Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) The following typographical error has been corrected:

ARTICLE BATHS: "Separate baths used to be of wood, painted; they
are now most frequently of metal, painted or lined with porcelain
enamel." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME III, SLICE IV

Basso-relievo to Bedfordshire

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

BASSO-RELIEVO BAY ISLANDS
BASS ROCK, THE BAYLE, PIERRE
BASSUS, AUFIDIUS BAYLO
BASSUS, CAESIUS BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES
BASSUS, CASSIANUS BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER
BASSUS, SALEIUS BAYONET
BASSVILLE, JEAN HUGON DE BAYONNE (town of France)
BASTAR BAYONNE (New Jersey, U.S.A.)
BASTARD BAYOU
BASTARNAE BAYREUTH
BASTI BAZA
BASTIA BAZAAR
BASTIAN, ADOLF BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS
BASTIAT, FREDERIC BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM
BASTIDE, JULES BAZARD, AMAND
BASTIDE BAZAS
BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES BAZIGARS
BASTILLE BAZIN, RENE
BASTINADO BAZIRE, CLAUDE
BASTION BDELLIUM
BASTWICK, JOHN BEACH
BASUTOLAND BEACHY HEAD
BAT BEACON
BATAC BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI
BATALA BEACONSFIELD (town of Tasmania)
BATALHA BEACONSFIELD (town of South Africa)
BATANGAS BEACONSFIELD (town of England)
BATARNAY, IMBERT DE BEAD
BATAVIA (residency of Java) BEADLE
BATAVIA (city of Java) BEAK
BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.) BEAKER
BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM BEALE, DOROTHEA
BATEMENT LIGHTS BEAM
BATES, HARRY BEAN
BATES, HENRY WALTER BEAN-FEAST
BATES, JOHN BEAR
BATES, JOSHUA BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING
BATES, WILLIAM BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK
BATESON, THOMAS BEARD
BATH, THOMAS THYNNE BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT
BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY BEARDSTOWN
BATH (county of England) BEARER
BATH (Maine, U.S.A.) BEARINGS
BATH-CHAIR BEAR-LEADER
BATHGATE BEARN
BATHOLITE BEAS
BATHONIAN SERIES BEAT
BATHORY, SIGISMUND BEATIFICATION
BATHOS BEATON, DAVID
BATHS BEATRICE
BATHURST, EARLS BEATTIE, JAMES
BATHURST BEATUS
BATHVILLITE BEAUCAIRE
BATHYBIUS BEAUCE
BATHYCLES BEAUCHAMP
BATLEY BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE
BATON BEAUFORT
BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO BEAUFORT, FRANCOIS DE VENDOME
BATON ROUGE BEAUFORT, HENRY
BATRACHIA BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA BEAUFORT SCALE
BATTA BEAUFORT WEST
BATTAGLIA BEAUGENCY
BATTAKHIN BEAUHARNAIS
BATTALION BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE
BATTAMBANG BEAUJEU
BATTANNI BEAULIEU
BATTAS BEAULY
BATTEL BEAUMANOIR
BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI
BATTEN BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE
BATTENBERG BEAUMARIS
BATTER BEAUMONT (English family)
BATTERING RAM BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE
BATTERSEA BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN
BATTERY BEAUMONT and FLETCHER
BATTEUX, CHARLES BEAUMONT (Texas, U.S.A.)
BATTHYANY, LOUIS BEAUNE
BATTICALOA BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE
BATTISHILL, JONATHAN BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT
BATTLE (town of England) BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE
BATTLE (military engagement) BEAUVAIS
BATTLE ABBEY ROLL BEAUVILLIER
BATTLE CREEK BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE
BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK BEAUX, CECILIA
BATTLEMENT BEAVER (animal)
BATTUE BEAVER (part of the helmet)
BATTUS BEAVER DAM
BATU BEAVER FALLS
BATUM BEAWAR
BATWA BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST
BATYPHONE BECCAFICO
BAUAN BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE
BAUBLE BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
BAUCHI BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE
BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE BECCLES
BAUDIER, MICHEL BECERRA, GASPAR
BAUDRILLART, HENRI LEON BECHE-DE-MER
BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM
BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME BECHUANA
BAUER, BRUNO BECHUANALAND
BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL
BAUFFREMONT BECK, DAVID
BAUHIN, GASPARD BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND
BAULK BECKENHAM
BAUMBACH, RUDOLF BECKER, HEINRICH
BAUME, ANTOINE BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF
BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER BECKET, THOMAS
BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL BECKFORD, WILLIAM
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG BECKINGTON, THOMAS
BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN BECKMANN, JOHANN
BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL
BAUTZEN BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY
BAUXITE BECKX, PIERRE JEAN
BAVAI BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS
BAVARIA BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO
BAVENO BECQUEREL
BAWBEE BED (furniture)
BAXTER, ANDREW BED (layer of rock)
BAXTER, RICHARD BEDARESI, YEDAIAH
BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY BEDARIEUX
BAXTER, WILLIAM BEDDGELERT
BAY BEDDOES, THOMAS
BAYAMO BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL
BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL BEDE
BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS BEDE, CUTHBERT
BAYAZID BEDELL, WILLIAM
BAYBAY BEDESMAN
BAY CITY BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF
BAYEUX BEDFORD (town of England)
BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE BEDFORD (Indiana, U.S.A.)
BAYEZID I BEDFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
BAYEZID II BEDFORDSHIRE

BASSO-RELIEVO (Ital. for "low relief"), the term applied to sculpture in which the design projects but slightly from the plane of the background. The relief may not project at all from the original surface of the material, as in the sunken reliefs of the Egyptians, and may be nearly flat, as in the Panathenaic procession of the Parthenon. In the early 19th century the term _basso-relievo_, or "low relief," came to be employed loosely for all forms of relief, the term _mezzo-relievo_ having already dropped out of general use owing to the difficulty of accurate application.

BASS ROCK, THE, a small island in the Firth of Forth, about 2 m. from Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular in shape, measuring a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high. On three sides the cliffs are precipitous, but they shelve towards the S.W., where landing is effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive mass of phonolitic trachyte or orthophyre. No nepheline has been detected in the rock, but analcite is present in small quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green soda-augite. It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic. It is regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic vent, from which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone period. It used to be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton was thought to be unusually good, but its principal denizens are sea-birds, chiefly solan geese, which haunt the rock in vast numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash lantern of 39,000 candle power was opened in 1002. For a considerable distance E. and W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft. high, accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been given to several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland, occupied a hermitage on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the 14th century the island became the property of the Lauders, called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from whom it was purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned. Among them were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years, and John Blackadder (1615-1686), who died there after five years' detention. At the Revolution four young Jacobites captured the Rock, and having been reinforced by a few others, held it for King James from June 1691 to April 1694, only surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the island was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III. Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It is let on annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the sea-birds and for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from Canty Bay and North Berwick.

BASSUS, AUFIDIUS, a Roman historian, who lived in the reign of Tiberius. His work, which probably began with the civil wars or the death of Caesar, was continued by the elder Pliny, who, as he himself tells us, carried it down at least as far as the end of Nero's reign. The _Bellum Germanicum_ of Bassus, which is commended, may have been either a separate work or a section of his general history. The elder Seneca speaks highly of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in that writer's _Suasoriae_ (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are characterized by an affected style.

Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, _Dialogus de Oratoribus_,
23; Quintilian, _Instit_, x. 1. 103.

BASSUS, CAESIUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign of Nero. He was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. 1). He is said to have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius (79). He had a great reputation as a poet; Quintilian (_Instit_, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to say that, with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth reading. He is also identified with the author of a treatise _De Metris_, of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used as an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some of the metres of Horace (in Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, vi. 305), bearing the title _Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris_ is not by him, but chiefly borrowed by its unknown author from the treatise mentioned above.

BASSUS, CASSIANUS, called SCHOLASTICUS (lawyer), one of the _geoponici_ or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century A.D. He compiled from earlier writers a collection of agricultural literature (_Geoponica_) which was afterwards revised by an unknown editor and published about the year 950, in the reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been ascribed. It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.

COMPLETE EDITIONS.--Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh (1895); see
also Gemoll in _Berliner Studien_, i. (1884); Oder in _Rheinisches
Museum_, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in _Annuaire de
l'Assoc. pour l'Encouragement des Etudes Grecques_, viii. (1874).

BASSUS, SALEIUS, Roman epic poet, a contemporary of Valerius Flaccus, in the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits him with a vigorous and poetical genius (_Instit_, x. 1. 90) and Julius Secundus, one of the speakers in Tacitus _Dialogus de Oratoribus_ (5; see also 9) styles him a perfect poet and most illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by poverty, but was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved; the _Laus Pisonis_, which has been attributed to him, is probably by Titus Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, _De Saleio Basso_. 1834).

BASSVILLE, or BASSEVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE (d. 1793), French journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville on the 7th of February 1753. He was trained for the priesthood, taught theology in a provincial seminary and then went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published _Elements de mythologie_ and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the recommendation of the prince of Conde he became tutor to two young Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin, made the acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member of the Berlin Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution he turned to journalism, becoming editor of the _Mercure international_. Then, through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu, he entered the diplomatic service, went in May, 1792, as secretary of legation to Naples and was shortly afterwards sent, without official status, to Rome. Here his conduct was anything but diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the protector of the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the French _emigres_ who had taken refuge there, including the "demoiselles Capet," and ordered the _fleur-de-lys_ on the escutcheon of the French embassy to be replaced by a picture of Liberty painted by a French art student. He talked at large of the "purple geese of the Capitol" and met the remonstrances of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with insults. This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family to the Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly handled that he died. The affair was magnified in the Convention into a deliberate murder of the "representative of the Republic" by the pope's orders. In 1797 by an article of the treaty of Tolentino the papal government agreed to pay compensation to Bassville's family. Among his writings we may also mention _Memoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la Revolution de France_ (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).

See F. Masson, _Les Diplomates de la Revolution_ (Paris, 1882);
Silvagni, _La Carte e la Societa romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX._
(Florence, 1881).

BASTAR, a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh division of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 306,501, showing a decrease of 1% compared with an apparent increase of 58% in the preceding decade. Estimated revenue L22,000; tribute L1100. The eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to 2000 ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions are very mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and plains. On the plateau there are but few hills; the streams run slowly and the country is a mixture of plain and undulating ground covered by dense _sal_ forests. Principal mountains of the district: (1) a lofty range which separates it from the Sironcha district; (2) a range of equal height called the Bela Dila lying in the centre of the district; (3) a range running N. and S. near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E. and W.; (5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati to the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal or Talper, are the chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents of the Godavari. The soil throughout the greater portion of Bastar consists of light clay, with an admixture of sand, suited for raising rice and wet crops. In the jungles the Marias, who are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond origin, raise kosra (_Panicum italicum_) and other inferior grains. Aboriginal races generally follow the migratory system of tillage, clearing the jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two or three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use the plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows; their only agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe. They are a timid, quiet, docile race, and although addicted to drinking not quarrelsome. They inhabit the densest jungles and are very shy, avoiding contact with strangers, and flying to the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a good character for honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily dressed, wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow and arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved, excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted, tangled mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown. The Marias and the Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of the true Gond family. All the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship the deities of the Hindu pantheon along with their own national goddess Danteswari.

Bastar is divided into two portions--that held by the Raja or chief himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under him. The climate is unhealthy--fever, smallpox, dysentery and rheumatism being the prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur, Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the only places of any note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati river) being the residence of the raja and the chief people of the state. The principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk, horns, hides, wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the rivers to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into connexion with the railway at Raipur.

BASTARD (O. Fr. _bastard_, mod. _batard = fils de bast_, "pack-saddle child," from _bast_, saddle), a person born out of legal wedlock. Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as _nothi_, children born in concubinage, and _spurii_, those not so born. Both classes had a right of succession to their mother, and the _nothi_, were entitled to support from their father, but had no rights of inheritance from him. Both, however, had in other respects most of the rights of citizenship. The Germanic law was based upon an entirely different principle. It recognized as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same social rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes was to preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous unions are not censured. The influence of the Germanic law lasted throughout the early feudal period, and bastards were debarred rights of inheritance. In the 13th century the influence of Roman law tended again to modify this severity. An exception was probably made in the case of those whose fathers were of royal blood, in which case it even seems that no stigma was attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they suffer from the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended those of illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom with the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was created king of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William the Conqueror actually assumed the appellation of bastard.

In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His rights are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit nothing, being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes called _filius nullius_, sometimes _filius populi_. This, however, does not hold as to moral purposes, e.g. he cannot marry his mother or bastard sister. Yet he may gain a surname by reputation though he has none by inheritance, and may even be made legitimate and capable of inheriting by the transcendent power of an act of parliament.

For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement of their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its mother. The mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its custody in preference to the father, and consequently the responsibility of its support falls primarily on her. But the English law has always recognized the principle that to a certain extent the father must share in that responsibility. This, however, was imposed not with the idea of furnishing the woman with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect against the man, but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the bastard child from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon the subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate part of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English bastardy law, empowered justices to take order for the punishment of the mother and reputed father of every bastard child left to the care of the parish, and to charge the mother and reputed father with the payment of a weekly sum or other needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and 1733, enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even the imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the parish, provisions which were made somewhat more stringent by acts passed in 1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was appointed to inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and the commissioners in their report gave great attention to the subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various acts from 1576 downwards and gave examples of their operation. The conclusion to which the commissioners came was that the laws "which respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise," and that they gave rise to many abuses. For example, the weekly payment recovered by the parish was usually transferred to the mother; even in many cases guaranteed. The commissioners recommended that the mother alone should be responsible for the maintenance of the child. "This," they said, "is now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for giving to vice privileges which we deny to misfortune." Acting on the recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 endeavoured to discourage the principle of making the putative father contribute by introducing a somewhat cumbersome method of procedure. The trend of public opinion proved against the discouragement of affiliation, and an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation cases from quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry on the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended "that affiliation should be facilitated," and, accordingly, by the Bastardy Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation by giving the mother an independent civil remedy against the putative father and dissociating the parish altogether from the proceedings. Subsequently, legislation gave the parish the right of attaching, and in some cases suing for, money due from the putative father for the maintenance of the child. The existing law is set out under AFFILIATION.

The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in this, that he cannot be heir to any one; for being _nullius filius_, he is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom an inheritable blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no other claimant upon an inheritance than such illegitimate child, it escheats to the lord. And as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, so neither can they have any heirs but those of their own bodies; for as all collateral kindred consists in being derived from the same common ancestor, and as a bastard has no legal ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and consequently no legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent from himself. And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised therefor without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of the fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders, and disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity in the church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other respects there is no distinction between a bastard and another man. By the law of Scotland a bastard is not only excluded from his father's succession, because the law knows no father who is not marked out by marriage; and from all heritable succession, whether by the father or mother, because he cannot be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the brief; but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he is not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed _jure sanguinis_, may succeed by destination, where he is specially called to the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as in England, a bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his own body; and hence, failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds to him as last heir. Formerly bastards in Scotland without issue of their own could not make a will, but this disability was removed by a statute of 1835. If bastards or other persons without kindred die intestate without wife or child, their effects go to the king as _ultimus haeres_; but a grant is usually made of them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled to the administration.

According to the common law, which is the law of England, a bastard cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless by the supreme power of an act of parliament. But in those countries which have followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard's status may be provisional, and he can be made legitimate by the subsequent marriage of his parents. (See LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION; and, for statistics, ILLEGITIMACY.)

AUTHORITIES.--Bacquet, _Traite de la batardise_ (1608); Du Cange,
_Gloss. Lat._, infra "Bastardus"; L.G. Koenigswater, _Histoire de
l'organisation de la famille en France_ (1851), and _Essai sur les
enfants nes hors mariage_ (1842); E.D. Glasson, _Histoire des droits
et des institutions de l'Angleterre_ (6 vols., 1882-1883), _Histoire
du droit et des institutions de la France_ (1887); Pollock and
Maitland, _History of English Law_ (1898); Stephen's _Commentaries_;
Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_ (3 vols.,
1898).

BASTARNAE, the easternmost people of the Germanic race, the first to come into contact with the ancient world and the Slavs. Originally settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they appeared on the lower Danube about 200 B.C., and were used by Philip V. of Macedon against his Thracian neighbours. Defeated by these the Bastarnae returned north, leaving some of their number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an island in the Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and of Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they had hostile relations with the Romans who in the time of Augustus defeated them, and made a peace, which was disturbed by a series of incursions. In these the Bastarnae after a time gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the emperor Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the authors who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo, having learned of the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans, first allows a German element; Tacitus expressly declares their German origin but says that the race was degraded by intermarriage with Sarmatians. The descriptions of their bodily appearance, tribal divisions, manner of life and methods of warfare are such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an outpost of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements. (E. H. M.)

BASTI, a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur division of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of villages, is on the river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway. The population in 1901 was 14,761. It has no municipality. The district has an area of 2792 sq. m. It stretches out in one vast marshy plain, draining towards the south-east, and traversed by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar, Ami and Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams consists of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to inundations, but producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In 1901 the population was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3% in the decade. A railway from Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through the district, and the river Gogra is navigable. A large transit trade is conducted with Nepal. The export trade of the district itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other agricultural produce.

BASTIA, a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island of Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509. Bastia, the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the densely-populated quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of steep and narrow streets, and of a more modern quarter to the north, which has grown up round the new port. La Traverse, a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north to south. Rising from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia presents an imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of its houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer. Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are florid in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the hotel-de-ville. The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a keep of the 14th century. As capital of an arrondissement, Bastia is the seat of a tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect, while it is also the seat of the military governor of Corsica, of a court of appeal for the whole island, of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and has a lycee, a branch of the Bank of France, and a library with between 30,000 and 40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce, especially with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number of vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551, of which 203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut extract for tanning, cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables, fish, copper ore and antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain, flour and wine. Industry consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c., and coral), the manufacture of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning, and the preparation of preserved citrons and of macaroni and similar provisions.

Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or "bastille" by Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it was long the principal stronghold in the north of the island, and the residence of the governor; and in 1553 it was the first town attacked by the French. On the division of the island in 1797 into the two departments of Golo and Liamone, Bastia remained the capital of the former; but when the two were again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was taken by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.

BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826- ), German ethnologist, was born at Bremen on the 26th of June 1826. He was educated as a physician, but from his early years devoted himself to travel. Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as surgeon on a vessel, he had visited almost every part of the world before his return in 1859. In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East which lasted five years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of his great work on _The Peoples of Eastern Asia_, an immense storehouse of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in Berlin, where he was made professor of ethnology at the university and keeper of the ethnological museum. He succeeded R. Virchow as president of the Berlin Anthropological Society, and to him was largely due the formation in 1878 of the German Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to encourage German colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further scientific travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of these explorations were made public in a long series of separate publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also edited the _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_ from 1869, in conjunction with Virchow and Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth birthday, 1896 (during which year he started on an expedition to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume of essays composed by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration of the event and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may be mentioned:--_Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1860); _Die Volker des ostlichen Asien_ (Jena, 1866-1871); _Ethnologische Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1871-1873); _Die Kulturlander des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, 1878); _Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie_ (Berlin, 1881); _Indonesien_ (Leipzig, 1884); _Der Fetisch an der Kuste Guineas_ (Berlin, 1885); _Die mikronesischen Kolonien_ (1899-1900); _Die wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis und ihre Ruckwirkung auf die Volkerkunde_ (1900).

BASTIAT, FREDERIC (1801-1850), French economist, was the son of a merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on the 29th of June 1801. Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever and of Soreze, he entered in 1818 the counting-house of his uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine of mercantile life being distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a property at Mugron, of which he became the owner on the death of his grandfather. Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure being devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm the Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a _juge de paix_ of his canton, and in 1832 a member of the _conseil general_ of the Landes. In 1834 he published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844 three others, all on questions of taxation affecting local interests. During this period an accidental circumstance led him to become a subscriber to an English newspaper, the _Globe and Traveller_, through which he was made acquainted with the nature and progress of the crusade of the Anti-Corn-Law League against protection. After studying the movement for two years, he resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the _Journal des Economistes_ an article "Sur l'influence des tarifs anglais et francais," which attracted great attention, and was followed by others, including the first series of his brilliant _Sophismes Economiques_.

In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the publication of his _Cobden et la Ligue, ou l'agitation anglaise pour la liberte des echanges_, and was very cordially received by the economists of the capital. From Paris he went to London and Manchester, and made the personal acquaintance of Cobden, Bright and other leaders of the league. When he returned to France he found that his writings had been exerting a powerful influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux the first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberte des Echanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required him to abandon Mugron for Paris.

During the eighteen months which followed this change his labours were prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central committee of the association, organized and corresponded with branch societies, waited on ministers, procured subscriptions, edited a weekly paper, the _Libre-Echange_, contributed to the _Journal des Economistes_ and to three other periodicals, addressed meetings in Paris and the provinces, and delivered a course of lectures on the principles of political economy to students of the schools of law and of medicine. The cause to which he thus devoted himself at the expense of his health and life appeared for a time as if it would be successful; but the forces in its favour were much weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in France than in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the Revolution of February 1848. This event made the socialistic and communistic principles, which had been gathering and spreading during the previous thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) In this grave crisis Bastiat nobly performed his duty. Although exhausted by the far too heavy labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of his voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he could do but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the Constituent Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the committee of finance of which he was vice-president, and he could still use his pen with a vigour and dexterity which made him capable of combating single-handed many opponents.

He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus within the space of two years there appeared _Propriete et Loi, Justice et Fraternite, Propriete et Spoliation, L'Etat, Baccalaureat et Socialisme, Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente, Maudit Argent, Spoliation et Loi, Gratuite du Credit_, and _Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas_. While thus occupied he was meditating the composition of a great constructive work, meant to renovate economical science by basing it on the principle that "interests, left to themselves, tend to harmonious combinations, and to the progressive preponderance of the general good." The first volume of this work _Les Harmonies economiques_ was published in the beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when working on the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him to go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached Rome, but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the fiftieth year of his age.

The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, requires to be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the advocate of free-trade, the opponent of protection. The general principles of free-trade had, of course, been clearly stated and solidly established before he was born, but he did more than merely restate them. He showed, as no one before him had done, how they were practically applicable to French agriculture, trade and commerce; and in the _Sophismes Economiques_ we have the completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and consequences which exists in any language. (2) He was the opponent of socialism. In this respect also he had no equal among the economists of France. He alone fought socialism hand to hand, body to body, as it were, not caricaturing it, not denouncing it, not criticizing under its name some merely abstract theory, but taking it as actually presented by its most popular representatives, considering patiently their proposals and arguments, and proving conclusively that they proceeded on false principles, reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by foolish and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury of weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets published by Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted to expound in an original and independent manner political economy as a science. In combating, first, the Protectionists, and, afterwards, the Socialists, there gradually rose on his mind a conception which seemed to him to shed a flood of light over the whole of economical doctrine, and, indeed, over the whole theory of society, viz. the harmony of the essential tendencies of human nature. The radical error, he became always more convinced, both of protectionism and socialism, was the assumption that human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably prove antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer the producer, &c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools of political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their imperfect apprehension of the truth that human interests, when left to themselves, when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered with, tend to harmonious combination, to the general good.

His _OEuvres completes_ are in 7 vols. The first contains an
interesting _Memoir_ by M. Paillottet.

BASTIDE, JULES (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at Paris on the 22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time, and afterwards engaged in business as a timber merchant. In 1821 he became a member of the French Carbonari, and took a prominent part in the Revolution of 1830. After the "July Days" he received an artillery command in the national guard. For his share in the _emeute_ in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide was sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return to Paris in 1834 he was acquitted, and occupied himself with journalism, contributing to the _National_, a republican journal of which he became editor in 1836. In 1847 he founded the _Revue nationale_ with the collaboration of P.J. Buchez (q.v.), with whose ideas he had become infected. After the Revolution of February 1848 Bastide's intimate knowledge of foreign affairs gained for him a secretarial post in the provisional government, and, after the creation of the executive commission, he was made minister of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his portfolio, and, after the _coup d'etat_ of December 1851, retired into private life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise _De l'education publique en France_ (1847); _Histoire de l'assemblee legislative_ (1847); _La Republique francaise et l'Italie en 1848_ (1858); _Histoire des guerres religieuses en France_ (1859).

BASTIDE (Provencal _bastida_, building), a word applied to the fortified towns founded in south-western France in the middle ages, and corresponding to the _villes neuves_ of northern France. They were established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown, frequently by two of these authorities in co-operation, and were intended to serve as defensive posts and centres of population for sparsely-inhabited districts. In addition, they formed a source of revenue and power for their founders, who on their part conceded liberal charters to the new towns. They were built on a rectangular plan, with a large central square and straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to one another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified in the existing _bastide_ of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the English in 1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides, was founded in 1141, and the movement for founding them lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, attaining its height between 1250 and 1350.

See E. Menault, _Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence
dans le mouvement communal_ (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, _Essai sur
les villes fondees dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de
bastides_ (Toulouse, 1880).

BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (1848-1884), French painter, was born in the village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of November 1848 and spent his childhood there. He first studied at Verdun, and prompted by a love of art went in 1867 to Paris, where he was admitted to the Ecole des Beaux-arts, working under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of 1870 and 1872 works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his mark with his "Song of Spring," a study of rural life, representing a peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His "Portrait of my Grandfather," exhibited in the same year, was not less remarkable for its artless simplicity and received a third-class medal. This success was confirmed in 1875 by the "First Communion," a picture of a little girl minutely worked up as to colour, and a "Portrait of M. Hayem." In 1875 he took the second Prix de Rome with his "Angels appearing to the Shepherds," exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour to win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with "Priam at the Feet of Achilles" was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and the painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon of 1877 he sent a full-length "Portrait of Lady L." and "My Parents"; and in 1878 a "Portrait of M. Theuriet" and "The Hayfield." The last picture, now in the Luxembourg, is regarded as a typical work from its stamp of realistic truth. Thenceforth Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as the leader of a school, and his "Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt" (1879), painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and "Joan of Arc listening to the Voices"; and in the same year, at the Royal Academy, the little portrait of the "Prince of Wales." In 1881 he painted "The Beggar" and the "Portrait of Albert Wolf"; in 1882 "Le Pere Jacques"; in 1883 "Love in a Village," in which we find some trace of Courbet's influence. His last dated work is "The Forge" (1884). The artist, long ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in Algiers. He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works may also be mentioned the portrait of "Mme J. Drouet" (1883); "Gambetta on his death-bed," and some landscapes; "The Vintage" (1880), and "The Thames at London" (1882). "The Little Chimney-Sweep" was never finished. An exhibition of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.

See A. Theuriet, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885--English edition, 1892); L. de
Fourcaud, _Bastien-Lepage_ (1885). (H. Fr.)

BASTILLE (from Fr. _bastir_, now _batir_, to build), originally any fortified building forming part of a system of defence or attack; the name was especially applied to several of the principal points in the ancient fortifications of Paris. In the reign of King John, or even earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine was flanked by two towers; and about 1369 Hugues Aubriot, at the command of Charles V., changed it into a regular bastille or fort by the addition of six others of massive structure, the whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25 ft. wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards effected; but the building remained substantially what it was made by the vigorous provost, a strong and gloomy structure, with eight stern towers. As the ancient fortifications of the city were superseded, the use of the word bastille as a general designation gradually died out, and it became restricted to the castle of Saint Antoine, the political importance of which made it practically, long before it was actually, the only bastille of Paris. The building had originally a military purpose, and it appears as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents in the city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared to defend with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them to capitulate. In 1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the Bastille, gave the command of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon afterwards shut up the whole parlement within its walls, for having refused their adherence to the League. When Henry IV. became master of Paris he committed the command of the Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at the time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres. On the 11th of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the forces of the Fronde, and after a short cannonade capitulated on the 13th of that month. The garrison consisted of only twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a peace with the court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by treaty that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651.

At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed for the custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much more of a prison than a fortress. According to the usual account, which one is tempted to ascribe to the popular love of poetical justice, the first who was incarcerated within its walls was the builder himself, Hugues Aubriot. Be this as it may, the duke of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one of those iron cages which Louis XI. called his _fillettes_; and Jacques d'Armagnac, Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not till the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it was frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women of every age and condition. Prisoners were detained without trial on _lettres de cachet_ for different reasons, to avoid a scandal, either public or private, or to satisfy personal animosities. But the most frequent and most notorious use of the Bastille was to imprison those writers who attacked the government or persons in power. It was this which made it so hated as an emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in the Revolution.

Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various accounts have been given even by those who speak from personal experience, for the simple reason that it varied greatly in different cases. The prisoners were divided into two main classes, those who were detained on grounds of precaution or by way of admonitory correction, and those who lay under presumption or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no investigation or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the Arsenal--though even in their case the interval between their arrest and their trial was determined solely by the royal decree, and it was quite possible for a man to grow old in the prison without having the opportunity of having his fate decided. Until guilt was established, the prisoner was registered in the king's name, and--except in the case of state-prisoners of importance, who were kept with greater strictness and often in absolute isolation--he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and freedom. Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed; and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts of the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for the better class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown of people living below their allowance and, by arrangement with the governor, saving the surplus. When the criminality of the prisoner was established, his name was transferred to the register of the "commission," and he became exposed to numerous hardships and even barbarities, which however belonged not so much to the special organization of the Bastille as to the general system of criminal justice then in force.

Among the more distinguished personages who were confined in this fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI., were the famous _Man of the Iron Mask_ (see IRON MASK), Foucquet, the marshal Richelieu, Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville, Voltaire, Latude, Le Prevot de Beaumont, Labourdonnais, Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La Chalotais. While no detestation is too great for that system of "royal pantheism" which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary to give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found currency during the excitement of the Revolution, and which historical evidence, as well as _a priori_ considerations, tends to strip of their more dreadful features, and even in many cases to refute altogether. Much light of an unexpected kind has in modern times been shed on the history of the Bastille from the pages of its own records. These documents had been flung out into the courts of the building by the revolutionary captors, and after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called) Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by Francois Ravaisson, who devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation and publication.

At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked by the Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken and razed to the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time of its capture only seven prisoners were found in it. A very striking account of the siege will be found in Carlyle's _French Revolution_, vol. i. The site of the building is now marked by a lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the memory of the patriots of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded figure of the genius of liberty.

See the _Memoirs_ of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry, tome
iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also Francois Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la
Bastille_ (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, _Histoire de la detention
des philosophes a la Bastille_ (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon, _La
Bastille_ (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, _Les Lettres de cachet a Paris,
etude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille_ (1904); G.
Lecocq, _La Prise de la Bastille_ (1881).

BASTINADO (Span. _baston_, Fr. _baton_, a stick, cudgel), the European name for a form of punishment common in the east, especially in Turkey, Persia and China. It consists in blows with a light stick or lath of bamboo upon the soles of the feet or on the buttocks. The terror of the punishment lies not in the severity of the blows, which are on the contrary scarcely more than tapping, but in its long continuation. A skilful bastinadoist can kill his victim after hours of torture.

BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. _bastire_, to build), a work forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace of a bastion is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a triangle and a narrow rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding with the long side of the rectangle. The two sides of the triangle form the "faces" of the bastion, which join at the "salient" angle, the short sides of the rectangle form the "flanks." Bastions were arranged so that the fire from the flanks of each protected not only the front of the curtain but also the faces of the adjacent bastions. A "tower bastion" is a case-mated tower built in bastion form; a "demi-bastion" is a work formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and by a parapet along the line of bisection; a "flat bastion" is a bastion built on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.