute_, or _catçute motte_ means 'in no way,' and _io_, _iomo_, or _iomo iomo_ means 'without thinking'; e.g., _catçute mairu mai_ 'in no way shall I come,' _iomo só va gozaru mai_ (117v) 'it will in no way come to mind why it will be so.' When affirmative verbs are added to these adverbs they become negative; e.g., _iomo iomo to m[vo]xitareba vo mairi atta_ (117v) 'although you said you would not go, you went,' _io mairó_ 'in no way shall I go.'

_Adverbs of Affirmation_[153]

_Nacanaca_ means 'it is so,' _vó_ means 'so,' when one agrees. _Gueni_ or _gueni gueni_ means 'it is thus'; e.g., _gueni gueni só mo aró_ 'without doubt the situation is thus.' _Chódo_ means 'at all.' _Sai[vo]ni_, _sono bun_, _sono gotoqu_, _s[vo] de gozaru_, _sore sore_, _mass[vo] gia_, or _xicato_ means 'it is so.' _Mottomo_ means that something is reasonably said. _Guioi no gotoqu_ means 'as your Lordship believes, or says.' _Mochiron_ indicates that a thing does not come in to doubt or discussion. _Nacanaca naru_ {161} _coto de gozaranu_ means 'truly it is not possible.' _Nacanaca no coto_ indicates a thing with which it is possible to agree. _Macotoni_ means 'truly,' as does _xinjit_ or _xinjitni_. _Xeimon_ means 'I affirm by oath.' _Isasaca_ or _isasaca motte_ means 'not even a little,' and _issai_ or _ixxet_ means 'in no way, or by no means,' and when these particles are added to the affirmative they mean 'truly.'

(54

_Comparative Adverbs_[154]

_Iori_, _iori mo_, and _iori mo navo_ mean 'more' in a comparison. The person compared is in the nominative case and the person to whom he is compared is in the ablative with one of the particles which we have listed above; e.g., _Pedro va juan iori mo gacuxó de gozaru_ 'Peter is wiser than John,' _soco ie noboru iori va; mairanu ga maxi gia_ 'it is better not to go than to climb up there.' _Gotoqu_, _mama_, and _i[vo]ni_ are adverbs of similitude (_adverbia similitudinis_) and require the genitive for the thing with which the comparison is made. If the particle is preceded by a verb, no genitive is required; e.g., _no iama ie nari tomo qitai mama ni qite, nurureba, nugui suteraruru_ (124v) 'if they were to go to the mountains or the plains wearing such clothes as they want to wear, they will have to take them off when they become wet on account of the water.' _Vomô mama ni, vomô gotoqu_, and _vomô i[vo]ni_, mean 'as I think,' _cono mi no mama ni_ 'according to his desires, or his pleasure.' _Fodo_ means 'to such a degree as (_tantum_),' or 'just as (_quasi_)'; e.g., _qifen ano fito fodo no gacuxó de gozaru_[155] 'you are as wise as he,' _fara ga cudaru fodo ioi_ 'he will recover as soon as he has a bowel movement,' _michi vo aruqu fodo cutabiruru_ (123v) 'as I walk so I get tired,' _acai fodo ioi_ 'the redder the better,' _xinuru fodo no vazzurai de va nai_ 'this disease is not strong enough to cause death,' _fune ni mesaruru fodo naraba vare mo norózu_ (124) 'if Your Lordship would take up the task of boarding the ship, so shall I,' _tamexi mo nai fodo ni atta to m[vo]su_ (124v) 'they say it was as if it had never been,' _voquru fodo araba sore ie mair[vo]zu_ (124) 'if I am able to arrive at the state where I can get up from bed, I shall come to you,' _chicara no fodo vo mite_ 'seeing the degree of his strength,' _fodo nó tçuita_ 'he arrived in {162} an instant,' _core fodo_ 'as this,' _sore fodo_ 'as that,' _are fodo_ 'as that,' _vovoi fodo_ 'while more,' _sucunai fodo_ 'while less.'

(55

_Superlative Adverbs_[156]

_Uie_ means 'the highest'; e.g., _christian no voxiie va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru_ 'the doctrine and faith of Christianity are supreme, or above all,' _cono saqe no uie va nai_ 'there is no better wine than that.' _Ichi_ or _daiichi_ means 'supreme, or unique'; e.g., _gacux[vo] no uchi ni Sancto Thomas daiichi de gozatta_ 'among wise men Saint Thomas was the best,' _core va are iori uie_ 'this is superior to that.' The particle _xita_ has the opposite meaning of 'inferior, or the lowest'; e.g., _xiqitai va anima iori xita de gozaru_ (141) 'the body is inferior to the soul.'

_Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration_[157]

_Ichidan_, _chicagoro_, and _icc[vo]_ mean 'intensely (_valde_)'; e.g., _chicagoro no vo cocoro gaqe de gozaru_ 'this is the greatest care and diligence,' _sore va icco varui coto gia_ 'this is extremely bad.' _Bexxite_ means 'chiefly,' _tori vaqe_ means 'especially,' _coto no foca_ means 'rarely, or extraordinarily,' _icanimo_ means 'intensely,' and _amarini_ means 'too much.' As has been said, adverbs are formed from adjectives according to the rules above, and these adverbs mean adverbially what the adjectives mean adjectivally; e.g., _fucai_ means 'deep,' and _fucó_ means 'deeply.' _Icani mo xizzucani_ means 'extremely quietly,' _tani coto ni_ means 'extraordinarily,' and _xitatacani_ or _guiósanni_ means 'in a way that is to be feared' that is to say 'too much.' See the dictionary.[158]

_Accumulative Adverbs_[159]

_Voxinabete_ means 'universally'; _sôbet_ means 'generally,' as do _tçuneni_ and _sojite_ [_sôjite_]; _feijeini_ means 'regularly'; and _voioso_, _tabun_, _vocata_, _ioppodoni_ mean 'for the most part,' and _qeccu_ or _caiette_ (56 means 'after all.' _Tennen_ means 'perhaps,' as do _xijen_ and _icasama_. _Sadamete_ means 'probably,' _canarazu_ means 'without doubt,' _moxi xijien_ [_moxi xijen_] means 'perhaps,' _x[vo]tocu_ means 'naturally,' _jinen_ {163} means 'by chance,' _xidai vidai ni_ or _jen jen ni_ means 'gradually,' and _vonozzucara_ means 'by oneself.'

_Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention_[160]

_Ficqi[vo]_ and _tçuini_ mean 'finally, or in conclusion.' _Tçug[vo]_ means 'in summary.' _N[vo] n[vo]_ means 'is it not so?' e.g., _n[vo] n[vo] icani qicaxeruru ca?_ 'do you hear me then?' _Moxi_[161] means 'ho there (_heus_),' but it is an elegant word; e.g., _moxi Padre sama_ 'ho there, Reverend Father.' _Iare_ also means 'ho there,' but with inferiors; e.g., _iare tar[vo] quaja to iieba_ 'saying "Ho there, Tar[=o]kaja."' _Iai_ means 'ho there' with very low people; e.g., _iai sochi ga motta mono va nani zo?_ 'hey! what is it that you bring?' _Ia_ has the same meaning; e.g., _ia vo tono bara domo va nani vo savagu zo?_ (128) 'hey! you soldiers and good men, why do you quarrel?' The particle _ai_ has the same meaning but it is placed after the sentence; e.g., _izzure mo mina qiqe ai_ (129) 'hey! all of you listen.'

The particles _ca_ and _zo_, as has been said above, are used as interrogatives. The particles _ia_ and _caia_ have the same function but they are more humble; e.g., _are va tare caia?_ 'who is he?', _core ia_[?] 'this?', _io fuqete tare ca va tazzuneô zo?_ (89v) 'when it becomes late at night, who will be able to visit?', _sore de ar[vo] ca to iú coto gia_ 'I said, "will it be this?"'

_No?_ asks for agreement; e.g., _gozar[vo] ca no?_ 'will he come?'[162] _mair[vo] to voxerareta no?_ [... _vôxerareta no?_] 'did he say that he will come?' _no Pedro dono?_ 'isn't that so, Peter?' _Na_[?] means the same thing, but it is used with inferiors; e.g., _s[vo] qiita na?_ 'didn't you hear so?' Sometimes, in a sentence containing _zo_, _baxi_, which is a dubitive particle (_particula dubitandi_), is placed; e.g., _nanto xita xisai de baxi gozaru zo?_ (122v)[163] 'for what reason did this happen?', _sate nanto iú voqiacu de baxi gozaru zo_[?] (123) 'what is the name of your guest?', _goiô baxi gozaru ca?_ 'isn't there something of use to you?'

_Io_ and _zo_ strengthen or give cadence to the sentence; e.g., _caita zo_ {164} 'he truly wrote,' _maitta io_ 'he certainly came,' _sono toqi vare_ (57 _va ichi dan varui tçucai vo xiraruite gozaru io_ [... _siaruite_ ...] (95) 'at that time I was following bad advice.' _Bacari_ means 'only, or in only one way,' _sore ni caguitte_ means 'that only,' _core ni caguirazu_ 'not only this.' _Bacari_ also means 'more or less'; e.g., _fiacu bacari_ 'there were a hundred,' _fiacunin bacari corosareta_ 'about one hundred men were killed.' _Nó_, _nóte_, _naqu xite_, and _naqute_ mean 'without'; e.g., _raxxi mo nó_ 'without reason or order,' _cacugo nó_ 'without any preparation.'