Chapter XLVII: Classification of the Angiosperms

Relation of Species, Genus, Family, Order, etc.

=929. Species.=—It is not necessary for one to be a botanist in order to recognize, during a stroll in the woods where the trillium is flowering, that there are many individual plants very like each other. They may vary in size, and the parts may differ a little in form. When the flowers first open they are usually white, and in age they generally become pinkish. In some individuals they are pinkish when they first open. Even with these variations, which are trifling in comparison with the points of close agreement, we recognize the individuals to be of the _same kind_, just as we recognize the corn plants, grown from the seed of an ear of corn, as of the same kind. Individuals of the same kind, in this sense, form a _species_. The white wake-robin, then, is a species.

But there are other trilliums which differ greatly from this one. The purple trillium (T. erectum) shown in fig. 495 is very different from it. So are a number of others. But the purple trillium is a species. It is made up of individuals variable, yet very like one another, more so than any one of them is like the white wake-robin.

=930. Genus.=—Yet if we study all parts of the plant, the perennial rootstock, the annual shoot, and the parts of the flower, we find a great resemblance. In this respect we find that there are several species which possess the same general characters. In other words, there is a relationship between these different species, a relationship which includes more than the individuals of one kind. It includes several kinds. Obviously, then, this is a relationship with broader limits, and of a higher grade, than that of the individuals of a species. The grade next higher than species we call _genus_. Trillium, then, is a genus. Briefly the characters of the genus trillium are as follows:

=931. Genus trillium.=—Perianth of six parts: sepals 3, herbaceous, persistent; petals colored. Stamens 6 (in two whorls), anthers opening inward. Ovary 3-loculed, 3-6-angled; stigmas 3, slender, spreading. Herbs with a stout perennial rootstock, with fleshy, scale-like leaves, from which the low annual shoot arises, bearing a terminal flower and 3 large netted-veined leaves in a whorl.

_Note._—In speaking of the genus the present usage
is to say trillium, but two words are usually employed
in speaking of the species, as Trillium grandiflorum,
T. erectum, etc.

=932. Genus erythronium.=—The yellow adder-tongue, or dogtooth violet (Erythronium americanum), shown in fig. 496, is quite different from any species of trillium. It differs more from any of the species of trillium than they do from each other. The perianth is of six parts, light yellow, often spotted near the base. Stamens are 6. The ovary is obovate, tapering at the base, 3-valved, seeds rather numerous, and the style is elongated. The flower stem, or scape, arises from a scaly bulb deep in the soil, and is sheathed by two elliptical-lanceolate, mottled leaves. The smaller plants have no flower and but one leaf, while the bulb is nearer the surface. Each year new bulbs are formed at the end of runners from a parent bulb. These runners penetrate each year deeper into the soil. The deeper bulbs bear the flower stems.

=933. Genus lilium.=—While the lily differs from either the trillium or erythronium, yet we recognize a relationship when we compare the perianth of six colored parts, the 6 stamens, and the 3-sided and long 3-loculed ovary.

=934. Family Liliaceæ.=—The relationship between genera, as between trillium, erythronium, and lilium, brings us to a still higher order of relationship, where the limits are broader than in the genus. Genera which are thus related make up the _family_. In the case of these genera the family has been named after the lily, and is the lily family, or _Liliaceæ_.

=935. Order, class, group.=—In like manner the lily family, the iris family, the amaryllis family, and others which show characters of close relationship are united into an _order_ which has broader limits than the family. This order is the lily order, or order _Liliales_. The various orders unite to make up the _class_, and the classes unite to form a _group_.

=936. Variations in usage of the terms class, order, etc.=—Thus, according to the system of classification adopted by some, the angiosperms form a _group_. The group angiosperms is then divided into two _classes_, the _monocotyledones_ and _dicotyledones_. (It should be remembered that all systematists do not agree in assigning the same grade and limits to the classes, subclasses, etc. For example, some treat of the angiosperms as a class, and the monocotyledons and dicotyledons as subclasses; while others would divide the monocotyledons and dicotyledons into classes, instead of treating each one as a class or as a subclass. Systematists differ also in usage as to the termination of the ordinal name; for example, some use the word _Liliales_ for _Liliifloræ_, in writing of the order.)

_A._ Cross-section of the stem of an oak tree thirty-seven years old, showing the annual rings. _rm_, the medullary rays; _m_, the pith (medulla). _B._ Cross-section of the stem of a palm tree, showing the scattered bundles.]

=937. Monocotyledones.=—In the monocotyledons there is a single cotyledon on the embryo; the leaves are parallel-veined; the parts of the flower are usually in threes; endosperm is usually present in the seed; the vascular bundles are usually closed, and are scattered irregularly through the stem as shown by a cross-section of the stem of a palm (fig. 497), or by the arrangement of the bundles in the corn stem (fig. 57). Thus a single character is not sufficient to show relationship in the class (nor is it in orders, nor in many of the lower grades), but one must use the sum of several important characters.

=938. Dicotyledones.=—In the dicotyledons there are two cotyledons on the embryo; the venation of the leaves is reticulate; the endosperm is usually absent in the seed; the parts of the flower are frequently in fives; the vascular bundles of the stem are generally open and arranged in rings around the stem, as shown in the cross-section of the oak (fig. 497). There are exceptions to all the above characters, and the sum of the characters must be considered, just as in the case of the monocotyledons.

=939. Taxonomy.=—This grouping of plants into species, genera, families, etc., according to characters and relationships is _classification_, or _taxonomy_.

To take Trillium grandiflorum for example, its position in the system, if all the principal subdivisions should be included in the outline, would be indicated as follows:

Group, Angiosperms.
Class, Monocotyledones.
Order, Liliales.
Family, Liliaceæ.
Genus, Trillium.
Species, grandiflorum.

In the same way the position of the toothwort would be indicated as follows:

Group, Angiosperms.
Class, Dicotyledones.
Order, Papaverales.
Family, Cruciferæ.
Genus, Dentaria.
Species, diphylla.

But in giving the technical name of the plant only two of these names are used, the genus and species, so that for the toothwort we say _Dentaria diphylla_, and for the white wake-robin we say _Trillium grandiflorum_.

=940. Kingdom and Subkingdom.=—Organic beings form altogether two kingdoms, the Animal Kingdom and the Plant Kingdom. The Plant Kingdom is then divided into a number of subkingdoms as follows: 1st, Subkingdom Thallophyta, the thallus plants, including the Algæ and Fungi; 2d, Subkingdom Bryophyta, the moss-like plants, including the Liverworts and Mosses; 3d, Subkingdom Pteridophyta, the fern-like plants, including Ferns, Lycopods, Equisetum, Isoetes, etc.; 4th, Subkingdom Spermatophyta, the seed plants, including Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Subkingdoms are divided into groups of lower order down to the classes. So there are subclasses, subfamilies or tribes, subgenera, and even subspecies. But taking the principal taxonomic divisions from the greater to the lesser rank, the order would be as follows:

Plant Kingdom.
Subkingdom, Spermatophyta.
Group (not used in a definite sense).
Class, Gymnospermæ.
Order, Pinales.
Family, Pinaceæ.
Genus, Pinus.
Species, strobus, or, in full,
Pinus strobus, the white pine.

Group Angiospermæ.

I. CLASS MONOCOTYLEDONES.

=941. Order Pandanales.=—Aquatic or marsh plants. The cattail flags (Typha) and the bur-reeds (Sparganium), each representing a family. The name of the order is taken from the tropical genus Pandanus (the screw-pine often grown in greenhouses).

=942. Order Naiadales.=—Aquatic or marsh herbs. Three families are mentioned here.

The pondweed family (Naiadaceæ), named after one genus, Naias. The largest genus is Potamogeton, the species of which are known as pondweeds. Ruppia occidentalis occurs in saline ponds in Nebraska, and R. maritima along the seacoast and in saline districts in the interior.

The water-plantain family (Alismaceæ) includes the water-plantain (Alisma) and the arrow-leaves (Sagittaria).

The tape-grass family (Vallisneriaceæ) includes the tape-grass, or eel-grass (the curious Vallisneria spiralis).

=943. Order Graminales.=—Two families.

The grass family (Gramineæ), the grasses and grains.

The sedge family (Cyperaceæ), the sedges.

=944. Order Palmales=, with one family, Palmaceæ, includes the palms, abundant in the tropics and extending into Florida. Cultivated in greenhouses.

=945. Order Arales.=

The arum family (Araceæ). Flowers in a fleshy spadix. Examples: Indian turnip (Arisæma), sweet-flag (Acorus), skunk-cabbage (Spathyema).

The duckweed family (Lemnaceæ). (Examples: Lemna, Spirodela, Wolffia. See paragraphs 51-53.)

=946. Order Xyridales=, from the genus Xyris, the yellow-eyed grass family (Xyridaceæ). Species mostly tropical, but a few in North America. Other examples are the pipewort family (Eriocaulaceæ, example, Eriocaulon septangulare), the pineapple family (Bromeliaceæ, example, the pineapple cultivated in Florida); the Florida moss or hanging moss (Tillandsia usneoides); the spiderwort family (Commelinaceæ), including the spiderwort (Tradescantia, several species in North America); the pickerel-weed family (Pontederiaceæ), including the genus Pontederia in borders of ponds and streams.

=947. Order Liliales.=—Some of the families are as follows:

The rush family (Juncaceæ, example, Juncus), with many species, plants of usually swamp habit.

The lily family (Liliaceæ, examples: Lilium, Allium = Onion, Erythronium, Yucca).

The iris family (Iridaceæ, examples: Iris, the blue-flag, fleur-de-lis, etc.).

The lily-of-the-valley family (Convallariaceæ, examples: lily-of-the-valley, Trillium, etc.)

The amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceæ, examples: Narcissus, the daffodil; Cooperia, in southwestern United States).

=948. Order Scitaminales.=—This order includes the large showy cultivated Canna of the canna family.

=949. Order Orchidales.= Example, the orchid family (Orchidaceæ) with Cypripedium, Orchis, etc.

II. CLASS DICOTYLEDONES.

SERIES 1. CHORIPETALÆ. Petals wanting (Apetalæ, or Archichlamydæ of some authors), or present and distinct from one another (Polypetalæ, or Metachlamydæ).

=950. Order Casuarinales=, confined to tropical seacoasts (example, Casuarina).

=951. Order Piperales= includes the lizard’s-tail family (Saururaceæ), Saururus cernuus, lizard’s-tail, in the eastern United States.

=952. Order Salicales.=—Shrubs or trees, flowers in aments. Includes the willows and poplars (Salix and Populus of the willow family, Salicaceæ).

=953. Order Myricales.=—Shrubs or small trees. Includes the sweet-gale (Myrica gale) in wet places in northern United States and British North America, Myrica cerifera forming thickets on sand dunes along the Atlantic coast, and the sweet-fern (Comptonia peregrina = C. asplenifolia) in the eastern United States in dry soil of hillsides.

=954. Order Leitneriales.=—Shrubs or trees. Includes the cork-wood, Leitneria floridana (Leitneriaceæ).

=955. Order Juglandales.=—Trees, staminate flowers in aments. The walnut family (Juglandaceæ, examples: walnut, butternut, etc. Juglans; hickory, Hicoria = Carya).

=956. Order Fagales.=—Trees and shrubs. Flowers in aments, or the pistillate ones with an involucre which forms a cup in fruit, as in the acorn of the oak.

The birch family (Betulaceæ, examples: Betula, birch; Corylus, hazelnut; Alnus, alder, etc.).

The beech family (Fagaceæ = Cupuliferæ, examples: Fagus, beech; Castanea, chestnut; Quercus, oak).

=957. Order Urticales.=—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Examples: the elm family (Ulmaceæ), the mulberry family (Moraceæ), and the nettle family (Urticaceæ).

=958. Order Santalales=, herbs or shrubs, mostly parasitic.

The mistletoe family (Loranthaceæ), with the American mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens), parasitic on deciduous trees in the South Atlantic, Central, and Gulf States (N. J. to Ind. Ter.).

The sandalwood family (Santalaceæ, example, the bastard toad-flax, Comandra umbellata), widely distributed in North America.

=959. Order Aristolochiales.=—Herbs or vines with heart-shaped or kidney-shaped leaves. The birthwort family (Aristolochiaceæ, example, Aristolochia serpentaria, the Virginia snake-root, eastern United States; wild ginger, or heart-leaf, Asarum canadense, eastern North America.)

=960. Order Polygonales.=—Examples: the buckwheat family (Polygonaceæ), including buckwheat (Fagopyrum), and numerous species of Polygonum, known as smartweed, water-pepper, tear-thumb, bindweed, knotweed, prince’s-feather, etc.

=961. Order Chenopodiales.=—Herbs. There are several families; one of the largest is the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceæ). The genus Chenopodium includes many species, known as goosefoot, lamb’s-quarters, etc. Here belong also the Russian thistle (Salsola tragus) and the saltwort (S. kali). The former is sometimes a troublesome weed in the central and western United States, naturalized from Europe. The latter occurs along the Atlantic coast on seabeaches. Atriplex occurs in salty or alkaline soil, also the glasswort (Salicornia herbacea), the bugseed (Corispermum). The pokeweed family (Phytolaccaceæ), the Amaranth family (Amaranthaceæ), the purslane family (Portulacaceæ, including the purslane or “pursley,” Portulaca oleracea, and the spring-beauty, Claytonia virginica), and the pink family (Caryophyllaceæ), belong here.

=962. Order Ranales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Examples are:

The water-lily family (Nymphæaceæ), with the yellow water-lily (Nymphæa advena = Nuphar advena) and the white water-lily (Castalia odorata = Nymphæa odorata).

The magnolia family (Magnoliaceæ), including the magnolias (Magnolia) and the tulip-tree (Liriodendron). The crowfoot family (Ranunculaceæ), with the buttercups, hepatica, clematis, etc.

=963. Order Papaverales.=—Mostly herbs. Examples are:

The poppy family (Papaveraceæ), including the opium or garden poppy (Papaver somniferum), the blood-root (Sanguinaria canadensis), the Dutchman’s-breeches (Bicuculla cucullaria = Dicentra cucullaria), squirrel’s-corn (Bicuculla canadensis = D. canadensis).

The mustard family (Cruciferæ), including the toothwort (Dentaria), shepherd’s-purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris = Capsella bursa-pastoris), the cabbage, turnip, etc.

=964. Order Sarraceniales.=—Insectivorous plants.

The pitcher-plant family (Sarraceniaceæ). Examples: Sarracenia purpurea, the pitcher-plant, in peat-bogs, northern and eastern North America.

The sundew family (Droseraceæ). Examples: Drosera rotundifolia, and other sundews.

=965. Order Rosales.=—Herbs, shrubs or trees. Seventeen families are given in the eastern United States. Examples:

The riverweed family (Podostemaceæ), containing the riverweed (Podostemon).

The saxifrage family (Saxifragaceæ), containing a number of species. Example, Saxifraga virginiensis.

The gooseberry family (Grossulariaceæ), including the wild and the cultivated gooseberry.

The witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceæ), including the witch-hazel (Hamamelis), in eastern North America, and the sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua).

The plane-tree family (Platanaceæ), with the plane-tree, or buttonwood (Platanus occidentalis), eastern North America. (Other species occur in western United States.)

The rose family (Rosaceæ), including roses, spiræas, raspberries, strawberries, the shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruticosa), etc.

The apple family (Pomaceæ), including the apple, mountain-ash, pear, June-berry (or shadbush, also service-berry), the hawthorns (Cratægus).

The plum family (Drupaceæ), including the cherries, plums, peaches, etc.

The pea family (Papilionaceæ), including the pea, bean, clover, vetch, lupine, etc., a very large family.

=966. Order Geraniales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Nine families in the eastern United States. Examples:

The geranium family (Geraniaceæ), with the cranesbill (Geranium maculatum) and others.

The wood-sorrel family (Oxalidaceæ), with the wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) and others.

The flax family (Linaceæ). Example, flax (Linum vulgaris).

The spurge family (Euphorbiaceæ). Plants with a milky juice, and curious, degenerate flowers. Examples: the castor-oil plant (Ricinus), the spurges (many species of Euphorbia).

=967. Order Sapindales.=—Mostly trees or shrubs. Twelve families in the eastern United States. Example:

The sumac family (Anacardiaceæ), containing the sumacs in the genus Rhus. Examples: the poison-ivy (R. radicans), a climbing vine, in thickets and along fences, in eastern United States. Sometimes trained over porches. The poison-oak (R. toxicodendron), a low shrub. Poison-sumac or poison-alder (R. vernix = R. venenata), sometimes called “thunderwood,” or dogwood, is a large shrub or small tree, very poisonous. The smoke-tree (Cotinus cotinoides) belongs to the same family, and is often planted as an ornamental tree. The maple family (Aceraceæ), including the maples (Acer).

The buckeye family (Hippocastanaceæ), including the horse-chestnut (Æsculus hippocastanum), much planted as a shade tree along streets. Also there are several species of buckeye in the same genus.

The jewelweed family (Balsaminaceæ), including the touch-me-not (Impatiens biflora and aurea) in moist places. The garden balsam (Imp. balsamea) also belongs here.

=968. Order Rhamnales.=—Shrubs, vines, or small trees. There are two families, the buckthorn (Rhamnaceæ), the grape family (Vitaceæ), including the grapes (Vitis), the American ivy (Parthenocissus quinquefolia = Ampelopsis quinquefolia), in woods and thickets, eastern North America, and much planted as a trailer over porches. The Japanese ivy (P. tricuspidata = A. veitchii) used as a trailer on the sides of buildings belongs here.

=969. Order Malvales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

The linden family (Tiliaceæ). Example, the basswood or American linden (Tilia americana.)

The mallow family (Malvaceæ), including the hollyhock, the mallows, rose of Sharon (Hibiscus), etc.

=970. Order Parietales=, with seven families in the eastern United States. The St. John’s wort (Hypericum) and the violets each represent a family. The violets (Violaceæ) are well-known flowers.

=971. Order Opuntiales.=—These include the cacti (Cactaceæ), chiefly growing in the dry or desert regions of America.

=972. Order Thymeleales=, with two families and few species.

=973. Order Myrtales.=—Land, marsh, or aquatic plants. The most conspicuous are in the evening primrose family (Onagraceæ), including the fireweeds, or willow herbs (Epilobium), and the evening primrose (Onagra biennis = Œnothera biennis).

=974. Order Umbellales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, flowers in umbels.

The ginseng family (Araliaceæ). This includes the spikenards and sarsaparillas in the genus Aralia, and the ginseng (or “sang”), Panax quinquefolium.

The carrot family (Umbelliferæ). This family includes the wild carrot (Daucus carota), the poison-hemlock (Cicuta), the cultivated carrot and parsnip, and a large number of other genera and species.

The dogwood family (Cornaceæ). The flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), abundant in eastern North America, is an example.

SERIES 2. GAMOPETALÆ (= Sympetalæ or Metachlamydæ). Petals partly or wholly united, rarely separate or wanting.

=975. Order Ericales.=—There are six families in eastern United States. Examples:

The wintergreen family (Pyrolaceæ), including the shin-leaf (Pyrola elliptica).

The Indian-pipe family (Monotropaceæ), with the Indian-pipe (Monotropa uniflora) and other humus saprophytes. (See paragraphs 182-191.)

The heath family (Ericaceæ). Examples: Labrador tea (Ledum), in bogs and swamps in northern North America. The azaleas, with several species widely distributed, are beautiful flowering shrubs, and many varieties are cultivated. The rhododendrons are larger with larger flower clusters, also beautiful flowering shrubs. R. maximum in the Alleghany Mountains and vicinity, from Nova Scotia to Ohio and Georgia. R. catawbiense, usually at somewhat higher elevations, Virginia to Georgia. The mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and other species rival the rhododendrons and azaleas in beauty. The trailing arbutus (Epigæa repens) in sandy or rocky woods is a well-known small trailing shrub in eastern North America. The sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum) is a tree with white racemes of flowers in August, and scarlet leaves in autumn. The spring or creeping wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) is a small shrub with aromatic leaves, and bright red spicy berries.

The huckleberry family (Vaccinaceæ) includes the huckleberries (example, Gaylussacia resinosa, the black or high-bush huckleberry, eastern United States), the mountain cranberry (Vitis-Idæa vitisidæa = Vaccinium vitisidæa) in the northern hemisphere; the bilberries and blueberries (of genus Vaccinium); the cranberries (examples: the large American cranberry, Oxycoccus macrocarpus and the European cranberry, Oxycoccus oxycoccus, in cold bogs of northern North America, the latter also in Europe and Asia).

=976. Order Primulales.=—Two families here. The primrose family (Primulaceæ) contains the loosestrifes (Steironema), star-flower (Trientalis), etc.

=977. Order Ebenales.=—Of the four families, the ebony family (Ebenaceæ) contains the well-known persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the storax family (Styracaceæ) with the silverbell, or snowdrop tree (Mohrodendron carolinum).

=978. Order Gentianales.=—Herbs, shrubs, vines, or trees. Six families in the United States.

The olive family (Oleaceæ) includes the common lilac (Syringa), the ash trees (Fraxinus), the privet (Ligustrum).

The gentian family (Gentianaceæ) among other genera includes the gentians (Gentiana).

The milkweed family (Asclepiadaceæ) contains plants mostly with a milky juice. Asclepias with many species is one of the most prominent genera.

=979. Order Polemoniales.=—Mostly herbs, rarely shrubs and trees. Fifteen families in the eastern United States.

The morning glory family (Convolvulaceæ) includes the bindweeds (Convolvulus), the morning glory (Ipomæa), etc.

The dodder family (Cuscutaceæ) includes the dodders, or “love-vines.” There are nearly thirty species in the United States. The stems are slender and twine around other plants upon which they are parasitic (see paragraph 179).

The phlox family (Polemoniaceæ). The most prominent genus is Phlox. Over forty species occur in North America.

The borage family (Boraginaceæ) includes the heliotrope (Heliotropium), the hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum), the forget-me-not (Myosotis), and others.

The vervain family (verbenaceæ) contains the verbenas.

The mint family (Labiatæ) contains the mints (Mentha), skull-cap (Scutellaria), dead-nettles (Lamium).

The potato family (Solanaceæ) includes the ground-cherry (Physalis), the nightshades (Solanum), the tomato (Lycopersicon), tobacco (Nicotiana).

The figwort family (Scrophulariaceæ) includes the common mullein (Verbascum), the monkey-flower (Mimulus), the toad-flax (Linaria), turtle’s-head (Chelone), and many other genera and species.

The bladderwort family (Lentibulariaceæ) includes the curious bog or aquatic plants with finely dissected leaves, and with bladders in which insects are caught (Utricularia).

The trumpet-creeper family (Bignoniaceæ) includes the trumpet-creeper (Bignonia), the catalpa tree, and others.

=980. Order Plantaginales= with one family (Plantaginaceæ) includes the plantains (Plantago).

=981. Order Rubiales= with three families is represented by the madder family (Rubiaceæ) with the bluets (Houstonia), the button-bush (Cephalanthus), the partridge-berry (Mitchella), the bedstraws (Galium), etc.

The honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceæ) with the elder (Sambucus), the arrowwoods and cranberry trees (Viburnum), the honeysuckles (Lonicera), etc.

=982. Order Valerianales= with two families includes the teasel family (Dipsacaceæ). Example, Fuller’s teasel (Dipsacus).

=983. Order Campanulales= with five families, the corolla usually gamopetalous.

The gourd family (Cucurbitaceæ) includes the pumpkin, squash, melon, and a few feral species. Example, the star-cucumber (Sicyos angulatus), in moist places in eastern and middle United States.

The bell-flower family (Campanulaceæ) includes the hare-bells or bell-flowers (Campanula), the lobelias (example, Lobelia cardinalis, the cardinal-flower), etc.

The chicory family (Cichoriaceæ) includes the chicory or succory (Cichorium intybus, known also as blue-sailors), the oyster-plant or salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius), the dandelion (Taraxacum taraxacum = T. densleonis), the lettuce (Lactuca), the hawkweed (Hieraceum), and others.

The ragweed family (Ambrosiaceæ) includes the ragweeds (Ambrosia), the cockle-bur (Xanthium), and others.

The thistle family (Compositæ) includes the thistle (Carduus), asters (Aster), goldenrods (Solidago), sunflowers (Helianthus), eupatoriums or joepye-weeds, thoroughworts (Eupatorium), cone-flowers or black-eyed Susans (Rudbeckia), tickseed (Coreopsis), bur-marigold or beggar-ticks or devil’s-bootjack (Bidens), chrysanthemums, etc.

INDEX.

Absorption, 13, 22-28
Aceraceæ, 497
Acorn, 451
Acorus, 493
Æcidiomycetes, 218
Æcidiospore, 189
Æsculus hippocastanum, 498
Agaricaceæ, 199, 219
Agaricus arvensis, 206
Agaricus campestris, 200-207
Akene, 451
Albumen, 98
Albuminous, 98, 108
Alder, 495
Algæ, 136-176
Algæ, absorption by, 22
Alismaceæ, 493
Alpine formation, 474
Alpine plant societies, 483
Amanita phalloides, 207, 208
Amaranth, 495
Amaryllidaceæ, 494
Aments, 429
American mistletoe, 495
Ampelopsis, 498
Ancylistales, 215
Andreales, 249
Andrœcium, 319, 419
Anemophilous, 435
Angiosperms, morphology of, 318-348;
classification, 487
Antheridiophore, 227
Antheridium, 144, 149, 155, 176, 223, 228,
240, 245, 246, 266, 287, 433
Anthesis, 429
Anthoceros, 240, 241
Anthocerotales, 242
Anthocerotes, 242
Apogamy, 346
Apogeotropic (ap″o-ge″o-trop´ic), 126
Apogeotropism (ap″o-ge-ot′ro-pism), 126
Apple, 456, 497
Apple family, 497
Aquatic formations, 475
Aquatic plant societies, 486
Araceæ, 493
Archegonia (ar-che-go′ni-a), 223, 229, 233, 241, 244-246,
267, 288, 291, 307, 308
Archegoniophore, 229
Archegonium, 433
Archesporium (ar″che-spo´ri-um), 235
Archidiales, 249
Arctic formation, 481
Aril, 457
Arisæma, 493
Arisæma triphyllum, 442, 443
Aristolochiales, 495
Arrow leaf, 492
Arum family, 493
Asclepias, 500
Asclepias cornuti, 462
Ascomycetes (as-co-my-ce′tes), 195-198, 216-218
Ascus, 190, 213
Ash of plants, 79, 80
Ash tree, 500
Aspidium acrostichoides, 253, 257
Assimilation, 67, 109
Aster, 502
Atriplex, 495
Auriculariales, 218
Autotrophic plants, 85
Azalea, 499
Azolla, 296

Bacteria, 164, 165
Bacteria, nitrite and nitrate, 83
Bacteriales, 164, 165
Bacteroid, 93
Bangiales, 175
Basidiomycetes (ba-sid″i-o-my-ce′tes), 199-208, 218
Basidium, 201, 213
Bast, 50-52
Batrachospermum, 171-173, 175
Bazzania, 25
Beard-grasses, 480
Bedstraws, 501
Beechnut, 452
Beet, osmose in, 15, 16, 17, 18
Begonia, 407
Bellflower, 501
Berry, 454, 455, 456
Betulaceæ, 495
Bicuculla, 496
Bidens, 458
Bignonia, 501
Bilberries, 500
Biotic factors, 466
Birch, 495
Bird’s-nest fungi, 220
Blackberry, 454
Black fungi, 198
Bladderwort, 501
Blasia, 164, 236
Bloodroot, 496
Bluets, 436, 437, 501
Boletus, 209
Boletus edulis, 209
Boraginaceæ, 500
Botrychium, 295
Botrydiaceæ, 162
Botrydium granulatum, 146, 162
Broom-sedge, 480
Brown algæ, 167-170
Bryales, 349
Buckeye family, 498
Buckthorn, 498
Buckwheat, 495
Buds, winter condition of, 374-377
Buffalo-grass, 480
Bug seed, 495
Bulb, 372
Bunch-grasses, 480
Butternut, 452, 494
Buttonbush, 501
Buttonwood, 497

Cacti, 395, 498
Callithamnion, 173
Calyptrogen, 361
Cambium, 50, 52, 358, 363
Campanula rotundifolia, 442, 444, 510
Campanulales, 501
Canna, 445-449, 494
Capsella bursa-pastoris, 496
Capsule, 453
Carbohydrate, 71, 75, 80, 90
Carbon dioxide, 62-67, 110-113
Cardinal-flower, 501
Carpogonium, 172, 176
Carrot family, 499
Caryophyllaceæ, 496
Caryopsis, 451
Cassia marilandica, 402
Cassiope, 395
Castalia odorata, 496
Castor-oil plant, 497
Catalpa, 501
Catkin, 428
Cattail-flag, 492
Caulidium, 371
Cedar apples, 194
Cell, 3;
artificial 20
Cell-sap, 3, 40
Ceratopteris thalictroides, 296
Chætophora, 151, 162
Chætophoraceæ, 162
Chara, 176
Charales, 176
Chemical condition of soil, 466
Chemosynthetic assimilation, 109
Chenopodiales, 495
Chenopods, 495
Chestnut, 452, 494
Chicory family, 502
Chlamydomonas, 159, 160
Chlamydospores, 180
Chloral hydrate, 65, 87
Chlorophyceæ, 158
Chlorophyll, 2, 67, 72
Chloroplast, 68, 69, 71
Christmas fern, 251-253
Chromoplast, 71
Chromosomes, 342-345
Chroococcaceæe, 163
Chrysanthemum, 502
Chytridiales, 215
Cichoriaceæ, 502
Cichorium intybus, 502
Clavaria botrytes, 212
Clavariaceæ, 210, 219
Claytonia virginica, 496
Cleistogamous, 435
Clematis virginiana, 462, 463, 496
Climatic factors, 466
Climatic formations, 470
Clostridium pasteurianum, 93
Clover, 497
Club mosses, 284, 289
Coccogonales, 163
Cocklebur, 502
Cold wastes, 474
Coleochætaceæ, 162
Coleochæte, 153-156, 226
Collenchyma, 356, 363
Comandra, 495
Compass plants, 409
Compositæ, 502
Comptonia asplenifolia, 494
Cone-fruit, 456
Confervoideæ, 162
Coniferæ, 316
Conjugation, 137, 141, 160, 162, 179
Convallariaceæ, 494
Cooperia, 494
Cordyceps, 218
Coreopsis, 502
Cork, 357, 363
Corm, 373
Cortex, 50
Corymb, 427
Cotyledon, 99-101
Cranberry, 500
Cratægus, 497
Crowfoot family, 496
Cruciferæ, 496
Cryptonemiales, 175
Cucurbitaceæ, 501
Culture formations, 470, 475
Cultures, water, 28, 29
Cup fungi, 199
Cupuliferæ, 495
Cuscuta, 83, 500
Cushion type of vegetation, 483
Cuticle, 43
Cyanophyceæ, 163
Cyatheaceæ, 295
Cycadales, 316
Cycas, 311, 312, 457
Cyclosis, 9, 10
Cyclosporales, 171
Cyme, 430, 432
Cyperaceæ, 493
Cypripedium, 443, 447, 494
Cystocarp, 174
Cystopteris bulbifera, 260
Cystopus, 215
Cytase, 92, 108
Cytisus, 445
Cytoplasm (cy′to-plasm), 5

Dacryomycetales, 219
Dahlia, 108
Dandelion, 502
Dasiphora fruticosa, 497
Daucus carota, 499
Dehiscence, 453
Dentaria, 322-324
Dentaria diphylla, 496
Dermatogen, 359
Desert formation, 473
Desert societies, 480
Desmodium, 458
Desmodium gyrans, 399
Diadelphous (di″a-del′phous), 425
Diageotropism (di″a-ge-ot′ro-pism), 126
Diaheliotropic (di″a-he″li-o-trop′ic), 127
Diaheliotropism (di″a-he″li-ot′ro-pism), 127
Diastase, 77, 78, 108, 116
Diatoms, 166
Dichogamous (di-chog′a-mous), 437, 442
Dicentra, 496
Dicotyledons, 494
Dictyophora, 219
Diffusion, 13-20
Digestion, 107, 108, 109
Dimorphism of ferns, 273-280
Diœcious, 435
Dionæa muscipula, 133
Dipodascus, 216
Dipsacus, 501
Discomycetes, 217
Dodder, 83, 84, 500
Dogwood, 499
Dothidiales, 218
Downy mildews, 185
Drosera rotundifolia, 133, 496
Drupaceæ, 497
Drupe, 454
Duckweeds, 26, 28
Dudresnaya, 175
Dunes, 484

Ebenales, 500
Ecological factors, 464
Ecology (sometimes written œcology), 464
Ectocarpus, 167
Edaphic formations, 475
Elaphomyces, 217, 218
Elder, 501
Elm family, 495
Elodea, 61-63
Embryo of ferns, 269-272
Embryo sac, 326-328
Empusa, 215
Endocarp, 450
Endomyces, 216
Endosperm, 103, 105, 107, 306, 309;
nucleus, 327, 329-334
Entomophthorales, 215
Enzyme, 92, 98, 116, 117
Epidermal system, 358
Epidermis, 358, 359, 363
Epigæa repens, 499
Epigynous, 425
Epilobium, 498
Epinastic (ep-i-nas′tic), 129
Epinasty (ep′i-nas-ty), 129
Epipactis, 444, 447
Epiphegus, 84
Epiphytes, 416
Equisetales, 296
Equisetineæ, 296
Equisetum, 280-283
Ericaceæ, 499
Ericales, 499
Erythronium, 493
Etiolated plants (e′ti-o-la″ted), 68
Euascomycetes, 217
Eubasidiomycetes, 219
Eupatorium, 403, 502
Euphorbiaceæ, 497
Eurotium oryzæ, 78
Evening primrose family, 498
Exalbuminous, 108
Exoascus, 217
Exobasidiales, 219
Exocarp, 450

Fagales, 494
Fehling’s solution, 75, 76
Ferment, 98, 108, 116
Ferns, 251-279, 292, 457;
classification of, 295
Fertilization, 307, 308, 328, 329, 140, 145,
169, 172, 174, 197, 421
Fibrovascular bundles, 49-54
Figwort family, 501
Filicales, 295
Filicineæ, 295
Fittonia, 404
Flagellates, 83, 165
Flax, 497
Flower cluster, 419
Flower, form of, 422;
parts of, 419;
union of parts, 424
Flowers, arrangements of, 426;
kinds of, 421
Follicle, 453
Forest, formations 471;
societies, 477
Forests, relation to rainfall, 479
Fresh-water societies, 486
Frond, 352
Fruit, 450-457;
parts of, 450
Frullania, 25, 236
Fucus, 168-170
Fungi, absorption by, 22;
classification of, 213-222;
nutrition of, 86-90;
respiration in, 115

Gametangium (gam″et-an′gi-um), 140
Gamete (gam′ete), 138, 139
Gametophore (gam′et-o-phore), 230, 248
Gametophyte (gam′et-o-phyte), 225, 226, 244, 245, 250, 262, 270,
283, 292, 294, 305, 314, 317,
336-339, 340-348, 434
Gamopetalous (gam″o-pet′a-lous), 424
Gamosepalous (gam-o-sep′a-lous), 424
Gas in plants, 60-64
Gasteromycetes, 219
Gemmæ, 179, 235
General formations, 470
Gentian, 500
Geotropism (ge-ot′ro-pism), 125-127, 410
Geraniaceæ, 497
Geraniales, 497
Geranium family, 497
Germ, 459
Gigartinales, 175
Gingko, 313-315, 457
Gingkoales, 316
Ginseng, 499
Glasswort, 495
Gleicheniaceæ, 295
Glucose, 108. See sugar.
Gnetales, 316
Gonidia, 118, 143, 172, 174, 178-184
Gonidiangium (go″nid-an′gi-um), 178
Gonidium, 213
Gooseberry, 496
Goosefoot family, 495
Gracilaria, 173, 174, 175
Graminales, 492
Gramineæ, 492
Grape, 498
Grass family, 492
Grassland formation, 471
Green algæ, 158
Growth, 118-124, 380
Gulfweed, 170
Gymnosperms, 311, 456
Gymnosporangium, 194
Gynœcium, 320, 419, 451, 452
Gyrocephalus, 219

Halophytes, 468
Harpochytrium, 214, 215
Haustorium, 87, 88
Hawkweed, 502
Hawthorn, 497
Hazelnut, 452, 495
Head, 428
Heart-leaf, 495
Heath family, 499
Heliotrope, 500
Heliotropism (he-li-ot′ro-pism), 127-131, 133, 397
Helvellales, 217
Hemiascomycetes, 216
Hemibasidiomycetes, 218
Hepaticæ, 242
Heterospory (het″er-os′po-ry), 434
Heterothallic, 180
Heterotrophic plants, 85
Hickory, 494
Hickory-nut, 452
Hilum, 101, 102
Hippocastanaceæ, 498
Holdfasts, 418
Hollyhock, 498
Homothallic, 180
Honeysuckle, 501
Hormogonales, 163
Horse-chestnut, 498
Horsetails, 280-283
Houstonia cœrulea, 437
Huckleberry, 499
Humus saprophytes, 85, 91
Hybridization, 338
Hydnaceæ, 210, 219
Hydnum coralloides, 210
Hydnum repandum, 211
Hydrocarbon, 75
Hydrodictyaceæ, 161
Hydrophytes, 468
Hydropterales, 295
Hydrotropism (hy-drot′ro′pism), 133, 134, 412
Hygrophytes, 468
Hymeniales, 219
Hymenogastrales, 219
Hymenomycetes, 219
Hymenomycetineæ, 219
Hymenophyllaceæ, 295
Hypericum, 498
Hypocotyl (hy′po-co″tyl), 101
Hypocreales, 217
Hypogenous, 425
Hyponastic (hy-po-nas′tic), 129
Hyponasty (hy′po-nas-ty), 129
Hysteriales, 217

Impatiens, 498
Impatiens fulva, 460
Indian-pipe, 499
Indian turnip, 493
Indusium, 252
Inflorescence, 426
Insectivorous plants, 133, 496
Integument, 304
Intramolecular respiration, 113, 114
Inulase, 108
Inulin, 108, 417
Iodine, 65
Ipomœa, 500
Iridaceæ, 493
Iris, 493
Irritability, 125-135
Isoetales, 296
Isoetes, 289-291, 292
Isoetineæ, 296
Ivy, 498

Jack-in-the-pulpit, 373
Jewelweed, 498
Juglandales, 494
June-berry, 497
Jungermanniales, 242

Kalmia latifolia, 444
Karyokinesis, 341-344
Kelps, 168
Kingdom, 492

Labiatæ, 423, 501
Laboulbeniales, 218
Labrador tea, 499
Lactuca canadensis, 460
Lactuca scariola, 409, 460, 461
Lagenidium, 214, 215
Laminaria, 168, 169
Lamium, 424, 501
Larch, 367
Laurel, 499
Leaf patterns, 404
Leathesia difformis, 168
Leaves, form and arrangement, 383-391;
function of, 387;
protective modifications of, 392;
protective positions, 395;
reduction of surface, 394;
relation to light, 397;
structure of, 40-43, 131, 391, 393
Legumes, 92, 93, 453
Leguminosæ (= Papilionaceæ), 396, 399
Leitneria floridana, 494
Leitneriales, 494
Lemanea, 171, 173, 175, 492
Lemna, 418
Lemna trisulca, 26, 27
Lenticel, 357, 358
Lepiota naucina, 208
Lettuce, 502
Leucoplast, 71
Lichens, 86, 93-95, 220, 221
Light, 465
Liliaceæ, 490, 493
Liliales, 490, 493
Lilium, 489-493
Linaria vulgaris, 501
Linden, 498
Linum vulgaris, 497
Lipase, 108
Liquidambar, 496
Liriodendron, 496
Live-forever, 394
Liverworts, 222-239;
absorption by, 23-25;
classification of, 242
Lobelia, 501
Lupinus perennis, 353
Lycoperdales, 220
Lycopodiaceæ, 296
Lycopodiales, 296
Lycopodiineæ, 296
Lycopodium, 284-286

Macrosporangium, 94, 302, 304, 311, 312, 321
Macrospore, 287, 290, 326-328, 434
Magnolia, 496
Mallow family, 498
Malvales, 498
Maple family, 497
Marchantia, 24, 226-236
Marchantiales, 242
Marine plant societies, 486
Marratiales, 295
Marsilia, 370
Marsiliaceæ, 296
Matoniaceæ, 295
Medicago denticulata, 92
Medulla, 50
Members of the flower, 335
Members of the plant, 349-353
Meristem, 359
Mesocarp, 450
Mesophytes, 467
Microsporangia, 294, 299
Microspore, 287, 290, 299, 312, 435
Microsporophylls, 299, 320, 420
Milkweed family, 500
Mimosa, 132, 396
Mimulus, 501
Mint family, 501
Mistletoe, 84, 495
Mitchella, 501
Mixotrophic plants, 85
Mnium, 243-246
Molds, nutrition of, 86-90
Molds, water, 181
Monadelphous, 424
Monoblepharidales, 215
Monoblepharis, 215
Monocotyledons, 490, 492
Monœcious, 435
Monotropa uniflora, 499
Morchella, 198, 199
Morel, 198, 199
Morning-glories, 500
Mosaics, 405
Mosses, 243-248, 457;
absorption by, 25;
classification of, 248
Mucor, 6, 7, 15, 118, 119, 177-180, 215
Mucorales, 215
Mulberry, 495
Mullein, 366, 394, 501
Mushrooms, 199-208
Mustard family, 496
Mutation, 338
Mutualism, 95
Mycelium, 6, 86-90
Mycetozoa, 213, 214
Mycorhiza, 86, 91, 92, 217
Myosotis, 500
Myrica cerifera, 494
Myrica gale, 494
Myricales, 494
Myriophyllum, 403
Myrtales, 498
Myxobacteriales, 165
Myxomycetes, 83, 213, 214

Naiadaceæ, 492
Naiadales, 492
Naias, 492
Nemalion, 171, 172, 175
Nemalionales, 175
Nettle, 495
Nicotiana, 501
Nidulariales, 220
Nitella, 8, 9, 176
Nitrobacter, 83
Nitrogen, 92, 93
Nitromonas, 83
Nostocaceæ, 164
Nucellus, 304
Nucleus, 3, 4;
morphology of, 340-345
Nuphar advena, 496
Nutation, 123, 124
Nymphæa odorata, 496

Oak, 495
Oak family, 495
Œdogoniaceæ, 162
Œdogonium, 147-151, 350
Œnothera biennis, 498
Œnothera gigas, 338
Œnothera lamarkiana, 338
Olpidium, 214, 215
Onagar biennis, 498
Onagraceæ, 498
Onoclea sensibilis, 254, 273-278
Oogonium, 144, 150, 155
Oomycetes, 214, 215
Ophioglossales, 295
Ophioglossum, 295
Opuntiales, 498
Orchidaceæ, 494
Orchidales, 494
Orchids, 442
Oscillatoriaceæ, 163
Osmosis, 13-20
Osmundaceæ, 295
Ostrich fern, 279
Ovule, 302, 321, 334, 421
Oxalis, 497
Oxycoccus, 500
Oxydendrum arboreum, 501
Oxygen, 63, 110-113

Palisade cells, 41, 43
Palmaceæ, 493
Palmales, 493
Palms, 408
Pandanales, 492
Pandanus, 492
Pandorina, 160, 350
Panicle, 427
Papaverales, 496
Papilionaceæ, 423, 497
Parasites, 83, 84, 86
Parasitic fungi, nutrition of, 86-90
Parenchyma, 50, 356, 363
Parietales, 498
Parkeriaceæ, 296
Parmelia, 96
Parthenogenesis, 184
Partridge-berry, 501
Pea, 497
Pea family, 497
Pear, 456
Pediastrum, 161
Pellia, 164
Pellonia, 405
Peltigera, 94, 95
Pepo, 456
Pericycle, 360
Peridineæ, 166
Perigynous, 425
Perisperm, 331, 332
Perisporiales, 217
Peronospora, 183, 215
Peronosporales, 215
Persimmon, 500
Pezizales, 217
Phacidiales, 217
Phæophyceæ, 167
Phæosporales, 171
Phallales, 219
Phloem, 50-52, 360, 361, 363
Phlox family, 500
Phoradendron flavescens, 495
Photosynthesis, 67, 68, 70, 117
Phycomycetes (Phy″co-my-ce′tes), 214, 215
Phyllidium, 371
Phylloclades, 373, 395
Phyllotaxy, 375, 384
Physical condition of soil, 465
Physical factors, 465
Phytolaccaceæ, 495
Phytomyxa leguminosarum, 92
Phytophthora, 182, 184, 215
Pickerel-weed, 493
Pilularia, 296
Pinales, 216
Pine, white, 297-310
Piperales, 494
Pitcher-plant, 496
Pith, 50
Plant food, sources of, 81
Plant formations, 496
Plant substance, analysis of, 79, 80
Plantaginales, 501
Plantago, 501
Plasmolysis (plas-mol′y-sis), 19
Plasmopara, 183, 215
Plectascales, 217
Plectobasidiales, 220
Pleurococcaceæ, 161
Pleurococcus, 161
Plum family, 497
Plumule, 99
Podostemon, 496
Poison-hemlock, 499
Poison-ivy, 497
Poison-oak, 497
Poisonous mushrooms, 207, 208
Poison-sumac, 497
Pokeweed, 495
Polemoneales, 500
Pollen grain, 299, 305
Pollination, 303, 304, 420, 430, 433-449
Pollinium, 420
Polygonales, 495
Polygonum, 495
Polypodiaceæ, 296
Polyporaceæ, 209, 219
Polyporus, 209, 210
Polyporus mollis, 92
Polyporus sulphureus, 209
Pomaceæ, 497
Pondweeds, 492
Poppy, 496
Porella, 237
Portulaca, 495
Potamogeton, 492
Potato, 501
Powdery mildews, 195-198, 217
Primrose, 498, 500
Primula, 438
Primulales, 500
Procarp, 172, 174, 175
Progeotropism (pro″ge-ot′ro-pism), 126
Promycelium (pro″my-ce′li-um), 192
Proterandrous, 441, 442
Proterandry, 444
Proterogenous, 441, 442
Proterogeny, 440
Prothallium, 265, 287, 288, 291, 292, 304, 305,
311, 325, 328, 335, 433, 434
Protoascales, 216
Protoascomycetes, 216
Protobasidiomycetes, 218
Protococcoideæ, 158, 162
Protodiscales, 217
Protomyces, 216
Protonema (pro″to-ne′ma), 248, 264
Protoplasm, 1-12, 42-43, 342;
movement of, 7-11
Psilotaceæ, 296
Pteridophytes, 295, 434
Pteris cretica, 346
Puccinia, 187
Puff-balls, 220
Pumpkin, 501
Purslane, 495
Pyrenoid, 2, 3
Pyrenomycetes, 217
Pyrola, 499
Pyxidium, 453

Quercus, 495
Quillworts, 289-291
Quince, 456

Raceme, 427
Radicle, 99
Ragweed, 502
Rainy-season flora, 481
Ranales, 496
Ranunculaceæ, 496
Raspberry, 454, 455
Red algæ, 171, 174;
uses of, 175
Reproduction, 137, 143, 149, 154, 155, 179, 185, 186
Respiration, 110-116, 117
Rhamnales, 498
Rhizoids, 24-26
Rhizome, 354
Rhizomorph (rhi′zo-morph), 89
Rhizophidium, 214, 215
Rhizopus, 177-180, 215
Rhododendron, 499
Rhodomeniales, 175
Rhodophyceæ, 171
Rhus radicans, 416, 497
Riccia, 23, 164, 222-226
Ricinus, 497
Riverweed, 496
Root, function of, 410-418
Root hairs, absorption by, 19, 30, 32
Root hairs, action on soil, 82
Root pressure, 33, 34, 45
Root, structure of, 30, 361, 362
Root-tubercles, 92
Roots, kinds of, 415
Rosaceæ, 497
Rosales, 496
Rose family, 497
Rosette, 405
Rosette plants, 483
Rubiales, 501
Rudbeckia, 502
Rusts, 187-194

Salicaceæ, 494
Salix, 494
Salsify, 502
Salviniaceæ, 296
Samara, 451
Sandalwood, 495
Sanguinaria, 496
Santalales, 495
Sap, rise of, 53, 54
Sapindales, 497
Saprolegnia, 181-184
Saprolegniales, 215
Saprophytes, 83-85
Sargassum, 170
Sarraceniales, 496
Sarsaparilla, 499
Saxifrage, 496
Schizæaceæ, 295
Schizocarp, 451
Schizomycetes, 164
Schizophyceæ, 163
Sclerenchyma, 356-357, 361, 363
Scouring rush, 282
Screw-pine, 409, 492
Scrophulariaceæ, 501
Sedge family, 492
Seed, dispersal of, 458-463
Seed plants, 338
Seed, structure of, 98, 102
Seedlings, 97-107
Seeds, 330-334
Selaginella, 286-288, 292
Selaginellaceæ, 296
Sensitive fern, 273
Sensitive plants, 132, 396, 399
Sexual organs, 144, 147
Shadbush, 497
Shepherd’s-purse, 496
Shoot, floral, 419, 432
Shoots, 353-355;
types of, 361-373;
winter condition of, 374-377
Sieve tissue, 358, 363
Sieve tubes, 52, 53
Silique, 453
Silk-cotton tree, 417
Silver bell, 500
Siphoneæ, 146, 162
Skunk’s cabbage, 439-442
Slime molds, 83
Smoke-tree, 497
Societies, 475
Solanum, 501
Solidago, 502
Sourwood, 499
Spadix, 428
Spartium, 446
Spathyema fœtida, 438, 493
Spermagonia, 190
Spermatophytes, 338
Sphacelaria, 168
Sphærella lacustris, 158, 159
Sphærella nivalis, 158, 350
Sphæriales, 218
Sphagnales, 248
Sphagnum, 164
Spiderwort, 11, 493
Spike, 428
Spirodela polyrhiza, 27
Spirogyra, 1-5, 13, 14, 60, 72, 136-140, 350
Sporangia, 178-182
Sporangium, 253-258, 281, 290
Spores, 225, 256-258, 263, 264, 281
Sporocarp, 173
Sporogonium (spo″ro-go′ni-um), 224, 231, 233, 234, 237, 238,
239, 241, 246, 247, 248
Sporophyll, 274, 281, 292
Sporophyte (spo′ro-phyte), 225, 226, 232, 234, 237-239, 241, 242,
250, 261, 268, 270, 283, 292, 294, 314,
315, 317, 336-339, 340-348 434
Spurge family, 497
Squash, 501
Staminodium, 446
Starch, formation of, 68, 70-74;
changed to sugar, 77, 78;
translocation of, 73;
digestion of, 75
Stems, types of, 365-373
Stems, woody, structure of, 381-382
Stoma (pl. stomata) (sto′ma-ta), 42-44, 46
Strawberry, 455, 497
Sugar, test for, 75, 76
Sumac, 497
Sundew, 133, 496
Sunflower, 399-401, 502
Sweet gum, 496
Symbiosis, 85, 86, 92-95
Synergids (syn´er-gids), 327, 330
Syngenœsious, 424
Synthetic assimilation, 67

Tape-grass, 493
Taraxacum densleonis, 502
Teasel, 501
Telegraph-plant, 399
Teleutospore, 188
Temperature, 134, 135, 465
Tetrasporaceæ, 161
Tetraspores, 173, 174
Thallophytes, 352
Thallus, 352
Thelephoraceæ, 219
Thistle family, 502
Thunderwood, 497
Thyrsus, 427
Tilia, 498
Tillandsia, 493
Tissue, tensions of, 57-59
Tissues, classification of, 363, 364;
kinds of, 356-359;
organization of, 356-362
Toad-flax, 501
Tomato, 501
Tradescantia, 493
Tragopogon, 502
Trailing arbutus, 499
Trametes pini, 90
Transpiration, 35-46
Tremellales, 218, 219
Triadelphous, 425
Trillium, 318-322, 494
Trumpet-creeper, 501
Tuberales, 217
Tubers, 373
Tundra, 481
Turgescence, 14, 15
Turgor, 20;
restoration of, 56, 57
Typha, 493

Ulmaceæ, 495
Ulmus americana, 495
Ulothrix, 162
Ulotrichaceæ, 162
Ulvaceæ, 162
Umbel, 428
Umbellales, 498
Uredinales, 218
Uredineæ, 187-194, 218
Uredospore, 189
Uromyces caryophyllinus, 87
Urticales, 495
Ustilaginales, 218
Ustilagineæ, 218
Utricularia, 501

Vaccinium, 499
Vacuoles, 7, 8
Valerianales, 501
Vallisneria spiralis, 493
Variation, 338
Vascular tissue, 358, 363
Vaucheria, 142-146
Vaucheriaceæ, 162
Vegetation types, 464
Venus fly-trap, 133
Verbascum, 501
Verbena, 501
Vessels, 52, 53
Vetch, 92, 497
Viburnum, 501
Vicia sativa, 459
Viola cucullata, 436
Violaceæ, 498
Virgin’s bower, 462, 463
Viscum album, 84
Vitaceæ, 498
Volvocaceæ, 158

Walnut, 452, 494
Water, 465;
flow of, in plants, 53, 54
Water-lilies, 496
Water-plantain, 493
White pine, 396
Wild carrot, 499
Willow family, 494
Wind, 471
Wintergreen, 499;
leaf of, 43
Witch-hazel, 496
Wolffia, 28
Woodland formation, 470

Xerophytes, 467
Xylem, 50, 52, 360, 361, 363
Xylogen, 92
Xyridales, 493

Yeast, 216;
fermentation of, 115, 116
Yucca, 480, 493

Zamia, 313, 316, 457
Zoogonidia, 143, 149, 178-184
Zoospore, 149, 154
Zygomycetes, 215
Zygospore, 2, 138-140, 157, 160, 179, 180
Zygote (zy′gote), 138, 179

TWO NOTABLE NATURE BOOKS.

FERNS

A Manual for the Northeastern States. By C. E. WATERS,
Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins). With Analytical Keys Based
on the Stalks. _With over 200 illustrations_ from
original drawings and photographs. 362 pp. Square
8vo. Boxed. $3.00 _net_. (By mail, $3.34.)

A popular, but thoroughly scientific book, including
all the ferns in the region covered by Britton’s
Manual. Much information is also given concerning
reproduction and classification, fern photography, etc.

PROF. L. M. UNDERWOOD, OF COLUMBIA:
“It is really more scientific than one would
expect from a work of a somewhat popular nature.
The photographs are very fine, very carefully
selected and will add much to the text. I do not
see how they could be much finer.”

THE PLANT WORLD:
“This book is likely to prove the leading popular
work on ferns. The majority of the illustrations
are from original photographs; in respect to this
feature, it can be confidently asserted that _no
finer examples of fern photography have ever been
produced_.... May be expected to prove of permanent
scientific value, as well as to satisfy a want
which existing treatises have but imperfectly
filled.”

MUSHROOMS

Edible, Poisonous Mushrooms, etc. By Prof. GEO. F. ATKINSON,
of Cornell.

With recipes for cooking by Mrs. S. T. RORER, and
the chemistry and toxicology of mushrooms, by J.
F. CLARK. With 230 illustrations from photographs,
including fifteen colored plates. 320pp. 8vo. $3.00
_net_ (by mail, $3.23).

Among the additions in this second edition are ten
new plates, chapters on the “Uses of Mushrooms,” and on
the “Cultivation of Mushrooms,” illustrated by several
flash-light photographs.

EDUCATIONAL REVIEW:
“It would be difficult to conceive of a more
attractive and useful book, nor one that is
destined to exert a greater influence in the study
of an important class of plants that have been
overlooked and avoided simply because of ignorance
of their qualities, and the want of a suitable
book of low price. In addition to its general
attractiveness and the beauty of its illustrations,
it is written in a style well calculated to win the
merest tyro or the most accomplished student of the
fungi.... These clear photographs and the plain
descriptions make the book especially valuable for
the amateur fungus hunter in picking out the edible
from the poisonous species of the most common
kinds.”

THE PLANT WORLD:
“This is, without doubt, the most important and
valuable work of its kind that has appeared in this
country in recent years.... No student, either
amateur or professional, can afford to be without
it.”

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY,
NEW YORK. (xii, ’03). CHICAGO.

=BRITTON’S MANUAL OF THE FLORA OF THE
NORTHERN STATES AND CANADA.=

By Director N. L. BRITTON
of the New York Botanical Garden.
1080 pp. 8vo. $2.25, net.

A comprehensive manual of over a thousand pages, containing
about 4,500 descriptions, probably one-third more than any other.
It is designed to meet modern requirements and outline modern
conceptions of the science. It is based on _An Illustrated
Flora_, prepared by Prof. Britton in co-operation with Judge
Addison Brown. The text has been revised and brought up to
date, and much of novelty has been added. All illustrations are
omitted, but specific reference has been made to all of the 4,162
figures in the _Illustrated Flora_.

“It is the most complete and reliable work that ever appeared
in the form of a flora of this region, and for the first time we
have a manual in which the plant descriptions are drawn from the
plants themselves, and do not represent compiled descriptions
made by the early writers.”—Prof. D. M. Underwood of Columbia.

“This work will at once take its place as the standard manual
of the region that it covers. It is far superior to any other
work of its class ever published in America.”—Prof. Conway
MacMillan of University of Minnesota.

“This book must at once find its way into the schools and
colleges, to which it may be commended for the students in
systematic botany.”—Prof. Chas. E. Bessey in “Science.”

“It is nothing if it is not compact; it is nothing if it is
not up to date; it is nothing if it is not the work of a master.
What more can be said, save that the more it is used the greater
the appreciation by the plant-lovers in the region which it
covers.”—Prof. Byron D. Halsted of Rutgers College.

“The work is well done; and as it is the only volume which
gives in a way suitable for students the present state of
the science, it cannot fail to take its place as a standard
work.”—Prof. George Macloskie of Princeton.

“I regard the book as one that we cannot do without and one
that will henceforth take its place as a necessary means of
determination of the plant species within its range.”—Prof. V.
M. Spalding of University of Michigan.

“An exceedingly valuable contribution to our botanical
literature.... It is convenient to handle, and the low price will
help to give it a large circulation.”—Prof. T. J. Burrill of the
University of Illinois.

HENRY HOLT & CO.
=29 West 23d Street, New York=
=378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago=

VIII, ’05

CHAMPLIN’S YOUNG FOLKS’
Cyclopædia of Natural History

By J. D. CHAMPLIN and F. A. LUCAS

With over 800 illustrations. 725 pp. $2.50

A whole “nature library” about animals prepared by
experts. Scientific facts are presented in simple
language, and are enlivened by anecdotes, personal
experiences, and references to history, art, and
literature.

The illustrations are not only superior as animal
pictures, but are genuinely illustrative, since they
show the creature in its natural surroundings and
characteristic action.

Extinct animals are fully treated, because these
strange forms are fascinating to children, and
because they illustrate the derivation of such
familiar living animals as birds, horses, and dogs.

“A full menagerie of all sorts of animals, with a
multitude of pictures.... A wonderful exhibition,
and the story of each individual is interesting
and calculated to stimulate the youthful mind in
research.... Pictures carefully reproduced, so that
they represent the creatures in their real forms and
proportions.”—_Brooklyn Eagle._

CHAMPLIN’S YOUNG FOLKS’
Cyclopædia of Literature and Art

With 270 illustrations. 604 pp. 8vo. $2.50

Brief accounts of the great books, buildings,
statues, pictures, operas, symphonies, etc.

“Few poems, plays, novels, pictures, statues, or
fictitious characters that children—or most of
their parents—of our day are likely to inquire
about will be missed here.... Mr. Champlin’s
judgment seems unusually sound—will be welcome and
useful.”—_Nation._

“Every schoolboy should have it on his study
table.... The range of the volume is very wide, for
besides those items of classical knowledge which
constitute the average school encyclopædia, we have
brief descriptions given of modern books, poems,
inventions, pictures, and persons about which
the lad of the period should be acquainted....
The pictures in the volume are varied and truly
illustrative. Old pictures and sculpture are
presented in the usual line of drawings, but modern
scenes and buildings are pictured through excellent
half-tone reproductions of photographs.”—_N. Y.
Times Saturday Review._

Earlier Volumes of Champlin’s Young Folks’ Cyclopædia.
With numerous illustrations. 8vo. $2.50 each.

COMMON THINGS. PERSONS and PLACES.
GAMES and SPORTS.

⁂ _12-page circular, with sample pages of Champlin’s Young
Folks’ Cyclopædias and his other books, free._

HENRY HOLT & CO.
=29 West 23d Street, New York=
=378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago=

VIII, ’06

AMERICAN SCIENCE SERIES

_All prices are_ NET _unless marked_
RETAIL. _Details of the books will be found in
Henry Holt & Co.’s Educational Catalogue, free on application._

=Physics.= By Prof. GEORGE F. BARKER,
University of Pennsylvania.
_Advanced Course._ 902 pp. 8vo. $3.50

=Chemistry.= By Prest. IRA REMSEN,
Johns Hopkins University.
Chemistry. _Advanced Course._ 850 pp. 8vo. 2.80
College Chemistry, xx + 669 pp. 8vo. 2.00
Chemistry. _Briefer Course._
(_New Edition_, 1901.) 435 pp. 12mo. 1.10
Chemistry. _Elementary Course._ 272 pp. 12mo. 80c.
Laboratory Manual (_to Elementary Course_).
196 pp. 12mo. 40c.
Chemical Experiments. By Prof. REMSEN
and Dr. W. W. RANDALL. (_For Briefer
Course._) _No_ blank pages for notes.
158 pp. 12mo. 50c.

=Astronomy.= By Prof. SIMON NEWCOMB
of Johns Hopkins and EDWARD S. HOLDEN,
late Director of the Lick Observatory, California.
_Advanced Course._ 512 pp. 8vo. 2.00
The same. _Briefer Course._ 352 pp. 12mo. 1.12
The same. _Elementary Course._
By E. S. HOLDEN, 446 pp. 12mo. 1.20

=Geology.= By Profs. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN
and ROLLIN D. SALISBURY,
Univ. of Chicago. Vol. I., 684 pp., $4.00.
Vol. II. [_In press._]

=General Biology.= By Prof. W. T. SEDGWICK,
Mass. Institute of Technology,
and Prof. E. B. WILSON, Columbia Univ.
_Revised and Enlarged._ 231pp. 8vo. 1.75

=Botany.= By Prof. C. E. BESSEY,
Univ. of Nebraska.
_Advanced Course._ 611 pp. 8vo. 2.20
The same. _Briefer Course._ 356 pp. 1.12

=Zoology.= By Prof. A. S. PACKARD, Jr.,
Brown University.
_Advanced Course._ 722 pp. 8vo. 2.40
The same. _Briefer Course._ 338 pp. 1.12
The same. _Elementary Course._ 290 pp. 12mo. 80c.

=The Human Body.= By H. NEWELL MARTIN,
sometime professor in the Johns Hopkins University.
_Advanced Course._ 685 pp. 8vo.
(Copies without chapter on Reproduction sent
when specially ordered.) 2.50
The same. _Briefer Course._ (_Entirely
new edition, revised by Prof. G. Wells Fitz
of Harvard._) 408 pp. 12mo. 1.20
The same. _Elementary Course._ 261 pp. 12mo. 75c.
The Human Body and the Effects of Narcotics.
261 pp. 12mo. 1.20

=Psychology.= By Prof. WILLIAM JAMES
of Harvard.
_Advanced Course._ 689 + 704 pp. 8vo. 2vols. 4.80
The same. _Briefer Course._ 478 pp. 12mo. 1.60

=Ethics.= By Profs. JOHN DEWEY and
JAMES H. TUFTS, Chicago University.
(_In preparation._)

=Political Economy.= By the late President
FRANCIS A. WALKER,
Mass. Institute of Technology.
_Advanced Course._ 537 pp. 8vo. 2.00
The same. _Briefer Course._ 415 pp. 12mo. 1.20
The same. _Elementary Course._ 423 pp. 12mo. 1.00

=Finance.= By Prof. HENRY CARTER ADAMS,
University of Michigan.
_Advanced Course._ 573 pp. 8vo. 3.50

HENRY HOLT & CO.
=29 West 23d Street, New York=
=378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago=
VIII, ’02

CHEMISTRY

Cairns’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis
Revised and enlarged by Dr. E. WALLER.
417 pp. 8vo. $2.00, _net_.

Cohen’s Physical Chemistry for Biologists
Translated by Dr. MARTIN FISCHER,
Chicago University. 343 pp. 12mo, $1.75, _net_.

Congdon’s Qualitative Analysis
By Prof. ERNEST A. CONGDON,
Drexel Institute. 64 pp. _Interleaved._
8vo. 60c., _net_.

Nicholson and Avery’s Exercises in Chemistry
With Outlines for the Study of Chemistry.
To accompany any elementary text.
By Prof. H. H. NICHOLSON,
University of Nebraska, and
Prof. SAMUEL AVERY,
University of Idaho. 413 pp. 12mo. 60c., _net_.

Noyes’s (A. A.) General Principles of
Physical Science
An Introduction to the Study of the
Principles of Chemistry.
By Prof. A. A. NOYES,
Mass. Institute of Technology. 160 pp. 8vo. $1.50, _net_.

Noyes’s (W. A.) Organic Chemistry
By Prof. WM. A. NOYES,
Rose Polytechnic Institute. 534 pp. 12mo. $1.50, _net_.

Qualitative Analysis (Elementary) x + 91 pp. 8vo. 80c., _net_.

Remsen’s Chemistries By Pres. IRA REMSEN,
Johns Hopkins. (_American Science Series._)
=Inorganic Chemistry= (_Advanced_).
XXII + 853 pp. 8vo. $2.80, _net_.
=College Chemistry= XX + 689 pp. 8vo. $2.00, _net_.
=Introduction to Chemistry= (_Briefer_).
XIX + 435 pp. 12mo. $1.12, _net_.

This book is used in hundreds of schools and
colleges in this country. It has passed through
several editions in England, and has been translated
into German (being the elementary text-book in the
University of Leipsic), French, and Italian.

=Remsen and Randall’s Experiments=
(_for the “Introduction”_). 50c., _net_.
=Elements of Chemistry= (_Elementary_).
X + 272 pp. 12mo. 80c., _net_.
=Laboratory Manual=
(_for the “Elements”_). 40c., _net_.

Torrey’s Elementary Chemistry
By JOSEPH TORREY, Jr.,
Harvard. 437 pp. 12mo. $1.25, _net_.

White’s Qualitative Analysis
By Prof. JOHN WHITE,
Univ. of Nebraska. 96 pp. 8vo. 80c., _net_.

Woodhull and Van Arsdale’s Chemical Experiments
By Prof. JOHN F. WOODHULL
and M. B. VAN ARSDALE,
Teachers’ College, New York City.
136 pp. 12mo. 60c., _net_.
Extremely simple experiments in
the chemistry of daily life.

HENRY HOLT & CO.
=29 West 23d Street, New York=
=378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago=
VIII, ’05

CHAMBERLIN & SALISBURY’S

GEOLOGY

By THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN and ROLLIN D. SALISBURY,
Professors in the University of Chicago.
(_American Science Series._) 2 vols. 8vo.
_Vol. I. Geological Processes and their
Results._ XIX + 654 pp. $4.00.
_Vol. II. Earth History._ [_In preparation._]

This is a notable scientific work by two of the
highest authorities on the subject in the United
States, and yet written in a style so simple that
it can be clearly understood by the intelligent
reader who has had little previous training in
the subject.

=Chas. D. Walcott=, _Director of U. S.
Geological Survey_:—I am impressed with the
admirable plan of the work and with the thorough
manner in which geological principles and
processes and their results have been presented.
The text is written in an entertaining style
and is supplemented by admirable illustrations,
so that the student cannot fail to obtain a
clear idea of the nature and work of geological
agencies, of the present status of the science,
and of the spirit which actuates the working
geologist.

=Henry S. Williams=, _Professor in Yale
University_.—I believe it is the best treatise
on this part of the subject which we have seen in
America.

=R. S. Woodward=, _Professor in Columbia
University_:—It is admirable for its science,
admirable for its literary perfection, and
admirable for its unequalled illustrations.

=T. C. Hopkins=, _Professor in Syracuse
University_:—It gives us the most advanced
thought on all the great questions of dynamical
and structural geology to be found in geological
literature.

=H. Foster Bain=, _U. S. Geological
Survey_:—The book is pre-eminently a teaching
book and I have no doubt that it will at once
become the standard American text-book on geology.

=William N. Rice=, _Professor in Wesleyan
University_:—The book is full of new ideas. It
is one of the indispensable books for the library
of every working geologist and every one who
wishes to be an up-to-date teacher of geology.

=T. A. Jaggar, Jr.=, _Assistant Professor
in Harvard University_:—The book appears to
be an excellent statement of modern American
geology, with abundant new illustrative material,
based upon the most recent work of government and
other surveys. It is especially satisfactory to
have in hand a geological volume which does not
attempt to cover the whole field. Modern geology
is much too large a subject to be condensed into
a single volume.

HENRY HOLT & CO.
=29 West 23d Street, New York=
=378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago=
VIII, ’05

THE METRIC SYSTEM.

UNITS. THE MOST COMMONLY USED DIVISIONS AND MULTIPLES.

{ _Centimeter_ (cm), 1/100 meter; _Millimeter_ (mm),
{ 1/1000 meter; _Micron_ (μ), 1/1000 millimeter.
THE METER, for { The micron is the unit in micrometry.
LENGTH { _Kilometer_, 1000 meters; used in measuring roads and
{ other long distances.

{ _Milligram_ (mg), 1/1000 gram.
THE GRAM, for { _Kilogram_, 1000 grams, used for ordinary masses, like
WEIGHT { groceries, etc.

THE LITER, for { _Cubic Centimeter_ (cc), 1/1000 liter. This is more
CAPACITY { common than the correct form, Milliliter.

_Divisions_ of the _units_ are indicated by Latin prefixes: _deci_, 1/10; _centi_, 1/100; _milli_, 1/1000.

_Multiples_ are designated by Greek prefixes: _deka_, 10 times; _hecto_, 100 times; _kilo_, 1000 times; _myria_, 10,000 times.

TABLE OF METRIC AND ENGLISH MEASURES.

METER = 100 centimeters, 1000 millimeters, 1,000,000 microns, 39.3704 inches.

Millimeter (mm) = 1000 microns, 1/10 millimeter, 1/1000 meter, 1/25 inch, approximately.

MICRON (μ) (unit of measure in micrometry) = 1/1000 mm, 1/1000000 meter (0.000039 inch), 1/25000 inch, approximately.

Inch (in.) = 25.399772 mm (25.4 mm, approx.).

LITER = 1000 milliliters or 1000 cubic centimeters, 1 quart (approx.).

Cubic centimeter (cc or cctm) = 1/1000 liter.

Fluid ounce (8 fluidrachms) = 29.578 cc (30 cc, approx.).

GRAM = 15.432 grains.

Kilogram (kilo) = 2.204 avoirdupois pounds (2⅕ pounds, approx.).

Ounce Avoirdupois (437½ grains) = 28.349 grams } (30 grams,
Ounce Troy or Apothecaries’ (480 grains) = 31.103 grams } approx.).

TEMPERATURE.

To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit: (C. × ⁹/₅) + 32 = F.
For example, to find the equivalent of 10° Centigrade,
C. = 10°, (10° × ⁹/₅) + 32 = 50° F.

To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade: (F. - 32°) × ⁵/₉ = C.
For example, to reduce 50° Fahrenheit to Centigrade,
F. = 50°, and (50° - 32°) × ⁵/₉ = 10° C.;
or - 40° Fahrenheit to Centigrade,
F. = - 40°, (- 40° - 32°) = - 72°,
whence - 72° × ⁵/₉; = - 40° C.

—_From “The Microscope” (by S. H. Gage) by permission._