Chapter IV: ECAUDATA (22).--Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail. Radius (3)

The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the beginning of the 19th century, and furnished them with a valuable slave preserve. But the more civilized portion had already, under enlightened native rulers, attained to a certain degree of prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was partly adopted by the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier, and the son of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. The name of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba (Jacob). His father's name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather was Abdullah, all names which indicate Arab or Mahommedan influence. The town of Bauchi and capital of the province was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the emirate remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, in consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant misrule of the emir, a British expedition was sent against the capital, which submitted without fighting. The emir was deposed, and the country was brought under British control. A new emir was appointed, but he died within a few months. The slave-trade was immediately abolished, and the slave-market which was held at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was closed. The Kano-Sokoto campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary withdrawal of the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little progress was made until the following year. In 1904 the province was organized for administration on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of allegiance to the British crown. The province has been subdivided into thirteen administrative districts, which again have been grouped into their principal divisions, with their respective British headquarters at Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula portion of this province, held like the other Hausa states under a feudal system of large landowners or fief-holders, has been organized and assessed for taxation on the system accepted by the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations are working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs are in process of construction, and the province is being gradually opened to trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to the north of the Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention of the Niger Company.

Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European point of view because, with free communication from the Benue assured, it is probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus, which are the healthiest known in the protectorate, a sanatorium and station for a large civil population might be established under conditions in which Europeans could live free from the evil effects of a West African climate.

The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division of the Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the emirs of Bauchi. It forms a rich and important district, and its chiefs held themselves in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility to the British. It was at Burmi in this district that the last stand was made by the religious following of the defeated sultan of Sokoto, and here the sultan was finally overthrown and killed in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly accepted British rule. (F. L. L.)

BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet, was born in Paris on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was a civil servant in good position and an amateur artist, died in 1827, and in the following year his mother married a lieutenant-colonel named Aupick, who was afterwards ambassador of France at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons and at the College Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839 he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his guardians, in 1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he returned to Paris, after less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his small patrimony, and his family obtained a decree to place his property in trust. His _salons_ of 1845 and 1846 attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he propounded many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions were aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, and it was not until 1857 that he produced his first and famous volume of poems, _Fleurs du mal_. Some of these had already appeared in the _Revue des deux mondes_ when they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at Alencon. The consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word for unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, writing to the poet, said, "Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous creez un frisson nouveau." Baudelaire, the publisher, and the printer were successfully prosecuted for offending against public morals. The obnoxious pieces were suppressed, but printed later as _Les Epaves_ (Brussels, 1866). Another edition of the _Fleurs du mal_, without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.

Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found some of his favourite reading in the English "Satanic" romances, such as Lewis's _Monk_. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted with the works of Edgar Allan Poe, in which he discovered romances and poems which had, he said, long existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till 1865 he was largely occupied with his version of Poe's works, producing masterpieces of the art of translation in _Histoires extraordinaires_ (1852), _Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires_ (1857), _Adventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka_, and _Histoires grotesques et serieuses_ (1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his _Oeuvres completes_ (vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties grew upon him. He was involved in the failure of Poulet Malassis in 1861, and in 1864 he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the vain hope of disposing of his copyrights. He had for many years a _liaison_ with a coloured woman, whom he helped to the end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He had recourse to opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. Paralysis followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in _maisons de sante_ in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st of August 1867.

His other works include:--_Petits Poemes en prose_; a series of art criticisms published in the _Pays, Exposition universelle_; studies on Gustave Flaubert (in _L'artiste_, 18th of October 1857); on Theophile Gautier (_Revue contemporaine_, September 1858); valuable notices contributed to Eugene Crepet's _Poetes francais_; _Les Paradis artificiels opium et haschisch_ (1860); _Richard Wagner et Tannhauser a Paris_ (1861); _Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac_ (1880), originally an article entitled "Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du genie," in which his criticism is turned against his friends H. de Balzac, Theophile Gautier, and Gerard de Nerval.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An edition of his _Lettres_ (1841-1866) was issued by
the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His _Oeuvres completes_ were
edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a preface by
Theophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication of his
character from the attacks made upon it in his _Charles Baudelaire, sa
vie, son oeuvre_ (1869). He left some material of more private
interest in a MS. entitled _Baudelaire_. See _Charles Baudelaire,
souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie_ (1872), by Charles Cousin
and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; _Charles Baudelaire, oeuvres posthumes et
correspondances inedites_ (1887), containing a journal entitled _Mon
coeur mis a nu_, and a biographical study by Eugene Crepet; also _Le
Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire_ (1896), a collection of pieces
unpublished or prohibited during the author's lifetime, edited by S.
Mallarme and others, with a study of the text of the _Fleurs du mal_
by Prince A. Ourousof; Feli Gautier, _Charles Baudelaire_ (Brussels,
1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la
Fitzeliere and C. Decaux, _Charles Baudelaire_ (1868) in the series of
_Essais de bibliographie contemporaine_; essays by Paul Bourget,
_Essais de psychologie conlemporaine_ (1883), and Maurice Spronck,
_Les Artistes litteraires_ (1889). Among English translations from
Baudelaire are _Poems in Prose_, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection
for the _Canterbury Poets_ (1904), by F.P. Sturm.

BAUDIER, MICHEL (c. 1589-1645), French historian, was born in Languedoc. During the reign of Louis XIII. he was historiographer to the Court of France. He contributed to French history by writing _Histoire de la guerre de Flandre 1559-1609_ (Paris, 1615); _Histoire de l'administration du cardinal d'Amboise, grand ministre d'etat en France_ (Paris, 1634), a defence of the cardinal; and _Histoire de l'administration de l'abbe Suger_ (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial interest in the Turks he wrote _Inventaire general de l'histoire des Turcs_ (Paris, 1619); _Histoire generale de la religion des Turcs avec la vie de leur prophete Mahomet_ (Paris, 1626); and _Histoire generale du serail et de la cour du grand Turc_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. by E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of a Jesuit who had returned from China, Baudier wrote _Histoire de la cour du roi de Chine_ (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. of the _Collection of Voyages and Travels_ of A. and J. Churchill, London, 1707-1747). He also wrote _Vie du cardinal Ximenes_ (Paris, 1635), which was again published with a notice of the author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious romance entitled _Histoire de l'incomparable administration de Romieu, grand ministre d'etat de Raymond Berenger, comte de Provence_ (Paris, 1635).

See J. Lelong, _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris,
1768-1778); L. Moreri, _Le Grand Dictionnaire historique_ (Amsterdam,
1740).

BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LEON (1821-1892), French economist, was born in Paris on the 28th of November 1821. His father, Jacques Joseph (1774-1832), was a distinguished writer on forestry, and was for many years in the service of the French government, eventually becoming the head of that branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of the state forests. Henri was educated at the College Bourbon, where he had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed assistant lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the College de France. In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of economic history, Baudrillart was appointed to fill it. His first work was an _Eloge de Turgot_ (1846), which at once won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he published an erudite work on _Jean Bodin et son temps_; then in 1857 a _Manuel d'economie politique_; in 1860, _Des rapports de la morale et de l'economie politique_; in 1865, _La Liberte du travail_; and from 1878 to 1880, _L'Histoire du luxe ... depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos jours_, in four volumes. At the instance of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of the farming classes of France, and published the results in four volumes (1885, _et seq_.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the _Journal des economistes_, and contributed many articles to the _Journal des debats_ and to the _Revue des deux mondes_. His writings are distinguished by their style, as well as by their profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was appointed inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he succeeded J. Garnier as professor of political economy at the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees. Baudrillart was made an officer of the Legion of Honour in 1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of January 1892.

BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-1130), archbishop of Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire, where he passed his early days. Educated at Meung and at Angers, he entered the Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil, and in 1079 became abbot of this place, but his time was devoted to literary pursuits rather than to his official duties. Having failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in 1097, he became archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his pallium in 1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoe, king of Brittany, but this step had been objected to by the archbishops of Tours. Consequently the position of the see was somewhat ambiguous, and Baudry is referred to both as archbishop and as bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven earnestly to do something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants of Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council, and in 1119 the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit of two years' duration to England. Returning to France he neglected the affairs of his diocese, and passed his time mainly at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died on the 5th or 7th of January 1130.

Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent quality. The most important of these, from the historical point of view, have been published in the _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_, tome iv., edited by A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's prose works are more important. The best known of these is his _Historiae Hierosolymitance_, a history of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books, the material for which was mainly drawn from the anonymous _Gesta Francorum_, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus Vitalis for his _Historiae ecclesiasticae_; by William, archbishop of Tyre, for his _Belli sacri historia_; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his _Speculum historiale_. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which appears in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887), Other works probably by Baudry are _Epistola ad Fiscannenses monachos_, a description of the monastery of Fecamp; _Vita Roberti de Arbrissello; Vita S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio capitis Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto et gladio_, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and _Vita S. Samsonis Dolensis episcopi_. Other writings which on very doubtful authority have been attributed to Baudry are _Acta S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De visitatione infirmorum; Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S. Maclovii, Alectensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium_; and _Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii_. Many of these are published by J.P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tomes 160, 162 and 166 (Paris 1844).

See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869);
H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); A.
Thurot, "Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiere croisade;
Baudri de Bourgueil" in the _Revue historique_ (Paris, 1876).

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME (1828-1886), French painter, was born at La Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendee). He studied under Drolling, a sound but second-rate artist, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his picture of "Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes." His talent from the first revealed itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and grace, but somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence in Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with the mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg: "The Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin" and "The Child." His "Leda," "St John the Baptist," and a "Portrait of Beule," exhibited at the same time, took a first prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most noteworthy being "The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did he attempt an historical picture, "Charlotte Corday after the murder of Marat" (1861), and returned by preference to the former class of subjects or to painting portraits of illustrious men of his day--Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond About. The works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural decorations, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation, at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private residences--the hotel Fould and hotel Paiva--but, above all, in the decorations of the _foyer_ of the Paris opera house. These, more than thirty paintings in all, and among them compositions figurative of dancing and music, occupied the painter, for ten years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of the Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of his colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating with his brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to him in Paris (1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne (1897) is by Gerome.

See H. Delaborde, _Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry_
(1886); Ch. Ephrussi, _Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1887).
(H. Fr.)

BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, was born on the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a porcelain factory, at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached himself to the "Right" of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In 1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in 1839 was transferred to Bonn. In 1838 he published his _Kritische Darstellung der Religion des Alten Testaments_ (2 vols.), which shows that at that date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon afterwards his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the Fourth Gospel, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes_ (1840), and the other on the Synoptics, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der Synoptiker_ (1841), as well as in his _Herr Hengstenberg, kritische Briefe uber den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des Evangeliums_, he announced his complete rejection of his earlier orthodoxy. In 1842 the government revoked his license and he retired for the rest of his life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward he took a deep interest in modern history and politics, as well as in theology, and published _Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklarung des 18ten Jahrhunderts_ (4 vols. 1843-1845), Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (3 vols. 1847), and _Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer Imperialismus_ (1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the gospels and a history of their origin, _Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres Ursprungs_ (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the Apostles, _Apostelgeschichte_ (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline epistles, _Kritik der paulinischen Briefe_ (1850-1852). He died at Rixdorf on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his _Life of Jesus_ had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious products of the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. Bauer ridiculed Strauss's notion that a community could produce a connected narrative. His own contention, embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (_Der Urevangelist_, 1838), was that the original narrative was the Gospel of Mark; that this was composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after this the other narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however, "regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the creator of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction and Christianity the invention of a single original evangelist" (Pfleiderer). On the same principle the four principal Pauline epistles were regarded as forgeries of the 2nd century. He argued further for the preponderance of the Graeco-Roman element, as opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian writings. The writer of Mark's gospel was "an Italian, at home both in Rome and Alexandria"; that of Matthew's gospel "a Roman, nourished by the spirit of Seneca"; the Pauline epistles were written in the West in antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. Christianity is essentially "Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish garb." This line of criticism has found few supporters, mostly in the Netherlands. It certainly had its value in emphasizing the importance of studying the influence of environment in the formation of the Christian Scriptures. Bauer was a man of restless, impetuous activity and independent, if ill-balanced, judgment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in place as a free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came in the end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the Jewish question (_Die Judenfrage_, 1843).

His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the
_Jewish Encyclopedia_. See generally Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_;
and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, _Development of Theology_, p. 226; Carl
Schwarz, _Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_, pp. 142 ff.; and F.
Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the 19th Century_
(1889), pp. 374-378.

BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, was born at Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having studied jurisprudence at the university of Vienna, he entered the government service in a legal capacity, and after holding various minor offices was transferred in 1843 to a responsible post on the Lottery Commission. He had already embarked upon politics, and severely criticized the government in a pamphlet, _Pia Desideria eines osterreichischen Schriftstellers_ (1842); and in 1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political opinions became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely to letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August 1890, and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies and farces, Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German playwrights of the century; his plots are clever, the situations witty and natural and the diction elegant. His earliest essays, the comedies _Leichtsinn aus Liebe_ (1831); _Das Liebes-Protokoll_ (1831) and _Die ewige Liebe_ (1834); _Burgerlich und Romantisch_, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he turned his attention to so-called _Salonstucke_ (drawing-room pieces), notably _Aus der Gesellschaft_ (1866); _Moderne Jugend_ (1869), and _Der Landfrieden_ (1869), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy sallies the social conditions of the capital in which he lived.

A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, _Gesammelte Schriften_,
appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Dramatischer Nachlass_, ed.
by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols.,
1905). See A. Stern, _Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat_ (1890), R. von
Gottschall, "E. von Bauernfeld" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1890), and E.
Horner, _Bauernfeld_ (1900).

BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name from a village in the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In consequence of an alliance with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts established themselves in Burgundy and Franche-Comte. In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of Charny, married Marie, a legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588 and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre Emmanuel Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, was created a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. After having served in the army of the princes he returned to France under the Empire, and had been made a count by Napoleon. (M. P.*)

BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, was the son of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), who had to leave his native country on becoming a convert to Protestantism. He was born at Basel on the 17th of January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he pursued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated schools in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to the degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy. In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that university, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of December 1624. He published several works relative to botany, of which the most valuable was his _Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo scripserunt opera_ (1596). Another great work which he planned was a _Theatrum Botanicum_, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of which he finished three; only one, however, was published (1658). He also gave a copious catalogue of the plants growing in the environs of Basel, and edited the works of P.A. Mattioli (1500-1577) with considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy, his principal work on this subject being _Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum_ (1592).

His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of botany at Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN BAUHIN (1541-1613), after studying botany at Tubingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basel, where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he was invited to become physician to the duke of Wurttemberg at Montbeliard, where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted himself chiefly to botany. His great work, _Historia plantarum nova et absolutissima_, a compilation of all that was then known about botany, was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in 1650-1651, the _Prodromus_ having appeared at the same place in 1619. He also wrote a book _De aquis medicatis_ (1605).

BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a ridge, partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed between furrows or ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary in the "open-field" system of agriculture. From the meaning of something left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse stopping short of an obstacle, of the "baulk-line" in billiards, or of the deceptive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original meaning, i.e. "beam," comes the use of the word for the cross or tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one or one and a half foot square section (see JOINERY).

BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born at Kranichfeld on the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September 1840, the son of a local medical practitioner, and received his early schooling at the gymnasium of Meiningen, to which place his father had removed. After studying natural science in various universities, he engaged in private tuition, both independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz, Brunn, Gorz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular taste with an Alpine legend, _Zlatorog_ (1877), and songs of a journeyman apprentice, _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_ (1878), both of which have run into many editions. Their success decided him to embark upon a literary career. In 1885 he returned to Meiningen, where he received the title of _Hofrat_, and was appointed ducal librarian. His death occurred on the 14th of September 1905.

Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and wrote, in imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent drinking songs, among which _Die Lindenwirtin_ has endeared him to the German student world. But his real strength lay in narrative verse, especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may be made of _Frau Holde_ (1881), _Spielmannslieder_ (1882), _Von der Landstrasse_ (1882), _Thuringer Lieder_ (1891), and his prose, _Sommermarchen_ (1881).

BAUME, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis on the 26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to the chemist Claude Joseph Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted a member of the Ecole de Pharmacie, where in the same year he was appointed professor of chemistry. The money he made in a business he carried on in Paris for dealing in chemical products enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote himself to applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was obliged to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding, purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the inventor of the hydrometer associated with his name (often in this connexion improperly spelt Beaume). Of the numerous books and papers he wrote the most important is his _Elemens de pharmacie theorique et pratique_ (9 editions, 1762-1818). He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1772, and an associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the 15th of October 1804.

BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762), German philosopher, born at Berlin. He studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle and at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been the first to establish the _Theory of the Beautiful_ as an independent science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics (q.v.) from the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out a definite object for its researches. The very name (_Aesthetics_), which Baumgarten was the first to use, indicates the imperfect and partial nature of his analysis, pointing as it does to an element so variable as _feeling_ or _sensation_ as the ultimate ground of judgment in questions pertaining to beauty. It is important to notice that Baumgarten's first work preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and P. Andre, and that Kant had a great admiration for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the following: _Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus_ (1735); _Aesthetics; Metaphysica_ (1739; 7th ed. 1779); _Ethica philosophica_ (1751, 2nd ed. 1763); _Initia philosophiae practicae primae_ (1760). After his death, his pupils published a _Philosophia Generalis_ (1770) and a _Jus Naturae_ (1765), which he had left in manuscript.

See Meyer, _Baumgarten's Leben_ (1763); Abbt, _Baumgarten's Leben und
Charakler_ (1765); H.G. Meyer, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (1874); J.
Schmidt, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); and article
AESTHETICS.

His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), was professor of theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff to theology. His chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.), is sometimes called, the father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he did not renounce the Pietistic doctrine, began the process which Semler completed. His works include _Evangelische Glaubenslehre_ (1759); _Auszug der Kirchengeschichte_ (1743-1762); _Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum Christianarum_ (1747); _Geschichte der Religionsparteien_ (1760); _Nachricht van merkwurdigen Buchern_ (1752-1757); _Nachrichten van einer hallischen Bibliothek_ (1748-1751).

See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).

BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant theologian, was born at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of March 1812. He studied at Kiel University (1832), and became professor ordinarius of theology at Rostock (1850). A liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854 through a work, _Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus der Gegenwart_, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament and assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every kind. At a pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended evangelical freedom as regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. This, with other attempts to liberalize religion, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities of Mecklenburg, and in 1858 he was deprived of his professorship. He then travelled throughout Germany, demanding justice, telling the story of his life (_Christliche Selbstgesprache_, 1861), and lecturing on the life of Jesus (_Die Geschichte Jesu. Fur das Verstandniss der Gegenwart_, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the _Deutsche Protestantenverein_, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several occasions (1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of the progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other works: _Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van Jerusalem bis Rom_ (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and _Doktor Martin Luther, ein Volksbuch_ (1883).

H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see also C.
Schwartz, _Neueste Theologie_ (1869); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ.
Theol._, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchen-Lexikon_.

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant divine, was born at Merseburg. In 1805 he entered the university of Leipzig and studied theology and philology. After acting as _Privatdocent_ at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his life, rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died on the 31st of May 1842. With the exception of Church history, he lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially on New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his lectures and treatises, especially those on the development of church doctrine. His published works are many, the most important being:--_Lehrbuch der christtichen Sittenlehre_ (1826); _Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie_ (1828); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (1832); _Compendium der Dogmengeschichte_ (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.

BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860), leader of the Tubingen school of theology, was born at Schmiden, near Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792. After receiving an early training in the theological seminary at Blaubeuren, he went in 1809 to the university of Tubingen. Here he studied for a time under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New Testament critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his career he seems to have been under the influence of the old Tubingen school. But at the same time the philosophers Immanuel Fichte and Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide and deep impression. In 1817 Baur returned to the theological seminary at Blaubeuren as professor. This move marked a turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set to work upon those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser's _Biblische Theologie_ for Bengel's _Archiv fur Theologie_ (ii. 656); its tone was moderate and conservative. When, a few years after his appointment at Blaubeuren, he published his first important, work, _Symbolik und Mythologie oder die Naturreligion des Altertums_ (1824-1825), it became evident that he had made a deeper study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. The learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the author was called to Tubingen as professor of theology. It is with Tubingen that his greatest literary achievements are associated. His earlier publications here treated of mythology and the history of dogma. _Das manichaische Religionssystem_ appeared in 1831, _Apollonius von Tyana_ in 1832, _Die christliche Gnosis_ in 1835, and _Uber das Christliche im Platonismus oder Socrates und Christus_ in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer (_Development of Theology_, p. 285) observes, "the choice not less than the treatment of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of view and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of religion." Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy for another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he had adopted completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. "Without philosophy," he has said, "history is always for me dead and dumb." The change of view is illustrated clearly in the essay, published in the _Tubinger Zeitschrift_ for 1831, on the Christ-party in the Corinthian Church, _Die Chrislusparlei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des paulinischen und petrinischen in der alsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus in Rom_, the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends that St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party which wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead of his universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict of parties in the post-apostolic age. The theory is further developed in a later work (1835, the year in which David Strauss' _Leben Jesu_ was published), _Uber die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe_. In this Baur attempts to prove that the false teachers mentioned in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus are the Gnostics, particularly the Marcionites, of the second century, and consequently that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this century in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same manner, publishing his results in 1845 under the title _Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre_. In this he contends that only the Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians and Romans are genuinely Pauline, and that the Paul of Acts is a different person from the Paul of these genuine Epistles, the author being a Paulinist who, with an eye to the different parties in the Church, is at pains to represent Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as far as possible as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is prepared to apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the words of H.S. Nash, "he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the examination of the New Testament." Those writings alone he considers genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians and Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his _Kritische Untersuchungen uber die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss zu einander, ihren Charakter und Ursprung_ (1847) he turns his attention to the Gospels, and here again finds that the authors were conscious of the conflict of parties; the Gospels reveal a mediating or conciliatory tendency (_Tendenz_) on the part of the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in fact, are adaptations or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the Gospel of the Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. The Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original Gospel (_Urevangelium_); the Pauline Luke is later and arose independently; Mark represents a still later development; the account in John is idealistic: it "does not possess historical truth, and cannot and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's whole theory indeed starts with the supposition that Christianity was gradually developed out of Judaism. Before it could become a universal religion, it had to struggle with Jewish limitations and to overcome them. The early Christians were Jewish-Christians, to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other hand, represented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, James and John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle continued down to the middle of the 2nd century. In short, the conflict between Petrinism and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz puts it, the key to the literature of the 1st and 2nd century.

But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical critic. As early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, _Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der beiden Lehrbegriffe_, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of Schleiermacher's _Glaubenslehre_, and a vigorous reply to J. Mohler's _Symbolik_ (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, _Die christliche Lehre van der Versohnung in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1838), _Die christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung_ (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte_ (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat by Baur's habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of Hegel's philosophy, a procedure "which only served to obscure the truth and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the human mind" (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his _Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung_ (1852), _Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte_ (1853), and _Die christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten Jahrhunderts_ (1859), works preparatory to his _Kirchengeschichte_, in which the change of view is specially pronounced. The _Kirchengeschichte_ was published in five volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him. Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as "a classic for all time." "Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church on _strictly historical_ lines, i.e. as a natural development of the religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various human causes" (_Development of Theology_, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the history of dogma, _Ausfuhrlichere Vorlesungen uber die christliche Dogmengeschichte_, were published later by his son (1865-1868).

Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great service to theological science. "One thing is certain: New Testament study, since his time, has had a different colour" (H.S. Nash). He has had a number of disciples or followers, who have in many cases modified his positions.

A full account of F.C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his
writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck,
_Realencyklopadie_, in which his work is divided into three periods:
(1) "Philosophy of Religion," (2) "Biblical criticism," (3) "Church
History." See also H.S. Nash, _The History of the Higher Criticism of
the New Testament_ (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, _The Development
of Theology in Germany since Kant_ (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, _Zur
Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay, _The
Tubingen School and its Antecedents_ (1863); A.S. Farrar, _A Critical
History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion_
(Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tubingen
Historical School," in _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.
(M. A. C.)

BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE (1796-1867), French philosopher and theologian, was born at Paris. At the Ecole Normale he came under the influence of Cousin. In 1816 he adopted the profession of higher teaching, and was soon after called to the chair of philosophy in the university of Strassburg. He held this position for many years, and gave a parallel course of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in the same city. The reaction against speculative philosophy, which carried away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 he took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For several years he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty and at the college of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as vicar of the diocese. At Paris he obtained considerable reputation as an orator, and in 1853 was made professor of moral theology at the theological faculty. This post he held till his death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason and faith, and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise unattainable, which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods. Theology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. Yet Bautain was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he exalted faith above reason. He pointed out, following chiefly the Kantian criticism, that reason can never yield knowledge of things in themselves. But there exists in addition to reason another faculty which may be called intelligence, through which we are put in connexion with spiritual and invisible truth. This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of truth; it merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are made productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. This fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments of psychology and morals. The details of this theology are highly imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a spirit of the world and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth to a physical and psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the animal and vegetable spirits. His theories may well be compared with the arbitrary mysticism of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important of his works are:--_Philosophie du Christianisme_ (1835); _Psychologic experimentale_ (1839), new edition entitled _Esprit humain et ses facultes_ (1859); _Philosophie morale_ (1840); _Religion et liberte_ (1848); _La Morale de l'evangile comparee aux divers systemes de morale_ (Strassburg, 1827; Paris, 1855); _De l'education publique en France au XIX^e siecle_ (Paris, 1876).

BAUTZEN (Wendish _Budissin_, "town"), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515; (1905) 29,412. It occupies an eminence on the right bank of the Spree, 680 ft. above the level of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the Dresden-Gorlitz-Breslau main line of railway, and at the junction of lines from Schandau and Konigswartha. The town is surrounded by walls, and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned into promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the left bank of the river. Among its churches the most remarkable is the cathedral of St Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a tower 300 ft. in height. It is used by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, an iron screen separating the parts assigned to each. There are five other churches, a handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum, several hospitals, a mechanics' institute, a famous grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several other schools, and two public libraries. The general trade and manufactures are considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth), linen and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It has also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar factories, &c.

Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, conquered Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth and importance, for a good share of which it was indebted to the pilgrimages which were made to the "arm of St Peter," preserved in one of the churches. It suffered greatly during the Hussite war, and still more during the Thirty Years' War, in the course of which it was besieged and captured by the elector of Brandenburg, John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein (1633), and, in the following year was burned by its commander before being surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in 1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.

Battle of Bautzen, 1813.

The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th and 21st of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of Russians and Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The position chosen by the allies as that in which to receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. Bautzen itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing (Russians), the main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near Jenkwitz. On the heights of Burk, 2-1/2 m. N.E. of Bautzen, was Kleist's Prussian corps, with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of Burk) lay Blucher's corps, and on Blucher's right, formed at an angle to him, and refused towards Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the Russians of Barclay de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought abounded in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was covered by the river Spree, which served as an immediate defence for the left and centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to attack the right; moreover the interval between the river and the position on this side was covered with a network of ponds and watercourses. Napoleon's right and centre approached (on a broad front owing to the want of cavalry) from Dresden by Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at Luckau, was ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and Klix to strike the allies' right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, after a prolonged reconnaissance, advanced the main army against Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's right to be dealt with by Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the extreme left of the allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to move his artillery and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's (XII.) corps, the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly country to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the Spree and attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three corps were directed by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.) corps was held back to connect with Ney, who had then reached Weissig with the head of his column. The Guard and other general reserves were in rear of Macdonald and Marmont. Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the other bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive combat took place in the evening between Oudinot and the Russian left, directed by the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's men made a little progress towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle was more serious. The Prussians were not experienced troops, but were full of ardour and hatred of the French. Kleist made a most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and Bertrand's corps was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but part of Blucher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the ground and by want of room to deploy between the river and the enemy. But Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the centre was achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the French attack, gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and right to sustain the shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were in possession of the French, and the allied line now stretched from Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz, Blucher and Barclay maintaining their original positions at Pliskowitz and Gleina. The night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the battlefield. Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost fought out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive point was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep until the time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter-stroke against Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal from the ground won on the 20th, the emperor paid no more heed than to order Macdonald to support the XII corps. For in this second position of the allies, which was far more formidable than the original line, the decisive result could be brought about only by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the corps of Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had been sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in calculated inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Ney and Lauriston moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and Victor operated by a wide turning movement against Barclay's right rear. The advance was carried out with precision; the Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now closing upon the rear of Blucher's corps at the village of Preititz. Napoleon at once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in order to prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the critical moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 A.M. and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was checked until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could come upon the scene. At 1 P.M., when Ney resumed his advance, it was too late to cut off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now made his final stroke. The Imperial Guard and all other troops in the centre, 80,000 strong and covered by a great mass of artillery, moved forward to the attack; and shortly the allied centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent to oppose Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blucher, now almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make head against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before them. Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's appearance, to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered a general retreat eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and bravery directing the rearguard. Thus the allies drew off unharmed, leaving no trophies in the hands of Napoleon, whose success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a variety of reasons, and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a _coup manque_ strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side 163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded.