Chapter IV: Part III: Plant members in relation to environment. This part deals

with the organization of the plant body as a whole in its relation to environment, the organization of plant tissues with a discussion of the principal tissues and a descriptive synopsis of the same. This is followed by a complete study from a biological standpoint of the different members of the plant, their special function and their special relations to environment. The stem, root, leaf, flower, etc., are carefully examined and their ecological relations pointed out. This together with the study of physiology and representatives in the groups of plants forms a thorough basis for pure plant ecology, or the special study of vegetation in its relation to environment.

There is a study of the factors of environment or ecological factors, which in general are grouped under the physical, climatic, and biotic factors. This is followed by an analysis of vegetation forms and structures, plant formations and societies. Then in order are treated briefly forest societies, prairie societies, desert societies, arctic and alpine societies, aquatic societies, and the special societies of sandy, rocky, and marshy places.

_Acknowledgments._ The author wishes to express his gratefulness to all those who have given aid in the preparation of this work, or of the earlier editions of Elementary Botany; to his associates, Dr. E. J. Durand, Dr. K. M. Wiegand, and Professor W. W. Rowlee, of the botanical department, and to Professor B. M. Duggar of the University of Missouri, Professor J. C. Arthur of Purdue University, and Professor W. F. Ganong of Smith College, for reading one or more portions of the text; as well as to all those who have contributed illustrations.

_Illustrations._ The large majority of the illustrations are new (or are the same as those used in earlier editions of the author’s Elementary Botany) and were made with special reference to the method of treatment followed in the text. Many of the photographs were made by the author. Others were contributed by Professor Rowlee of Cornell University; Mr. John Gifford of New Jersey; Professor B. M. Duggar, University of Missouri; Professor C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska; Dr. M. B. Howe, New York Botanical Garden; Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the Bureau of Forestry; Mr. B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry; Professor Tuomey of Yale University; and Mr. E. H. Harriman, who through Dr. C. H. Merriam of the National Museum allowed the use of several of his copyrighted photographs from Alaska. To those who have contributed drawings the author is indebted as follows: to Professor Margaret C. Ferguson, Wellesley College; Professor Bertha Stoneman of Huguenot College, South Africa; Mr. H. Hasselbring of Chicago; Dr. K. Miyake, formerly of Cornell University and now of Doshisha College, Japan; and Professors Ikeno and Hirase of the Tokio Imperial University. The author is also indebted to Ginn & Co., Boston, for the privilege to use from his “First Studies of Plant Life” the following figures: 28, 29, 46, 48, 49, 56, 62, 66, 67, 87, 102, 103, 422-426, 429, 430, 438-440, 443, 444, 448, 449, 452, 472-475. A few others are acknowledged in the text.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, April, 1905.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I. PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER I. PAGE
PROTOPLASM. 1

CHAPTER II.
ABSORPTION, DIFFUSION, OSMOSE. 13

CHAPTER III.
HOW PLANTS OBTAIN WATER. 22

CHAPTER IV.
TRANSPIRATION, OR THE LOSS OF WATER BY PLANTS. 35

CHAPTER V.
PATH OF MOVEMENT OF WATER IN PLANTS. 48

CHAPTER VI.
MECHANICAL USES OF WATER. 56

CHAPTER VII.
STARCH AND SUGAR FORMATION. 60
1. The Gases Concerned. 60
2. Where Starch is Formed. 64
3. Chlorophyll and the Formation of Starch. 67

CHAPTER VIII.
STARCH AND SUGAR CONCLUDED; ANALYSIS OF PLANT SUBSTANCE. 73
1. Translocation of Starch. 73
2. Sugar, and Digestion of Starch. 75
3. Rough Analysis of Plant Substance. 79

CHAPTER IX.
HOW PLANTS OBTAIN THEIR FOOD, I. 81
1. Sources of Plant Food. 81
2. Parasites and Saprophytes. 83
3. How Fungi Obtain their Food. 86
4. Mycorhiza. 91
5. Nitrogen gatherers. 92
6. Lichens. 93

CHAPTER X.
HOW PLANTS OBTAIN THEIR FOOD, II. 97
Seedlings, 97
Digestion, 107
Assimilation 109

CHAPTER XI.
RESPIRATION. 110

CHAPTER XII.
GROWTH. 118

CHAPTER XIII.
IRRITABILITY. 125

PART II. MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE HISTORY OF REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS.

CHAPTER XIV.
SPIROGYRA. 136

CHAPTER XV.
VAUCHERIA. 142

CHAPTER XVI.
ŒDOGONIUM. 147

CHAPTER XVII.
COLEOCHÆTE. 153

CHAPTER XVIII.
CLASSIFICATION AND ADDITIONAL STUDIES OF THE ALGÆ. 158

CHAPTER XIX.
FUNGI: MUCOR AND SAPROLEGNIA. 177

CHAPTER XX.
FUNGI CONTINUED (“Rusts” Uredineæ). 187

CHAPTER XXI.
THE HIGHER FUNGI. 195

CHAPTER XXII.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FUNGI. 213

CHAPTER XXIII.
LIVERWORTS (Hepaticæ). 222
Riccia, 222
Marchantia. 226

CHAPTER XXIV.
LIVERWORTS CONTINUED. 231
Sporogonium of Marchantia. 231
Leafy-stemmed Liverworts. 236
The Horned Liverworts. 240
Classification of the Liverworts. 242

CHAPTER XXV.
MOSSES (Musci). 243
Classification of Mosses. 248

CHAPTER XXVI.
FERNS. 251

CHAPTER XXVII.
FERNS CONTINUED. 262
Gametophyte of Ferns. 262
Sporophyte. 268

CHAPTER XXVIII.
DIMORPHISM OF FERNS. 273

CHAPTER XXIX.
HORSETAILS. 280

CHAPTER XXX.
CLUB MOSSES. 284

CHAPTER XXXI.
QUILLWORTS (Isoetes). 289

CHAPTER XXXII.
COMPARISON OF FERNS AND THEIR RELATIVES. 292
Classification of the Pteridophytes. 295

CHAPTER XXXIII.
GYMNOSPERMS. 297

CHAPTER XXXIV.
FURTHER STUDIES ON GYMNOSPERMS. 311

CHAPTER XXXV.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE ANGIOSPERMS: TRILLIUM; DENTARIA. 318

CHAPTER XXXVI.
GAMETOPHYTE AND SPOROPHYTE OF ANGIOSPERMS. 325

CHAPTER XXXVII.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE NUCLEUS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
GAMETOPHYTE AND SPOROPHYTE. 340

PART III. PLANT MEMBERS IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PLANT. 349
I. Organization of Plant Members. 349
II. Organization of Plant Tissues. 356

CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEMS. 365
I. Erect Stems. 365
II. Creeping, Climbing, and Floating Stems. 369
III. Specialized Shoots and Shoots for Storage
of Food. 372
IV. Annual Growth and Winter Protection of
Shoots and Buds. 374

CHAPTER XL.
FOLIAGE LEAVES. 383
I. General Form and Arrangement of Leaves. 383
II. Protective Modifications of Leaves. 392
III. Protective Positions. 395
IV. Relation of Leaves to Light. 397
V. Leaf Patterns. 404

CHAPTER XLI.
THE ROOT. 410
I. Function of Roots. 410
II. Kinds of Roots. 415

CHAPTER XLII.
THE FLORAL SHOOT. 419
I. The Parts of the Flower. 419
II. Kinds of Flowers. 421
III. Arrangement of Flowers, or Mode of
Inflorescence. 426

CHAPTER XLIII.
POLLINATION. 433

CHAPTER XLIV.
THE FRUIT. 450
I. Parts of the Fruit. 450
II. Indehiscent Fruits. 451
III. Dehiscent Fruits. 452
IV. Fleshy and Juicy Fruits. 454
V. Reinforced, or Accessory, Fruits. 455
VI. Fruits of Gymnosperms. 456
VII. “Fruit” of Ferns, Mosses, etc. 457

CHAPTER XLV.
SEED DISPERSAL. 458

CHAPTER XLVI.
VEGETATION IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT. 464

CHAPTER XLVII.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 487

INDEX. 503