Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been incorporated into the text of each page as: v.03 p.0001.

[=a] signifies "a with macron"; [h.] "h with dot below"; ['c] "c acute"; and so forth.

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME III

AUSTRIA LOWER to BISECTRIX

[E-Text Edition of Volume III - Part 1 of 2, Slice 1 of 3 - AUSTRIA LOWER to BACON]

* * * * *

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME III. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. C. P. - ANNA C. PAUES, PH.D. Lecturer in Germanic Philology at Newnham College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Newnham College. Author of _A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version_; &c.

- Bible, English.

A. C. S. - ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. See biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON C.

- Beaumont and Fletcher.

A. F. P. - ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the Protector Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.

- Balnaves; Barnes, Robert; Bilney.

A. Go.* - REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

- Beza.

A. G. G. - SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S. Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of _Differential and Integral Calculus with Applications_; _Hydrostatics_; _Notes on Dynamics_; &c.

- Ballistics.

A. Hl. - ARTHUR HASSALL, M.A. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Author of _A Handbook of European History_; _The Balance of Power_; &c. Editor of the 3rd edition of T. H. Dyer's _History of Modern Europe_.

- Austria-Hungary: _History_ (_in part_).

A. H. N. - ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, LL.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Baylor University, Texas. Professor at McMaster University, Toronto, 1881-1901. Author of _The Baptist Churches in the United States_; _Manual of Church History_; _A Century of Baptist Achievement_.

- Baptists: _American_.

A. H.-S. - SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.

- Azerb[=a]ij[=a]n; Bakhtiari; Bander Abb[=a]si; Barfurush.

A. H. S. - REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., LL.D. See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H.

- Babylon; Babylonia and Assyria; Belshazzar; Berossus.

A. J. L. - ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the _Rio News_ (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.

- Bahia: _State_; Bahia: _City_.

A. L. - ANDREW LANG. See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.

- Ballads.

A. N. - ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.

- Birds of Paradise.

A. P. H. - ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of _South African Studies_; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.

- Basutoland: _History_ (_in part_); Bechuanaland (_in part_).

A. Sp. - ARCHIBALD SHARP. Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.

- Bicycle.

A. St H. G. - Alfred St Hill Gibbons. Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. Author of _Africa from South to North through Marotseland_.

- Barotse, Barotseland.

A. W.* - ARTHUR WILLEY, F.R.S., D.SC. Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon.

- Balanoglossus.

A. W. H.* - ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900.

- Austria-Hungary: _History_ (_in part_); Bavaria: _History_ (_in part_).

A. W. Po. - ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Secretary Bibliographical Society. Editor of _Books about Books_; and _Bibliographica_. Joint-editor of the _Library_. Chief Editor of the "Globe" _Chaucer_.

- Bibliography and Bibliology.

B. K. - PRINCE BOJIDAR KARAGEORGEVITCH (d. 1908). Artist, art critic, designer and goldsmith. Contributor to the Paris _Figaro_, the _Magazine of Art_, &c. Author of _Enchanted India_. Translator of the works of Tolstoi and Jokai, &c.

- Bashkirtseff.

C. - THE EARL OF CREWE, K.G., F.S.A. See the biographical article: CREWE, 1ST EARL OF.

- Banville.

C. A. C. - CHARLES ARTHUR CONANT. Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 1903. Treasurer, Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of _History of Modern Banks of Issue_; _The Principles of Money and Banking_; &c.

- Banks and Banking: _American_.

C. B.* - CHARLES BEMONT, D. ES L., LITT.D. (Oxon.). See the biographical article: BEMONT, C.

- Baluze; Bearn.

C. F. A. - CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold Harbour_.

- Austrian Succession War: _Military_.

C. F. B. - CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of Dublin. Author of _Public Finance_; _Commerce of Nations_; _Theory of International Trade_; &c.

- Bimetallism.

C. H. T. - CUTHBERT HAMILTON TURNER, M.A. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford; Fellow of the British Academy. Speaker's Lecturer in Biblical Studies in the University of Oxford, 1906-1909. First Editor of the _Journal of Theological Studies_, 1899-1902. Author of "Chronology of the New Testament," and "Greek Patristic Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, &c.

- Bible: _New Testament Chronology_.

C. H. W. J. - REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D. Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Assyriology, Queens' College, Cambridge, and King's College, London. Author of _Assyrian Deeds and Documents of the 7th Century B.C._; _The Oldest Code of Laws_; _Babylonian and Assyrian Laws_; _Contracts and Letters_; &c.

- Babylonian Law.

C. J. L. - SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.). Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry_; &c.

- Bih[=a]r[=i] L[=a]l.

C. Mi. - CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-1903.

- Belgrade.

C. Pl. - REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. Fellow and Chaplain of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of _Life and Times of Alfred the Great_; &c.

- Bede.

C. R. B. - CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian prizeman (Oxford), 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c.

- Beatus; Behaim.

C. W. W. - SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord Clive_; &c.

- Beirut (_in part_)

D. B. Ma. - DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A.

- Bairam

D. C. B. - DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. Author of _England and Russia in Central Asia_; _History of China_; _Life of Gordon_; _India in the 19th Century_; _History of Belgium_; _Belgian Life in Town and Country_; &c.

- Belgium: _Geography and Statistics_.

D. F. T. - DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_--comprising _The Classical Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analyses of many other classical works.

- Bach, J. S.; Beethoven.

D. G. H. - DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

- Baalbek; Barca; Beirut (_in part_); Bengazi.

D. H. - DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.

- Austrian Succession War: _Naval_; Aviles; Bainbridge, William; Barbary Pirates.

D. Mn. - REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London Missionary Society.

- Berry, Charles Albert.

D. S. M.* - DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT. Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford; Fellow of New College. Author of _Arabic Papyri of the Bodleian Library_; _Mohammed and the Rise of Islam_; _Cairo, Jerusalem and Damascus_.

- Axum.

D. S.-S. - DAVID SETH-SMITH, F.Z.S. Curator of Birds to the Zoological Society of London. Formerly President of the Avicultural Society. Author of _Parrakeets, a Practical Handbook to those Species kept in Captivity_.

- Aviary.

E. B. - EDWARD BRECK, PH.D. Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the _New York Herald_ and the _New York Times_. Author of _Wilderness Pets_.

- Base-Ball.

E. Br. - ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar (Oxford), 1895.

- Baldwin I. to IV. of Jerusalem.

E. Cl. - EDWARD CLODD. Vice-President of the Folk-Lore Society. Author of _Story of Primitive Man_; _Primer of Evolution_; _Tom Tit Tot_; _Animism_; _Pioneers of Evolution_.

- Baer.

E. C. B. - RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

- Basilian Monks; Benedict of Nursia; Benedictines; St Bernardin of Siena.

E. F. S. - EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects; Joint-editor of Bell's "Cathedral" Series.

- Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent.

E. G. - EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

- Baggesen; Ballade; Barnfield; Beaumont, Sir John; Belgium: _Literature_; Biography.

E. G. B. - EDWARD GRANVILLE BROWNE, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.R.A.S. Sir Thomas Adams's Professor of Arabic and Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of _A Traveller's Narrative, written to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab_; _The New History of Mirza Ali Muhammed the Bab_; _Literary History of Persia_; &c.

- Babiism.

E. H. M. - ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography.

- Bastarnae.

Ed. M. - EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_; _Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_; &c.

- Bactria; Bagoas; Bahran; Balash; Behistun.

E. Ma. - EDWARD MANSON. Barrister-at-Law. Joint-editor of _Journal of Comparative Legislation_, Author of _Short View of the Law of Bankruptcy_; &c.

- Bankruptcy: _Comparative Law_

E. M. T. - SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., LITT.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1888-1909. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. Author of _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_. Editor of the _Chronicon Angliae_, &c. Joint-editor of _Publications of the Palaeographical Society_.

- Autographs.

E. N. S. - E. N. STOCKLEY. Captain, Royal Engineers. Instructor in Construction at the School of Military Engineering, Chatham. For some time in charge of the Barracks Design Branch of the War Office.

- Barracks.

E. Pr. - EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society.

- Azurara; Barros.

E. Tn. - REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907). Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of the Jesuits in England_.

- Baronius.

E. V. - REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895). Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of _Episcopal Palaces of England_.

- Basilica (_in part_).

F. C. B. - FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D. Norrisian Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Part-editor of _The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the Sinaitic Palimpsest_. Author of _The Gospel History and its Transmission_; _Early Eastern Christianity_; &c.

- Bible: _New Testament, Higher Criticism._

F. C. C. - FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.

- Baptism.

F. G. - FREDERICK GREENWOOD. See the biographical article: GREENWOOD, FREDERICK.

- Beaconsfield, Earl of.

F. G. M. B. - FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.

- Bernicia.

F. Ll. G. - FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the _Archaeological Survey_ and _Archaeological Reports_ of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.

- Bes.

F. L. L. - LADY LUGARD. See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.

- Bauchi.

F. P. - FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910). Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of _Studies in Psychical Research_; _Modern Spiritualism_; &c.

- Automatic Writing.

F. R. C. - FRANK R. CANA. Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.

- Basutoland (_in part_); Bahr-el-Ghazal (_in part_); Bechuanaland (_in part_).

F. R. M. - FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G. Lieut.-Col., Royal Artillery. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), 1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. Author of _Central Kurdistan_; &c.

- Baiburt; Bashkala.

F. W. R.* - FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

- Aventurine; Beryl.

G. A. B. - GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.SC., PH.D. In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.

- Axolotl; Batrachia.

G. A. Gr. - GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D. D.LITT. (Dublin). Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The Languages of India_; &c.

- Bengali; Bihari.

G. B. B. - GERARD BALDWIN BROWN, M.A. Professor of Fine Arts, University of Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. Author of _From Schola to Cathedral_; _The Fine Arts_; &c.

- Basilica (_in part_).

G. B. G.* - GEORGE BUCHANAN GRAY, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.) Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Mansfield College, Oxford. Examiner in Hebrew, University of Wales. Author of _The Divine Discipline of Israel_; &c.

- Bible: _Old Testament, Textual Criticism_, and _Higher Criticism_

G. E. - REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.

- Belgium: _History_.

G. F. Z. - G. F. ZIMMER, A.M.INST.C.E. Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_.

- Biscuit.

G. G. S. - GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of _The Days of James IV._; _The Transition Period_; _Specimens of Middle Scots_; &c.

- Barbour, John.

G. H. C. - GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC. Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author of _Insects: their Structure and Life_; &c.

- Bee.

G. Sa. - GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.LITT. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B.

- Balzac, H. de.

G. W. T. - REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

- Avempace; Averroes; Avicenna; Baid[=a]w[=i]; Bal[=a]dhur[=i]; Beh[=a] ud-D[=i]n; Beh[=a] ud-Din Zuhair; B[=i]r[=u]n[=i].

H. Br. - HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. Joint-editor of the _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. Author of _The Story of the Goths_; _The Making of English_; &c.

- Beowulf.

H. Ch. - HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Co-editor of the 10th edition.

- Balfour, A. J.

H. C. R. - SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART., K.C.B. See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C.

- Bagdad: _City_.

H. Fr. - HENRI FRANTZ. Art Critic, _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (Paris).

- Barye; Bastien-Lepage; Baudry, P. J. A.

H. F. G. - HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author of "Amphibia and Reptiles" in the _Cambridge Natural History_.

- Bird.

H. H. H.* - HERBERT HENSLEY HENSON, M.A., D.D. Canon of Westminster Abbey and Rector of St Margaret's, Westminster. Proctor in Convocation since 1902. Formerly Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Select Preacher (Oxford), 1895-1896; (Cambridge), 1901. Author of _Apostolic Christianity_; _Moral Discipline in the Christian Church_; _The National Church_; _Christ and the Nation_; &c.

- Bible, English: _Revised Version_.

H. H. J. - SIR HARRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, D.SC., G.C.M.G., K.C.B. See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR H. H.

- Bantu Languages.

H. M. R. - HUGH MUNRO ROSS. Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of _The Times Engineering Supplement_. Author of _British Railways_.

- Bell: _House Bell._

H. M. W. - H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., F.R.S., D.SC. (d. 1905). Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British Mycological Society. Author of _Timber and some of its Diseases_; _The Oak_; _Sach's Lectures the Physiology of Plants_; _Grasses_; _Disease in Plants_; &c.

- Bacteriology (_in part_); Berkeley, Miles Joseph.

H. N. D. - HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.SC., F.R.G.S. Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of _Elementary Meteorology_; _Papers on Oceanography_; &c.

- Baltic Sea.

H. W. C. D. - Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _Charlemagne_; _England under the Normans and Angevins, 1066-1272._

- Becket; Benedictus Abbas.

H. W. S. - H. WICKHAM STEED. Correspondent of _The Times_ at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.

- Austria-Hungary: _History_ (_in part_); Bertani.

I. A. - ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_; &c.

- Bahya.

J. An. - JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, and Assistant Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Honorary Professor of Antiquities to the Royal Scottish Academy. Author of _Scotland in Early Christian and Pagan Times_.

- Barrow.

J. A. H. - JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London.

- Avonian; Bajocian; Barton Beds; Bathonian Series; Bed: _Geology_.

J. B. B. - JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LL.D., LITT.D. See the biographical article: BURY, J. B.

- Baldwin I. and II.: _of Romania_; Basil I. and II.: _Emperors_; Belisarius.

J. D. B. - JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.

- Balkan Peninsula.

J. F.-K. - JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the Council of the Hispanic Society of America. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A History of Spanish Literature_.

- Ayala y Herrera; Bello.

J. F. St. - JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic. Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.

- Bible: _Old Testament: Texts and Versions._

J. H. R. - JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c.

- Baron; Baronet; Battle Abbey Roll; Bayeux Tapestry; Beauchamp.

J. Hl. R. - JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of Pitt_; &c.

- Barras; Beauharnais, Eugene de.

J. M. M. - JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London College (University of London). Joint editor of Grote's _History of Greece_.

- Bacon, Francis (_in part_); Berkeley, George (_in part_).

J. P.-B. - JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. Editor of the _Guardian_ (London).

- Bed: _Furniture_; Berain.

J. G. Sc. - SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of _Burma, a Handbook_; _The Upper Burma Gazetteer_, &c.

- Bhamo.

J. P. E. - JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit francais_; &c.

- Bailiff: _Bailli_; Basoche.

J. P. Pe. - REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew, University of Pennsylvania. In charge of Expedition of University of Pennsylvania conducting excavations at Nippur, 1888-1895. Author of _Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian_; _Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_; &c.

- Bagdad: _Vilayet_; Bagdad: _City_; Basra.

J. R. P. - SIR JOHN RAHERE PAGET, BART., K.C. Bencher of the Inner Temple. Formerly Gilbart Lecturer on Banking. Author of _The Law of Banking_; &c.

- Banks and Banking: _English Law_.

J. Sm.* - JOHN SMITH, C.B. Formerly Inspector-General in Companies' Liquidation, 1890-1904, and Inspector-General in Bankruptcy.

- Bankruptcy.

J. S. F. - JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

- Basalt; Batholite.

J. T. Be. - JOHN T. BEALBY. Joint author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_, &c.

- Baikal; Bessarabia (_in part_)

J. Vn. - JULIEN VINSON. Formerly Professor of Hindustani and Tamil at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, Paris. Author of _Le Basque et les langues mexicaines_; &c.

- Basques (_in part_).

J. V. B. - JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of _The Apostolic Age_; &c.

- Barnabas.

J. W. He. - JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c.

- Austria-Hungary: _History_; Bamberger; Bebel; Benedetti; Beust.

K. L. - REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testament Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of _The Text of the New Testament_; _The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ_; &c.

- Bible: _New Testament: Texts and Versions_ and _Textual Criticism_.

K. S. - KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_.

- Bagpipe; Banjo; Barbiton; Barrel-organ; Bass Clarinet; Basset Horn; Bassoon; Batyphone.

L. A. - LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D. See the biographical article: ABBOTT, L.

- Beecher, Henry Ward.

L. P.* - LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

- Benedict (I.-X.)

L. J. S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

- Autunite; Axinite; Azurite; Barytes; Bauxite; Biotite.

L. V.* - LUIGI VILLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in East of Europe. Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; &c.

- Azeglio; Bandiera, A. and E.; Bassi, Ugo; Bentivoglio, Giovanni.

L. W. K. - LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A. Assistant to the Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College, London. Conducted Excavations at Kuyunjik (Nineveh) for British Museum. Author of _Assyrian Chrestomathy_; _Annals of the Kings of Assyria_; _Studies in Eastern History_; _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_; &c.

- Babylonia and Assyria: _Chronology_.

M. A. C. - MAURICE A. CANNEY, M.A. Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholar (Oxford), 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896.

- Baur.

M. Br. - MARGARET BRYANT.

- Beaumont and Fletcher: _Appendix_.

M. D. Ch. - SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Home Department. Author of _Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange_; &c.

- Bill of Exchange.

M. G. - MOSES GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of _A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira_; _The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle_.

- Bassarab.

M. H. C. - MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L. Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General Council of the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the University of Oxford.

- Bering Sea Arbitration.

M. Ja. - MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of _Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians_; &c.

- Babylonia and Assyria: _Proper Names_; Babylonian and Assyrian Religion; Bel; Belit.

M. P.* - LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences), Author of _L'Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte._

- Avaray; Bar-le-Duc; Batarnay; Bauffremont; Beauharnais; Beaujeu; Beauvillier; Bellegarde: _Family._

N. B. W. - N. B. WAGLE. Formerly Lecturer on Sanskrit at the Robert Money Institution, Bombay. Vice-President of the London Indian Society. Author of _Industrial Development of India_; &c.

- Bhau Daji.

N. H. M. - REV. NEWTON HERBERT MARSHALL., M.A., PH.D. (Halle). Minister of Heath Street Baptist Church, Hampstead, London. Author of _Gegenwartige Richtungen der Religionsphilosophie in England_; _Theology and Truth_.

- Baptists.

N. M. - NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos and the Theological Tripos at Cambridge.

- Bardais[=a]n; Bar-Hebraeus; Bar-Sal[=i]b[=i].

N. V. - JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. Member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de l'Histoire de France and of the Societe de l'Ecole de Chartes.

- Basel, Council of; Benedict XIII. (_anti-pope_).

N. W. T. - NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought Transference_; _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_; &c.

- Automatism.

O. Ba. - OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. Editor of The _Ancestor_, 1902-1905.

- Beard; Berkeley (_Family_); Bill (_Weapon_).

O. Br. - OSCAR BRILIANT.

- Austria-Hungary: _Statistics_.

O. Hr. - OTTO HENKER, PH.D. On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany.

- Binocular Instrument.

P. A. - PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_.

- Auto-da-Fe.

P. A. A. - PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC.JURIS. New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_.

- Bavaria: _Statistics_; Berlin.

P. A. K. - PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.

- Baikal; Baku; Bessarabia (_in part_).

P. C. M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.SC., LL.D. Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of _Outlines of Biology_; &c.

- Biogenesis; Biology.

P. C. Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

- Balfour, Sir James.

P. Gi. - PETER GILES, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of Comparative Philology_; &c.

- B.

P. S. - PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, PH.D., F.C.S. Member of Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of Committee of Society of Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and Technology of Brewing, Distilling, &c.

- Beer.

R. A.* - ROBERT ANCHEL. Archivist of the Departement de l'Eure.

- Billaud-Varenne.

R. Ad. - ROBERT ADAMSON, M.A., LL.D. See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT.

- Bacon, Francis; Bacon, Roger; Beneke; Berkeley, Bishop.

R. A. S. M. - ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Joint author of _Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900._

- Bashan; Bethlehem.

R. C. J. - SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L., LITT.D. See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C.

- Bacchylides.

R. Gn. - SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR R.

- Bagehot; Balance Of Trade.

R. H. C. - REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., LITT.D. (Oxon.). Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and Editor of _Book of Enoch_; _Book of Jubilees_; _Apocalypse of Baruch_; _Assumption of Moses_; _Ascension of Isaiah_; _Testaments of XII. Patriarchs_; &c.

- Baruch.

R. H. I. P. - SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS PALGRAVE, F.R.S. Director of Barclay & Co., Ltd., Bankers. Editor of the _Economist_, 1871-1883. Author of _Notes on Banking in Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden, Denmark and Hamburg_; &c. Editor of _Dictionary of Political Economy._

- Banks and Banking: _General_.

R. J. M. - RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the _St James's Gazette_ (London).

- Beresford, John.

R. L.* - RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of _Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; &c.

- Avahi; Aye-Aye; Babirusa; Baboon; Beaver.

R. L. S. - ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. See the biographical article: STEVENSON, R. L. B.

- Beranger.

R. M.* - ROBERT MUIR, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). Professor of Pathology, University of Glasgow. Professor of Pathology at St Andrews, 1898-1899. Author of _Manual of Bacteriology_; &c.

- Bacteriology: _Pathological Aspects_.

R. N. B. - ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; _Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire_; _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_; _The Pupils of Peter the Great_; &c.

- Bakocz; Balassa; Banffy; Bar, Confederation of; Baross; Basil; Bathory; Batthyany; Bela III. and IV; Bern; Beothy; Bernstorff; Bestuzhev-Ryumin; Bethlen; Bezborodko; Biren.

S. A. C. - STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament History_; &c.

- Baal; Benjamin.

S. C. - SIDNEY COLVIN, M.A., LITT.D. See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY.

- Baldovinetti; Bellini.

S. R. D. - SAMUEL ROLLES DRIVER, D.D., LITT.D. See the biographical article: DRIVER, S. R.

- Bible: _Old Testament: Canon_ and _Chronology_.

T. A. J. - THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec., Royal Anthropological Institute.

- Bechuana.

T. As. - THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A. Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow (Oxford). Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of the _Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna_; &c.

- Auximum; Avella; Avellino; Avernus; Baiae; Bari; Barletta; Bassano; Belluno; Benevento; Bergamo; Bertinoro.

T. A. I. - THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

- Bailiff; Bill (_law_); Bill of Sale.

T. Ba. - SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

- Belligerency.

T. E. H. - THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Formerly Professor of International Law in the University of Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of _Studies in International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; _Alberici Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; _Neutral Duties in a Maritime War_; &c.

- Bentham, Jeremy.

T. G. C. - THOMAS G. CARVER, M.A., K.C. (d. 1906). Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. 8th Wrangler, 1871. Author of _On the Law Relating to the Carriage of Goods by Sea_.

- Average.

T. H. D. - REV. THOMAS HERBERT DARLOW, M.A. Literary Superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Sometime Scholar of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of _Historical Catalogue of Printed Editions of Holy Scriptures_ (vol. i. with H. G. Moule); &c.

- Bible Societies.

T. H. H. - THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S. See the biographical article: HUXLEY, THOMAS H.

- Biology (_in part_).

T. H. H.* - SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S. Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H. M. Commissioner for the Persa-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.

- Badakshan; Bahrein Islands; Bajour; Balkh; Baluchistan; Bamian; Bela; Bhutan.

T. L. P. - REV. THOMAS LESLIE PAPILLON, M.A. Hon. Canon of St Albans. Formerly Fellow, Dean and Tutor of New College, Oxford. Fellow of Merton College. Author of _Manual of Comparative Philology_; &c.

- Bell.

T. O. - THOMAS OKEY. Examiner in Basket Work for the City of London Guilds and Institute.

- Basket.

T. W. R. D. - T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Early Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; &c.

- Bharahat.

V. H. B. - VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC. Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

- Bacteriology: _Botany_

W. A. B. C. - REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of the _Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.

- Baden: _Switzerland_; Barcelonnette; Basel; Basses-Alpes; Beaulieu; Bellinzona; Bern; Bienne.

W. A. G. - WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay State of Kelantan. Commander, Order of the White Elephant. Member of the Burma Civil Service, 1889-1903. Author of _The French Roman Catholic Mission in Siam_; _Kelantan, a Handbook_; &c.

- Bangkok.

W. A. P. - WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; _The War of Greek Independence_; &c.

- Austria-Hungary: _History_ (_in part_); Babeuf; Balance of Power; Baron; Bates; Bavaria: _History_; Beguines; Berlin: _Congress and Treaty of_; Bernard, St.; Biretta.

W. Bo. - WILHELM BOUSSET, D.TH. Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of _Das Wesen der Religion_; _The Antichrist Legend_; &c.

- Basilides.

W. B. Ca. - W. BROUGHTON CARR. Formerly Editor of the _British Bee Journal_ and the _Bee-Keepers' Record_.

- Bee: _Bee-keeping_.

W. C. P. - WILLIAM CHARLES POPPLEWELL, M.SC., A.M.I.C.E. Lecturer in Engineering in Manchester School of Technology (University of Manchester). Author of _Compressed Air_; _Heat Engines_; &c.

- Bellows and Blowing Machines.

W. E. D. - WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Associate Member of the Institute of Naval Architects. Author of _The Balancing of Engines_; _Valves and Valve Gear Mechanisms_; &c.

- Bearings.

W. E. G. - SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908.

- Bahr-el-Ghazal (_in part_).

W. H. Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.). Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

- Balaam; Beelzebub.

W. H. Ha. - WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., MUS.DOC. Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor _Oxford History of Music_. Author of _Studies in Modern Music_; &c.

- Bach, K. P. E.

W. J. H.* - WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN. Past Senior Grand Deacon of Freemasons of England, 1874. Hon. Senior Warden of Grand Lodges of Egypt, Quebec and Iona, &c.

- Banker-Marks.

W. L. D. - WILLIAM LESLIE DAVIDSON, LL.D. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Aberdeen University. Author of _The Logic of Definition_; _Christian Ethics_; &c. Editor of Alexander Bain's _Autobiography_.

- Bain, Alexander.

W. M. S. - WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, PH.D., LL.D. Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Secretary to George Bancroft while American Ambassador in Berlin, 1872-1875. Author of _Life of Napoleon Bonaparte_.

- Bancroft, George.

W. P. C. - WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON.

- Bath, William Pulteney, Marquess of.

W. P. J. - WILLIAM PRICE JAMES. University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. High Bailiff of County Courts, Cardiff. Author of _Romantic Professions_; &c.

- Barrie, J. M.

W. P. R. - HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long White Cloud, a History of New Zealand_; &c.

- Ballance, John.

W. R. L. - W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A. Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council. Author of _Architecture, Mysticism and Myth_; &c.

- Baptistery.

W. Sa. - WILLIAM SANDAY, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D. Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, arid Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Chaplain in Ordinary to His Majesty the King. Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of _Inspiration_ (Bampton Lecture, 1893); _Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans_; &c.

- Bible: _New Testament: Canon_.

W. T. Ca. - WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.SC., F.Z.S. Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Author of "Crustacea" in Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.

- Barnacle.

W. T. T.-D. - SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.SC. LL.D., PH.D., F.L.S. Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906. Joint-author of _Flora of Middlesex_. Editor of _Flora Capenses_ and _Flora of Tropical Africa_.

- Bentham, George.

W. W. - WILLIAM WALLACE, M.A. See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

- Averroes; Avicenna.

W. We. - REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER (d. 1906). Author of _Basque Legends_; &c.

- Basque Provinces; Basques.

W. Wr. - WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of _History of the Congregational Churches in the United States_; _The Reformation_; _John Calvin_; &c.

- Bacon, Leonard.

W. R. S. - W. ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

- Baal.

W. W. R.* - WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of _Die Doppeleke des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen_.

- Benedict XI., XII., XIII., XIV.

* * * * *

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Azo Compounds.
Azoimide.
Azores.
Baader, F. X.
Baber.
Baby-Farming.
Bachelor.
Backgammon.
Baden: _Grand Duchy_.
Badger.
Badminton.
Bagatelle.
Bahamas.
Balaklava.
Bale, John.
Baliol.
Ballet.
Ballot.
Balneotherapeutics.
Bamboo.
Ban.
Banana.
Bank-notes.
Barbados.
Barbarossa.
Barbed Wire.
Barcelona.
Barclay, Alexander.
Barere de Vieuzac.
Barium.
Barlaam and Josaphat.
Barley.
Barnes, William.
Barometer.
Barrister.
Barrow, Isaac.
Bastiat, F.
Bastille.
Baths.
Battery.
Baudelaire.
Bautzen.
Baxter, Richard.
Bayard, P. T.
Bazaine.
Bean.
Bear.
Bear-Baiting and Bull-Baiting.
Beaton.
Beaufort: _Family_.
Beaufort, Henry.
Beaumarchais.
Beaumont: _Family_.
Becher.
Beddoes, Thomas Lovell.
Bedford, Earls and Dukes of.
Bedfordshire.
Bedouins.
Beecher, Lyman.
Behar.
Beheading.
Bejart.
Belfast: _Ireland_.
Belfort: _Town_.
Bell, Sir Charles.
Belladonna.
Bellarmine.
Bellary.
Belle-Isle, C. L. A. F., Duc de.
Benares.
Benedek.
Benediction.
Benefice.
Benevolence.
Bengal.
Bengel.
Benin.
Benjamin (Judah Philip).
Benson (Archbishop of Canterbury).
Bentley, Richard.
Benton.
Benzaldehyde.
Benzene.
Benzoic Acid.
Berar.
Berbers.
Berengarius.
Beresford, Lord Charles.
Beresford, Viscount.
Bergen.
Beri-Beri.
Berkshire.
Berlioz.
Bermondsey.
Bermudas.
Bernhardt, Sarah.
Bernouilli.
Berthelot.
Berwick (Duke of).
Berwickshire.
Berwick-upon-Tweed.
Beryllium.
Besancon.
Bessemer, Sir Henry.
Bet and Betting.
Betrothal.
Beyle.
Bezique.
Bhagalpur.
Bible Christians.
Bichromates and Chromates.
Bidder.
Bigamy.
Bijapur.
Bikanir.
Bilaspur.
Bilbao.
Billiards.
Binomial.
Birch.
Birkenhead.
Birmingham.
Birney, James G.
Biron, Armand de Gontaut.
Birth.
Biscay (Vizcaya).

[1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

* * * * *

[v.03 p.0001]

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME III

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AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. _Niederoesterreich_ or _Oesterreich unter der Enns_, "Austria below the river Enns"), an archduchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary, N. by Bohemia and Moravia, W. by Bohemia and Upper Austria, and S. by Styria. It has an area of 7654 sq. m. and is divided into two parts by the Danube, which enters at its most westerly point, and leaves it at its eastern extremity, near Pressburg. North of this line is the low hilly country, known as the _Waldviertel_, which lies at the foot and forms the continuation of the Bohemian and Moravian plateau. Towards the W. it attains in the Weinsberger Wald, of which the highest point is the Peilstein, an altitude of 3478 ft., and descends towards the valley of the Danube through the Gfoehler Wald (2368 ft.) and the Manhartsgebirge (1758 ft.). Its most south-easterly offshoots are formed by the Bisamberg (1180 ft.), near Vienna, just opposite the Kahlenberg. The southern division of the province is, in the main, mountainous and hilly, and is occupied by the Lower Austrian Alps and their offshoots. The principal groups are: the Voralpe (5802 ft.), the Duerrenstein (6156 ft.), the Oetscher (6205 ft.), the Raxalpe (6589 ft.) and the Schneeberg (6806 ft.), which is the highest summit in the whole province. To the E. of the famous ridge of Semmering are the groups of the Wechsel (5700 ft.) and the Leithagebirge (1674 ft.). The offshoots of the Alpine group are formed by the Wiener Wald, which attains an altitude of 2929 ft. in the Schoepfl and ends N.W. of Vienna in the Kahlenberg (1404 ft.) and Leopoldsberg (1380 ft.).

Lower Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which with the exception of the Lainsitz, which is a tributary of the Moldau, receives all the other rivers of the province. Its principal affluents on the right are: the Enns, Ybbs, Erlauf, Pielach, Traisen, Wien, Schwechat, Fischa and Leitha; on the left the Isper, Krems, Kamp, Goellersau and the March. Besides the Danube, only the Enns and the March are navigable rivers. Amongst the small Alpine lakes, the Erlaufsee and the Lunzer See are worth mentioning. Of its mineral springs, the best known are the sulphur springs of Baden, the iodine springs of Deutsch-Altenburg, the iron springs of Pyrawarth, and the thermal springs of Voeslau. In general the climate, which varies with the configuration of the surface, is moderate and healthy, although subject to rapid changes of temperature. Although 43.4% of the total area is arable land, the soil is only of moderate fertility and does not satisfy the wants of this thickly-populated province. Woods occupy 34.2%, gardens and meadows 13.1% and pastures 3.2%. Vineyards occupy 2% of the total area and produce a good wine, specially those on the sunny slopes of the Wiener Wald. Cattle-rearing is not well developed, but game and fish are plentiful. Mining is only of slight importance, small quantities of coal and iron-ore being extracted in the Alpine foothill region; graphite is found near Muehldorf. From an industrial point of view, Lower Austria stands, together with Bohemia and Moravia, in the front rank amongst the Austrian provinces. The centre of its great industrial activity is the capital, Vienna (_q.v._); but in the region of the Wiener Wald up to the Semmering, owing to its many waters, which can be transformed into motive power, many factories are spread. The principal industries are, the metallurgic and textile industries in all their branches, milling, brewing and chemicals; paper, leather and silk; cloth, _objets de luxe_ and millinery; physical and musical instruments; sugar, tobacco factories and foodstuffs. The very extensive commerce of the province has also its centre in Vienna. The population of Lower Austria in 1900 was 3,100,493, which corresponds to 405 inhabitants per sq. m. It is, therefore, the most densely populated province of Austria. According to the language in common use, 95% of the population [v.03 p.0002] was German, 4.66% was Czech, and the remainder was composed of Poles, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Croatians and Italians. According to religion 92.47% of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics; 5.07% were Jews; 2.11% were Protestants and the remainder belonged to the Greek church. In the matter of education, Lower Austria is one of the most advanced provinces of Austria, and 99.8% of the children of school-going age attended school regularly in 1900. The local diet is composed of 78 members, of which the archbishop of Vienna, the bishop of St Poelten and the rector of the Vienna University are members _ex officio_. Lower Austria sends 64 members, to the Imperial Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided into 22 districts and three towns with autonomous municipalities: Vienna (1,662,269), the capital (since 1905 including Floridsdorf, 36,599), Wiener-Neustadt (28,438) and Waidhofen on the Ybbs (4447). Other principal towns are: Baden (12,447), Bruck on the Leitha (5134), Schwechat (8241), Korneuburg (8298), Stokerau (10,213), Krems (12,657), Moedling (15,304), Reichenau (7457), Neunkirchen (10,831), St Poelten (14,510) and Klosterneuburg (11,595).

The original archduchy, which included Upper Austria, is the nucleus of the Austrian empire, and the oldest possession of the house of Habsburg in its present dominions.

See F. Umlauft, _Das Erzherzogtum Oesterreich unter der Enns_, vol. i. of the collection _Die Lander Oesterreich-Ungarns in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna, 1881-1889, 15 vols.); _Die oesterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. 4. (Vienna. 1886-1902, 24 vols.); M. Vansca, _Gesch. Nieder- u. Ober-Oesterreichs_ (in Heeren's _Staatengesch._, Gotha, 1905).

AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. _Oberoesterreich_ or _Oesterreich ob der Enns_, "Austria above the river Enns"), an archduchy and crown-land of Austria, bounded N. by Bohemia, W. by Bavaria, S. by Salzburg and Styria, and E. by Lower Austria. It has an area of 4631 sq. m. Upper Austria is divided by the Danube into two unequal parts. Its smaller northern part is a prolongation of the southern angle of the Bohemian forest and contains as culminating points the Ploecklstein (4510 ft.) and the Sternstein (3690 ft.). The southern part belongs to the region of the Eastern Alps, containing the Salzkammergut and Upper Austrian Alps, which are found principally in the district of Salzkammergut (_q.v._). To the north of these mountains, stretching towards the Danube, is the Alpine foothill region, composed partly of terraces and partly of swelling undulations, of which the most important is the Hausruckwald. This is a wooded chain of mountains, with many branches, rich in brown coal and culminating in the Goeblberg (2950 ft.). Upper Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which flows through it from west to east, and receives here on the right the Inn with the Salzach, the Traun, the Enns with the Steyr and on its left the Great and Little Muehl rivers. The Schwarzenberg canal between the Great Muehl and the Moldau establishes a direct navigable route between the Danube and the Elbe. The climate of Upper Austria, which varies according to the altitude, is on the whole moderate; it is somewhat severe in the north, but is mild in Salzkammergut. The population of the duchy in 1900 was 809,918, which is equivalent to 174.8 inhabitants per sq. m. It has the greatest density of population of any of the Alpine provinces. The inhabitants are almost exclusively of German stock and Roman Catholics. For administrative purposes, Upper Austria is divided into two autonomous municipalities, Linz (58,778) the capital, and Steyr (17,592) and 12 districts. Other principal towns are Wels (12,187), Ischl (9646) and Gmunden (7126). The local diet, of which the bishop of Linz is a member _ex officio_, is composed of 50 members and the duchy sends 22 members to the Reichsrat at Vienna. The soil in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the hills is fertile, indeed 35.08% of the whole area is arable. Agriculture is well developed and relatively large quantities of the principal cereals are produced. Upper Austria has the largest proportion of meadows in all Austria, 18.54%, while 2.49% is lowland and Alpine pasturage. Of the remainder, woods occupy 34.02%, gardens 1.99% and 4.93% is unproductive. Cattle-breeding is also in a very advanced stage and together with the timber-trade forms a considerable resource of the province. The principal mineral wealth of Upper Austria is salt, of which it extracts nearly 50% of the total Austrian production. Other important products are lignite, gypsum and a variety of valuable stones and clays. There are about thirty mineral springs, the best known being the salt baths of Ischl and the iodine waters at Hall. The principal industries are the iron and metal manufactures, chiefly centred at Steyr. Next in importance are the machine, linen, cotton and paper manufactures, the milling, brewing and distilling industries and shipbuilding. The principal articles of export are salt, stone, timber, live-stock, woollen and iron wares and paper.

See Edlbacher, _Landeskunde von Oberoesterreich_ (Linz, 2nd ed., 1883); Vansca, _op. cit._ in the preceding article.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, or the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY (Ger. _Oesterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie_ or _Oesterreichisch-ungarisches Reich_), the official name of a country situated in central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Rumania, Servia, Turkey and Montenegro, W. by the Adriatic Sea, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the German Empire, and N. by the German Empire and Russia. It occupies about the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905) of 239,977 sq. m. The monarchy consists of two independent states: the kingdoms and lands represented in the council of the empire (_Reichsrat_), unofficially called Austria (_q.v._) or Cisleithania; and the "lands of St Stephen's Crown," unofficially called Hungary (_q.v._) or Transleithania. It received its actual name by the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 14th of November 1868, replacing the name of the Austrian Empire under which the dominions under his sceptre were formerly known. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy is very often called unofficially the Dual Monarchy. It had in 1901 a population of 45,405,267 inhabitants, comprising therefore within its borders, about one-eighth of the total population of Europe. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878 the principalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina with an area of 19,702 sq. m., and a population (1895) of 1,591,036 inhabitants, owning Turkey as suzerain, were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary, and their annexation in 1908 was recognized by the Powers in 1909, so that they became part of the dominions of the monarchy.

_Government_.--The present constitution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (see AUSTRIA) is based on the Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the 19th of April 1713, whereby the succession to the throne is settled in the dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, descending by right of primogeniture and lineal succession to male heirs, and, in case of their extinction, to the female line, and whereby the indissolubility and indivisibility of the monarchy are determined; is based, further, on the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, whereby the constitutional form of government is introduced; and, lastly, on the so-called _Ausgleich_ or "Compromise," concluded on the 8th of February 1867, whereby the relations between Austria and Hungary were regulated.

The two separate states--Austria and Hungary--are completely independent of each other, and each has its own parliament and its own government. The unity of the monarchy is expressed in the common head of the state, who bears the title Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary, and in the common administration of a series of affairs, which affect both halves of the Dual Monarchy. These are: (1) foreign affairs, including diplomatic and consular representation abroad; (2) the army, including the navy, but excluding the annual voting of recruits, and the special army of each state; (3) finance in so far as it concerns joint expenditure.