Chapter IV: ECAUDATA (22).--Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail. Radius (13)

The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher is to be found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the two dramatists and their collaborators has been the object of a series of studies for the establishment of metrical and other tests. Fletcher's verse is recognizable by the frequency of an extra syllable, often an accented one, at the end of a line, the use of stopped lines, and the frequency of trisyllabic feet. He thus obtained an adaptable instrument enabling him to dispense with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in these matters was done by F.G. Fleay in a paper read before the New Shakspere Society in 1874 on "Metrical Tests as applied to Fletcher, Beaumont and Massinger." His theories were further developed in the article "Fletcher" in his _Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama_. Further investigations were published by R. Boyle in _Englische Studien_ (vols. v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), and in the New Shakspere Society _Transactions_ (1880-1886), by Benno Leonhardt in _Anglia_ (Halle, vols. xix. _seq._), and by E.H. Oliphant in _Englische Studien_ (vols. xiv. _seq._). Mr Oliphant restores to Beaumont much which other critics had been inclined to deny him. On the sources of the plays see E. Koppel in _Munchener Beitrage zur roman. u. eng. Phil._ (Erlangen and Leipzig, 1895). Consult further articles by A.H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively on Fletcher and Massinger in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._; G.C. Macaulay, _Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study_ (1883); and Dr A.W. Ward's chapter on "Beaumont and Fletcher" in vol. ii. of his _Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit._ (new ed. 1899).

A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with some details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main lines of criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne's article above it is often difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where the play was produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write for the stage there can be no certainty that we are not dealing with a piece which is an adaptation of an earlier play by a later hand.

_The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher.--The Scornful Lady_ (acted
c. 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in which
Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a fourth
hand. _Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding_ is assigned by Macaulay to
Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Fleay attributes only
three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c. 1609, and was
printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle and (1763) by
the younger Colman, probably owing its long popularity to the touching
character of Bellario. Beaumont's share also predominated in _The
Maid's Tragedy_ (acted c. 1609, pr. 1619), in _A King and No King_
(acted at court December 26, 1611, and perhaps earlier, pr. 1619),
while _The Knight of the Burning Pestle_ (c. 1610, pr. 1613),
burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood's _Four
Prentices_ is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to
Beaumont's account. In _Cupid's Revenge_ (acted at court January 1612,
and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on Sidney's
_Arcadia_, the two dramatists appear to have had a third collaborator
in Massinger and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field.

The _Coxcomb_ (acted c. 1610, and by the Children of the Queen's
Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by
Massinger. Fletcher's collaboration with other dramatists had begun
during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased to write for
the stage two or three years before his death.

_Works Assigned to Beaumont's Sole Authorship.--The Woman-Hater_ (pr.
1607, as "lately acted by the children of Paul's") was assigned
formerly to Fletcher. The _Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_
was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the
marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of _Four Plays, or Moral
Representations, in One_ (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the _Induction_, with
_The Triumph of Honour_ and _The Triumph of Love_, both founded on
tales from the _Decameron_, are by Beaumont.

_Works Assigned to Fletcher's Sole Authorship.--The Faithful
Shepherdess_ (pr. c. 1609) was ill received on its original
production, but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author
is practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond's
_Conversations_ is made to assert that "Beaumont and Fletcher ten
years since hath written _The Faithful Shepherdess_." It was
translated into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Milton's
_Comus_ owes not a little to it. In _Four Plays in One_, the two last,
_The Triumph of Death_ and _The Triumph of Time_, are Fletcher's. In
the indifferent comedy of _The Captain_ (acted 1612-1613, revived
1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than
Fletcher's, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and Rowley
has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are: _Wit Without Money_
(acted 1614, pr. 1639); the two romantic tragedies of _Bonduca_ (in
which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than Bonduca
or Boadicea) and _Valentinian_, both dating from c. 1616 and printed
in the first folio; _The Loyal Subject_ (acted 1618, revived at court
1633, pr. 1647); _The Mad Lover_ (acted before March 1619, pr. 1647),
which borrows something from the story of Mundus and Paulina in
Josephus (bk. xviii.); _The Humorous Lieutenant_ (1619, pr. 1647);
_Woman Pleased_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Woman's Prize or The Tamer
Tam'd_ (produced probably between 1610 and 1613, acted 1633 at
Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to _The Taming
of the Shrew_; _The Chances_ (uncertain date, pr. 1647), taken from
_La Sennora Cornelia_ of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after the
Restoration and in the 18th century; _Monsieur Thomas_ (acted perhaps
as early as 1609, pr. 1639); _The Island Princess_ (c. 1621, pr.
1647); _The Pilgrim_ and _The Wild Goose-Chase_ (pr. 1652), the second
of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in
1621, and possibly then not new pieces; _A Wife for a Month_ (acted
1624, pr. 1647); _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_ (lic. 1624, pr. 1640).
_The Pilgrim_ received additions from Dryden, and was adapted by
Vanbrugh.

_Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists._--External evidence
of Fletcher's connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine,
who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: "Playes they did
write together, were great friends," and elsewhere claimed for
Massinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James
Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used to
be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a letter from
Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for L5 for their joint
necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is a postscript
suggesting the deduction of the sum from the "mony remaynes for the
play of Mr Fletcher and ours." The problem is complicated when the
existing versions of the play are posterior to Fletcher's lifetime,
that is, revisions by Massinger or another of pieces which were even
originally of double authorship. In this way Beaumont's work may be
concealed under successive revisions, and it would be rash to assert
that none of the late plays contains anything of his. Mr R. Boyle
joins the name of Cyril Tourneur to those of Fletcher and Massinger in
connexion with _The Honest Man's Fortune_ (acted 1613, pr. 1647),
which Fleay identifies with "the play of Mr Fletcher's and ours." _The
Knight of Malta_ (acted 1618-1619, pr. 1647) is in its existing form a
revision by Fletcher, Massinger, and possibly Field, of an earlier
play which Oliphant thinks was probably written by Beaumont about
1608. The same remarks (with the exclusion of Field's name) apply to
_Thierry and Theodoret_ (acted c. 1617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire on
contemporary manners at the French court, though Beaumont's share in
either must be regarded as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger's
great tragedy of _Sir John van Olden Barnaveldt_ (acted 1619) was
first printed in Bullen's _Old Plays_ (vol. ii., 1883). They followed
it up with _The Custom of the Country_ (acted 1619, pr. 1647), based
on an English translation (1619) of _Los Trabajos de Persiles y
Sigismunda; The Double Marriage_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647); _The Little
French Lawyer_ (c. 1620, pr. 1647), the plot of which can be traced
indirectly to a _novellino_ by Massuccio Salernitano; _The Laws of
Candy_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed authorship; _The False One_
(c. 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the subject of Caesar and
Cleopatra; _The Spanish Curate_ (acted 1622, pr. 1647), repeatedly
revived after the Restoration, was derived from Leonard Digges's
translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, _Gerardo, the Unfortunate
Spaniard; The Prophetess_ (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards made into an
opera by Betterton to Purcell's music; _The Sea-Voyage_ (1622, pr.
1647); _The Elder Brother_ (perhaps originally written by Fletcher
c. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); _Beggar's Bush_ (acted
at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647); and _The Noble
Gentleman_ (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small share in
_Wit at Several Weapons_--"if he but writ an act or two," says an
epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626),--and the play is probably a
revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont and Fletcher
play. _A Very Woman_ (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by Massinger of
_The Woman's Plot_ ascribed to Fletcher and acted at court in 1621.
Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the lost play of the
_Jeweller of Amsterdam_ (1619), as on the _Faithful Friends_
(1613-1614) and _The Queen of Corinth_ (c. 1618, pr. 1647). _The
Lover's Progress_ (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by
Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as _The Wandering
Lovers_, and is perhaps identical with _Cleander_, licensed in 1634.
_Love's Cure or The Martial Maid_ (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr
Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher play
produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher in _The Maid
in the Mill_ (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with Massinger in the
revision of _The Fair Maid of the Inn_ (licensed 1626, pr. 1647),
based on _La illustre Fregona_ of Cervantes. _Nice Valour_ (acted
1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton from an
earlier play; _The Widow_, printed in 1652 as by Jonson, Fletcher and
Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to Middleton. _The
Night Walker_ (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a Fletcher play.

_Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration._--The history of _The Bloody
Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy_, printed in 1637 as by "B.J.F.,"
is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the
play to be an early work (c. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is
superimposed a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and
a subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view is
that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and Fletcher.
Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher's _Love's Pilgrimage_ (pr.
1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger in 1635.

_Fletcher and Shakespeare._--_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was printed in
1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its first
representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher's death. It
was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher's comedies
and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in concert it was
probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably represents a
revision by Massinger in 1625. _Henry VIII._ (played at the Globe in
1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher and Massinger, and the
conditions of its production were probably similar. Fletcher and
Shakespeare are together credited at Stationers' Hall with the lost
play of _Cardenio_, destroyed by Warburton's cook. (M. Br.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion as to
the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed to
them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, remains the classical modern criticism of
Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected. As
representing to the end the views of its distinguished author, it is
therefore retained as written, the results of later research being
epitomized in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (_Ed._)

BEAUMONT, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Texas, U.S.A., situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of the state, about 28 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E. of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296; (1900) 9427, of whom 2953 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is served by the Gulf & Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Kansas City Southern, the Texas & New Orleans, the Colorado Southern, New Orleans & Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western (from Beaumont to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston, Beaumont & North-Eastern railways. The Neches river from Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not less than 19 ft.; from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft. wide, and 12 m. long) which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft. wide and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of a region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beaumont is one of the largest lumber centres of the southern states; it is also the centre of a large rice-growing region. The manufactories include rice mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind factories, shingle mills, iron works, oil refineries, broom factories and a dynamite factory. In 1905 the cleaning and polishing of rice was the most important industry, its output being valued at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the product of the rice mills of the city in 1900, 25.9% of the total value of the state's product of polished and cleaned rice, 46.1% of the value ($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont's factory products, and about 7.4% of the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice for the whole United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil wells in 1901, Beaumont became one of the principal oil-producing places in the United States; its oil refineries are connected by pipe lines with the surrounding oil fields, and two 6-in. pipe lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma. Beaumont was first settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in 1899.

BEAUNE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Cote-d'Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m. S.S.W. of Dijon on the main line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at the foot of the hills of Cote-d'Or. Portions of its ancient fortifications are still to be seen, but they have been for the most part replaced by a shady promenade which separates the town from its suburbs. The most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of St Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy. Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preservation. The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround the main courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by numerous dormer windows with decorated gables, recalling the Flemish style of architecture. In the interior there are several interesting apartments; the chief of these is the ample council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an important wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the 17th century in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last Judgment, attributed to Roger van der Weyden. The principal church of the town, Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries, has a fine central tower and a triple portal with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is some valuable tapestry of the 15th century, and other works of art. Two round towers (15th century) are a survival of the castle of Beaune, dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and several houses of the Renaissance period, some of which are built over ancient wine-cellars, are architecturally notable. There is a statue to the mathematician, G. Monge, born in the town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the politician (d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and viticulture and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on considerable trade in live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of its market-gardens, and manufactures of casks, corks, white metal, oil, vinegar and machinery for the wine-trade are included among the industries; it is chiefly important for its vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of Burgundy.

Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during the middle ages. It was the capital of a separate county which in 1227 was united to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became the first seat of the Burgundian parlement or _jours generaux_ and a ducal residence. On the death of Charles the Bold, it sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, but was besieged and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank as commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I. in 1521. In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the League, but afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry IV., from whom it received the confirmation of its communal privileges and permission to demolish its fortifications. The revocation of the edict of Nantes struck a severe blow at the cloth and iron industries, which had previously been a source of prosperity to the town. In the 18th century there were no fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a Bernardine abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college.

BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE (c. 1772-?), French adventurer, the son of a poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born about 1772. He received the name Beauregard from a nobleman in whose service he was engaged as valet. On the outbreak of the revolution, this nobleman converted all his fortune into gold, and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his valet, fled to the frontier. For security's sake master and man took different roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris. By speculations in provisions and military equipments under the Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling himself the marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid mansion and began giving magnificent entertainments. Detected at the height of his success, the impostor was arrested and condemned to four years in irons and to be branded. He soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear in Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however, he disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed suicide. It is probable that most of the information available about him is a blend of fact and fiction.

BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT (1818-1893), American soldier, was born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 28th of May 1818. At the United States military academy he graduated second in his class in July 1838, and was appointed lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he distinguished himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in all the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became captain and was in charge of fortification and other engineer works of various points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860. He had just been appointed superintendent of West Point when the secession of his state brought about his resignation (20th February 1861). As a brigadier-general of the new Confederate army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter, S.C. As the commander of the Southern "Army of the Potomac" he opposed McDowell's advance to Bull Run, and during the battle was second in command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had joined him on the previous evening. He was one of the five full generals appointed in August 1861, and in 1862 was second in command under Sidney Johnston on the Tennessee. After Johnston's death he directed the battle of Shiloh, subsequent to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended against the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862, when he retreated in good order to the southward. His health now failing, he was employed in less active work. He defended Charleston against the Union forces from September 1862 to April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a severe and eventually successful battle at Drury's Bluff against General Butler and the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman's advance from Atlanta, and eventually surrendered with Johnston's forces in April 1865. After the war he engaged in railway management, became adjutant-general of his state and managed the Louisiana lottery. He declined high commands which were offered to him in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies. General Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 20th of February 1893. He was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_ (Charleston, 1863); _Report on the Defence of Charleston_ (Richmond, 1864).

See Alfred Roman, _Military Operations of General Beauregard_ (New
York, 1883).

BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE (1659-1738), French Protestant divine, was born at Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After studying theology at the Protestant academy of Saumur, he was ordained at the age of twenty-two, becoming pastor at Chatillon-sur-Indre. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes he fled to Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was appointed chaplain to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of Orange. In 1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin and became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor of the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher, counsellor of the Consistory, director of the _Maison francaise_, a hospice for French people, inspector of the French gymnasium and superintendent of all the French churches in Brandenburg. He died on the 5th of June 1738. He had strong sense with profound erudition, was one of the best writers of his time and an excellent preacher.

BEAUVAIS, a town of northern France, capital of the department of Oise, 49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 17,045. Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the left bank of the Therain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its ancient ramparts have been destroyed, and it is now surrounded by boulevards, outside which run branches of the Therain. In addition, there are spacious promenades in the north-east of the town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some respects the most daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists only of a transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small Romanesque church of the 10th century known as the Basse-Oeuvre occupies the site destined for the nave. Begun in 1247, the work was interrupted in 1284 by the collapse of the vaulting of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a too ambitious central tower, after which little addition was made. The transept was built from 1500 to 1548. Its facades, especially that on the south, exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church possesses an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and tapestries of the 15th and 17th centuries; but its chief artistic treasures are stained glass windows of the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries, the most beautiful of them from the hand of the Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of Beauvais. To him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Etienne, the second church of the town, and an interesting example of the transition stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles.

In the Place de l'Hotel de Ville and in the old streets near the cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries. The hotel de ville, close to which stands the statue of Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1752. The episcopal palace, now used as a court-house, was built in the 16th century, partly upon the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The industry of Beauvais comprises, besides the state manufacture of tapestry, which dates from 1664, the manufacture of various kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys, boots and shoes, and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in the vicinity and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine.

The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, together with a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a lycee and training colleges.

Beauvais was known to the Romans as _Caesaromagus_, and took its present name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose capital it was. In the 9th century it became a countship, which about 1013 passed to the bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately became peers of France. In 1346 the town had to defend itself against the English, who again besieged it in 1433. The siege which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of Burgundy was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated by a procession on the 14th of October (the feast of Ste Angadreme), in which the women take precedence of the men.

See V. Lhuillier, _Choses du vieux Beauvais et au Beauvaisis_ (1896).

BEAUVILLIER, the name of a very ancient French family belonging to the country around Chartres, members of which are found filling court offices from the 15th century onward. For Charles de Beauvillier, gentleman of the chamber to the king, governor and _bailli_ of Blois, the estate of Saint Aignan was created a countship in 1537. Francois de Beauvillier, comte de Saint Aignan, after having been through the campaigns in Germany (1634-1635), Franche-Comte (1636), and Flanders (1637), was sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the battle of Thionville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court party during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie) in 1663. His son Paul, called the duc de Beauvillier, was several times ambassador to England; he became chief of the council of finance in 1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou and Berri from 1689 to 1693, minister of state in 1691, and grandee of Spain in 1701. He married a daughter of Colbert. Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de Montresor, afterwards duc de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from 1715 to 1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of regency in 1719. (M. P.*)

BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE, the _nom de plume_ of EUGENE AUGUSTE ROGER DE BULLY (1806-1866), French writer, who was born on the 8th of November 1806 in Paris. He was the son and nephew of public officials who did not approve his literary inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote over the signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow, of independent means, an indefatigable _viveur_, he astonished all Paris with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his romantic novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation. Among the best of them are _L'Ecolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme_ (1832), which is said to have furnished Alexandre Dumas and Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with the idea of the _Tour de Nesle_, and _Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_ (1840). He had married in 1847 an actress, Eleonore Leocadie Doze (1822-1859), from whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two later after a long and notorious trial, following which his mother-in-law got him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs for a satirical poem, _Mon Proces_ (1849). Ruined by extravagance and tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life in retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866.

BEAUX, CECILIA (1863- ), American portrait-painter, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil of William Sartain. But her real art training was obtained in Paris, where she started in the _atelier_ Julian and had the coaching of painters like Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition. Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in 1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy, and later various other distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer (exhibited at the Salon in 1896); Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and Mrs Larz Anderson. Her "Dorothea and Francesca," and "Ernesta and her Little Brother," are good examples of her skill in painting children.

BEAVER,[1] the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian order RODENTIA (q.v.), easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction. The true beaver (_Castor fiber_) is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a closely-allied species (_C. canadensis_), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of the skull. Beavers are nearly allied to the squirrels (_Sciuridae_), agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the _Sciuridae_ the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or _Castoridae_ these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. In length beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. The American species is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are sociable anirrals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood they make their "lodges," which are roomy chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder. They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are driftwood, green willows, birch and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam, but there is no particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength. "In places," writes Hearne, "which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches." Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the apartments have usually no communication with each other except by water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.

The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily (_Nuphar luteum_), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of birch, poplar and willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of August.

The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and when roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to taste like pork. _Castoreum_ is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used only in perfumery.

Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant extinct beaver, _Trogontherium cuvieri_, representing a genus by itself.

For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the _Bergens
Museum Aarbog_ for 1897. See also R.T. Martin, _Castorologia, a
History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver_ (London, 1892).
(R. L.*)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf.
Sanskrit _babhrus_, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. _fiber_, Ger.
_Biber_, Swed. _bafver_, Russ. _bobr'_; the root _bhru_ has given
"brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."

BEAVER (from Fr. _baviere_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armour to protect the face and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor moved down, but the word is sometimes used to include the visor. The right form of the word, "baver," has been altered from a confusion with "beaver," a hat made of beaver-fur or a silk imitation, also, in slang, called a "castor," from the zoological name of the beaver family.

BEAVER DAM, a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated in the S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on Beaver Lake, which is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890) 4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023 were foreign-born; (1905) 5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is of German descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public library, and is the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist), a co-educational preparatory school affiliated with the university of Chicago. Beaver Dam is situated in the midst of a fine farming country; it has a good water-power derived from Beaver Lake, and among its manufactures are woollen and cotton goods, malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene engines, agricultural implements, stoves and beer. The city was first settled about 1841, and was incorporated in 1856.

BEAVER FALLS, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Beaver river, about 3-1/2 m. from its confluence with the Ohio, opposite New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735; (1900) 10,054, of whom 1554 were foreign-born; (1910), census, 12,191. The borough is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft. above the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise abruptly, especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft. Bituminous coal, natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity; the river provides excellent water-power; the borough is a manufacturing centre of considerable importance, its products including iron and steel bridges, boilers, steam drills, carriages, saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting, stoves, glass-ware, scales, chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile, bricks and typewriters. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $4,907,536. Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational), established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was removed in 1880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1900, 899), 1 m. N. of Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate department, departments of music, oratory and art, and a physical department, and in 1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235 students. Beaver Falls was first settled in 1801; was laid out as a town and named Brighton in 1806; received its present name a few years later; and in 1868 was incorporated as a borough.

BEAWAR, or NAYANAGAR, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-Merwara. It is 33 m. from Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is an important centre of trade, especially in raw cotton, and has cotton presses and the Krishna cotton mills. It was founded by Colonel Dixon in 1835.

BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST (1840- ), German socialist, was born at Cologne on the 22nd of February 1840; he became a turner and worked at Leipzig. Here he took a prominent part in the workmen's movement and in the association of working men which had been founded under the influence of Schultz-Delitzsch; at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed advocate of socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the branch of the socialists which was in close correspondence with Karl Marx and the International, and refused to accept the leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to carry on the work after Lassalle's death. He was one of those who supported a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as "the Eisenacher." In this year he was elected a member of the North German Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with an interval from 1881 to 1883, remained a member of the German parliament. His great organizing talent and oratorical power quickly made him one of the leaders of the socialists and their chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of Lassalle, on the other hand, voted for the government proposals. He was the only Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in 1871, but he used his position to protest against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and to express his full sympathy with the Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards said that this speech of Bebel's was a "ray of light," showing him that Socialism was an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872 Bebel was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress, and, for insulting the German emperor, to nine months' ordinary imprisonment. After his release he helped to organize, at the congress of Gotha, the united party of Social Democrats, which had been formed during his imprisonment. After the passing of the Socialist Law he continued to show great activity in the debates of the Reichstag, and was also elected a member of the Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was proclaimed in Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 condemned to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret society. Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not recognize a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far the most influential member of the party. In the party meetings of 1890 and 1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the extremists, the "young" Socialists from Berlin, who wished to abandon parliamentary action; against these Bebel won a complete victory. On the other side he was involved in a quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put aside from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual amelioration. This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel came to be regarded as the chief exponent of the traditional views of the orthodox Marxist party. He was exposed to some natural ridicule on the ground that the "Kladderadatsch," which he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make its appearance. On the other hand, though a strong opponent of militarism, he publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany must not expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His book, _Die Frau und der Socialismus_ (1893), which went through many editions and contained an attack on the institution of marriage, identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism.

See also Mehring, _Geschichte der deutschen Social-Demokratie_
(Stuttgart, 1898); _Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social
Democratic Party_, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890); B.
Russell, _German Social-Democracy_ (London, 1897). (J. W. He.)

BECCAFICO (Ital. for "fig-pecker"), a small migratory bird of the warbler (_Sylviidae_) family, which frequents fig-trees and vineyards, and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy.

BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE (1486-1551), Italian painter, of the school of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan republics Siena had been in artistic genius, and almost in political importance, the rival of Florence. But after the great plague in 1348 the city declined; and though her population always comprised an immense number of skilled artists and artificers, yet her school did not share in the general progress of Italy in the 15th century. About the year 1500, indeed, Siena had no native artists of the first importance; and her public and private commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo at Rome in 1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the desire of imitating them. Among these accomplished men who now, without the mind and inspiration of Raphael or Michelangelo, mastered a great deal of their manner, and initiated the decadence of Italian art, several of the most accomplished arose in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the son of a peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs of a talent for drawing in his labourer's son, Lorenzo Beccafumi took the boy into his service and presently adopted him, causing him to learn painting from masters of the city. Known afterwards as Domenico Beccafumi, or earlier as Il Mecarino (from the name of a poor artist with whom he studied), the peasant's son soon gave proof of extraordinary industry and talent. In 1509 he went to Rome and steeped himself in the manner of the great men who had just done their first work in the Vatican. Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly gained employment and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mythological decorations for private patrons. But the work by which he will longest be remembered is that which he did for the celebrated pavement of the cathedral of Siena. For a hundred and fifty years the best artists of the state had been engaged laying down this pavement with vast designs in _commesso_ work,--white marble, that is, engraved with the outlines of the subject in black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in many colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improvements in the technical processes employed, and laid down multitudinous scenes from the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses. These are not so interesting as the simpler work of the earlier schools, but are much more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when he was collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try and purchase the original cartoons. But their owner would not part with them, and they are now in the Siena Academy and elsewhere. The subjects have been engraved on wood, by the hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at one time or another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the procession of the emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In his later days, being a solitary liver and continually at work, he is said to have accelerated his death by over-exertion upon the processes of bronze-casting.

BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1716-1781), Italian physicist, was born at Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and entered the religious order of the Pious Schools in 1732. He became professor of experimental physics, first at Palermo and then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar situation at Turin in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published several papers on electrical subjects in the _Phil. Trans_. He died at Turin on the 27th of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the way both of experiment and exposition, to spread a knowledge of the electrical researches of Franklin and others. His principal work was the treatise _Dell' Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale_ (1753), which was translated into English in 1776.

BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE, MARCHESE DE (1735-1794), Italian publicist, was born at Milan on the 15th of March 1735. He was educated in the Jesuit college at Parma, and showed at first a great aptitude for mathematics. The study of Montesquieu seems to have directed his attention towards economic questions; and his first publication (1762) was a tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states, with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction with his friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began to publish a small journal, in imitation of the _Spectator_, called _Il Caffe_. In 1764 he published his brief but justly celebrated treatise _Dei Delitti e delle Pene_ ("On Crimes and Punishments"). The weighty reasonings of this work were expounded with all the additional force of a clear and animated style. It pointed out distinctly and temperately the grounds of the right of punishment, and from these principles deduced certain propositions as to the nature and amount of punishment which should be inflicted for any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within eighteen months it passed through six editions. It was translated into French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous commentary by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in 1768 and it was translated into several other languages. Many of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable to Beccaria's treatise. In November 1768 he was appointed to the chair of law and economy, which had been founded expressly for him at the Palatine college of Milan. His lectures on political economy, which are based on strict utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with the theories of the English school of economists. They are published in the collection of Italian writers on political economy (_Scrittori Classici Italiani di Economia politico_., vols. xi. and xii.). In 1771 Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council; and in 1791 he was appointed one of the board for the reform of the judicial code. In this post his labours were of very great value. He died at Milan on the 28th of November 1794.

BECCLES, a market town and municipal borough, in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the right bank of the river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant, well-wooded site overlooking the flat lands bordering the Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly Perpendicular, is a fine example of the style, having an ornate south porch of two storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar school (1712), and boys' school and free school on the foundation of Sir John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated manor of brick, of the 16th century. Printing works, malting, brick and tile, and agricultural implement works are the chief industries. Beccles was incorporated in 1584. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2017 acres.

BECERRA, GASPAR (1520-1570), Spanish painter and sculptor, was born at Baeza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome, it is said under Michelangelo, and assisted Vasari in painting the hall of the Concelleria. He also contributed to the anatomical plates of Valverde. After his return to Spain he was extensively employed by Philip II., and decorated many of the rooms in the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted altar-pieces for several of the churches, most of which have been destroyed. His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter. His best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at Madrid in 1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain.

BECHE-DE-MER (sometimes explained as "sea-spade," from the shape of the prepared article, but more probably from the Port, _bicho_, a worm or grub), or TREPANG (Malay, _tripang_), an important food luxury among the Chinese and other Eastern peoples, connected with the production of which considerable trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the coasts of New Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several species of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus _Holothuria_, especially _H. edulis_. The creatures, which exist on coral reefs, have bodies from 6 to 15 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence their name of "sea-cucumbers." The skin is sometimes covered with spicules or prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with or without "teats" or ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five varieties are recognized in the commerce of the Pacific Islands, the finest of which is the "brown with teats." The large black come next in value, followed by the small black, the red-bellied and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups which form an important article of food in China. They are prepared for use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried first in the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are slightly smoked.