Chapter XXVIII: Part 28

CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN, 1ST EARL (1675-1726), British soldier, was the son of Henry Cadogan, a Dublin barrister, and grandson of Major William Cadogan (1601-1661), governor of Trim. The family has been credited with a descent from Cadwgan, the old Welsh prince. Cadogan began his military career as a cornet of horse under William III. at the Boyne, and, with the regiment now known as the 5th (Royal Irish) Lancers, made the campaigns in the Low Countries. In the course of these years he attracted the notice of Marlborough. In 1701 Cadogan was employed by him as a staff officer in the complicated task of concentrating the grand army formed by contingents from [v.04 p.0932] multitudinous states, and Marlborough soon made the young officer his confidential staff officer and right-hand man. His services in the campaign of 1701 were rewarded with the colonelcy of the famous "Cadogan's Horse" (now the 5th Dragoon Guards). As quartermaster-general, it fell to his lot to organize the celebrated march of the allies to the Danube, which, as well as the return march with its heavy convoys, he managed with consummate skill. At the Schellenberg he was wounded and his horse shot under him, and at Blenheim he acted as Marlborough's chief of staff. Soon afterwards he was promoted brigadier-general, and in 1705 he led "Cadogan's Horse" at the forcing of the Brabant lines between Wange and Elissem, capturing four standards. He was present at Ramillies, and immediately afterwards was sent to take Antwerp, which he did without difficulty. Becoming major-general in 1706, he continued to perform the numerous duties of chief staff officer, quartermaster-general and colonel of cavalry, besides which he was throughout constantly employed in delicate diplomatic missions. In the course of the campaign of 1707, when leading a foraging expedition, he fell into the hands of the enemy but was soon exchanged. In 1708 he commanded the advanced guard of the army in the operations which culminated in the victory of Oudenarde, and in the same year he was with Webb at the action of Wynendael. On the 1st of January 1709 he was made lieutenant-general. At the siege of Menin in this year occurred an incident which well illustrates his qualifications as a staff officer and diplomatist. Marlborough, riding with his staff close to the French, suddenly dropped his glove and told Cadogan to pick it up. This seemingly insolent command was carried out at once, and when Marlborough on the return to camp explained that he wished a battery to be erected on the spot, Cadogan informed him that he had already given orders to that effect. He was present at Malplaquet, and after the battle was sent off to form the siege of Mons, at which he was dangerously wounded. At the end of the year he received the appointment of lieutenant of the Tower, but he continued with the army in Flanders to the end of the war. His loyalty to the fallen Marlborough cost him, in 1712, his rank, positions and emoluments under the crown. George I. on his accession, however, reinstated Cadogan, and, amongst other appointments, made him lieutenant of the ordnance. In 1715, as British plenipotentiary, he signed the third Barrier Treaty between Great Britain, Holland and the emperor. His last campaign was the Jacobite insurrection of 1715-1716. At first as Argyle's subordinate (see Coxe, _Memoirs of Marlborough_, cap. cxiv.), and later as commander-in-chief, General Cadogan by his firm, energetic and skilful handling of his task restored quiet and order in Scotland. Up to the death of Marlborough he was continually employed in diplomatic posts of special trust, and in 1718 he was made Earl Cadogan, Viscount Caversham and Baron Cadogan of Oakley. In 1722 he succeeded his old chief as head of the army and master-general of the ordnance, becoming at the same time colonel of the 1st or Grenadier Guards. He sat in five successive parliaments as member for Woodstock. He died at Kensington in 1726, leaving two daughters, one of whom married the second duke of Richmond and the other the second son of William earl of Portland.

Readers of _Esmond_ will have formed a very unfavourable estimate of Cadogan, and it should be remembered that Thackeray's hero was the friend and supporter of the opposition and General Webb. As a soldier, Cadogan was one of the best staff officers in the annals of the British army, and in command of detachments, and also as a commander-in-chief, he showed himself to be an able, careful and withal dashing leader.

He was succeeded, by special remainder, in the barony by his brother, General Charles Cadogan (1691-1776), who married the daughter of Sir Hans Sloane, thus beginning the association of the family with Chelsea, and died in 1776, being succeeded in turn by his son Charles Sloane (1728-1807), who in the year 1800 was created Viscount Chelsea and Earl Cadogan. His descendant George Henry, 5th Earl Cadogan (b. 1840), was lord privy seal from 1886 to 1892, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1895 to 1902.

CADOUDAL, GEORGES (1771-1804), leader of the _Chouans_ during the French Revolution, was born in 1771 near Auray. He had received a fair education, and when the Revolution broke out he remained true to his royalist and Catholic teaching. From 1793 he organized a rebellion in the Morbihan against the revolutionary government. It was quickly suppressed and he thereupon joined the army of the revolted Vendeans, taking part in the battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in December 1793. Returning to Morbihan, he was arrested, and imprisoned at Brest. He succeeded, however, in escaping, and began again the struggle against the Revolution. In spite of the defeat of his party, and of the fact that he was forced several times to take refuge in England, Cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to conspire in favour of the royalist pretenders. He refused to come to any understanding with the government, although offers were made to him by Bonaparte, who admired his skill and his obstinate energy. From 1800 it was impossible for Cadoudal to continue to wage open war, so he took altogether to plotting. He was indirectly concerned in the attempt made by Saint Régent in the rue Sainte Nicaise on the life of the First Consul, in December 1800, and fled to England again. In 1803 he returned to France to undertake a new attempt against Bonaparte. Though watched for by the police, he succeeded in eluding them for six months, but was at length arrested. Found guilty and condemned to death, he refused to ask for pardon and was executed in Paris on the 10th of June 1804, along with eleven of his companions. He is often called simply Georges.

See _Procès de Georges, Moreau et Pichegru_ (Paris, 1804, 8 vols. 8vo); the _Mémoires_ of Bourrienne, of Hyde de Neuville and of Rohu; Lenotre, _Tournebut_ (on the arrest); Lejean, _Biographie bretonne_; and the bibliography to the article VENDÉE.

CADRE (Fr. for a frame, from the Lat. _quadrum_, a square), a framework or skeleton, particularly the permanent establishment of a military corps, regiment, &c. which can be expanded on emergency.

CADUCEUS (the Lat. adaptation of the Doric Gr. [Greek: karukeion], Attic [Greek: kêrukeion], a herald's wand), the staff used by the messengers of the gods, and especially by Hermes as conductor of the souls of the dead to the world below. The caduceus of Hermes, which was given him by Apollo in exchange for the lyre, was a magic wand which exercised influence over the living and the dead, bestowed wealth and prosperity and turned everything it touched into gold. In its oldest form it was a rod ending in two prongs twined into a knot (probably an olive branch with two shoots, adorned with ribbons or garlands), for which, later, two serpents, with heads meeting at the top, were substituted. The mythologists explained this by the story of Hermes finding two serpents thus knotted together while fighting; he separated them with his wand, which, crowned by the serpents, became the symbol of the settlement of quarrels (Thucydides i. 53; Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 19; Hyginus, _Poet. Astron._ ii. 7). A pair of wings was sometimes attached to the top of the staff, in token of the speed of Hermes as a messenger. In historical times the caduceus was the attribute of Hermes as the god of commerce and peace, and among the Greeks it was the distinctive mark of heralds and ambassadors, whose persons it rendered inviolable. The caduceus itself was not used by the Romans, but the derivative _caduceator_ occurs in the sense of a peace commissioner.

See L. Preller, "Der Hermesstab" in _Philologus_, i. (1846); O.A. Hoffmann, _Hermes und Kerykeion_ (1890), who argues that Hermes is a male lunar divinity and his staff the special attribute of Aphrodite-Astarte.

CADUCOUS (Lat. _caducus_), a botanical term for "falling early," as the sepals of a poppy, before the petals expand.

CAECILIA. This name was given by Linnaeus to the blind, or nearly blind, worm-like Batrachians which were formerly associated with the snakes and are now classed as an order under the names of _Apoda, Peromela_ or _Gymnophiona_. The type of the genus _Caecilia_ is _Caecilia tentaculata_, a moderately slender species, not unlike a huge earth-worm, growing to 2 ft. in length with a diameter of three-quarters of an inch. It is one of the largest species of the order. Other species of the same genus are very slender in form, as for instance _Caecilia gracilis_, [v.04 p.0933] which with a length of 2¼ ft. has a diameter of only a quarter of an inch. One of the most remarkable characters of the genus _Caecilia_, which it shares with about two-thirds of the known genera of the order, is the presence of thin, cycloid, imbricate scales imbedded in the skin, a character only to be detected by raising the epidermis near the dermal folds, which more or less completely encircle the body. This feature, unique among living Batrachians, is probably directly inherited from the scaly _Stegocephalia_, a view which is further strengthened by the similarity of structure of these scales in both groups, which the histological investigations of H. Credner have revealed. The skull is well ossified and contains a greater number of bones than occur in any other living Batrachian. There is therefore strong reason for tracing the Caecilians directly from the Stegocephalia, as was the view of T.H. Huxley and of R. Wiedersheim, since supported by H. Gadow and by J.S. Kingsley. E.D. Cope had advocated the abolition of the order Apoda and the incorporation of the Caecilians among the Urodela or Caudata in the vicinity of the Amphiumidae, of which he regarded them as further degraded descendants; and this opinion, which was supported by very feeble and partly erroneous arguments, has unfortunately received the support of the two great authorities, P. and F. Sarasin, to whom we are indebted for our first information on the breeding habits and development of these Batrachians.

The knowledge of species of Caecilians has made rapid progress, and we are now acquainted with about fifty, which are referred to twenty-one genera. The principal characters on which these genera are founded reside in the presence or absence of scales, the presence or absence of eyes, the presence of one or of two series of teeth in the lower jaw, the structure of the tentacle (representing the so-called "balancers" of Urodele larvae) on the side of the snout, and the presence or absence of a vacuity between the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull. Of these twenty-one genera six are peculiar to tropical Africa, one to the Seychelles, four to south-eastern Asia, eight to Central and South America, one occurs in both continental Africa and the Seychelles, and one is common to Africa and South America.

These Batrachians are found in damp situations, usually in soft mud. The complete development of _Ichthyophis glutinosus_ has been observed in Ceylon by P. and F. Sarasin. The eggs, forming a rosary-like string, are very large, and deposited in a burrow near the water. The female protects them by coiling herself round the egg-mass, which the young do not leave till after the loss of the very large external gills (one on each side); they then lead an aquatic life, and are provided with an opening, or spiraculum, on each side of the neck. In these larvae the head is fish-like, provided with much-developed labial lobes, with the eyes much more distinct than in the perfect animal; the tail, which is quite rudimentary in all Caecilians, is very distinct, strongly compressed, and bordered above and beneath by a dermal fold.

In _Hypogeophis_, a Caecilian from the Seychelles studied by A. Brauer, the development resembles that of _Ichthyophis_, but there is no aquatic larval stage. The young leaves the egg in the perfect condition, and at once leads a terrestrial life like its parents. In accordance with this abbreviated development, the caudal membranous crest does not exist, and the branchial aperture closes as soon as the external gills disappear.

In the South American _Typhlonectes_, and in the _Dermophis_ from the Island of St Thomé, West Africa, the young are brought forth alive, in the former as larvae with external gills, and in the latter in the perfect air-breathing condition.

REFERENCES.--R. Wiedersheim, _Anatomie der Gymnophionen_ (Jena, 1879), 4to; G.A. Boulenger, "Synopsis of the Genera and Species," _P.Z.S._, 1895, p. 401; R. Greeff, "Über Siphonops thomensis," _Sizb. Ges. Naturw._ (Marburg, 1884), p. 15; P. and F. Sarasin, _Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen auf Ceylon_, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890), 4to; A. Brauer, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Entwicklungsgeschichte und der Anatomie der Gymnophionen," _Zool. Jahrb. Ana._ x., 1897, p. 389, xii., 1898, p. 477, and xvii., 1904, Suppl. p. 381; E.A. Göldi, "Entwicklung von Siphonops annulatus," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._ xii., 1899, p. 170; J.S. Kingsley, "The systematic Position of the Caecilians," _Tufts Coll. Stud._ vii., 1902, p. 323.

(G. A. B.)

CAECILIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which diverged from the Via Salaria at the 35th m. from Rome, and ran by Amiternum to the Adriatic coast, passing probably by Hadria. A branch ran to Interamna Praetuttiorum (Teramo) and thence probably to the sea at Castrum Novum (Giulianova), a distance of about 151 m. from Rome. It was probably constructed by L. Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (consul in 117 B.C.).

See C. Hülsen in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1896), 87 seq. N. Persichetti in _Römische Mitteilungen_ (1898), 193 seq.; (1902), 277 seq.

CAECILIUS, of Calacte ([Greek: Kalê Aktê]) in Sicily, Greek rhetorician, flourished at Rome during the reign of Augustus. Originally called Archagathus, he took the name of Caecilius from his patron, one of the Metelli. According to Suidas, he was by birth a Jew. Next to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, he was the most important critic and rhetorician of the Augustan age. Only fragments are extant of his numerous and important works, among which may be mentioned: _On the Style of the Ten Orators_ (including their lives and a critical examination of their works), the basis of the pseudo-Plutarchian treatise of the same name, in which Caecilius is frequently referred to; _On the Sublime_, attacked by (?) Longinus in his essay on the same subject (see L. Martens, _De Libello_ [Greek: Peri hupsous], 1877); _History of the Servile Wars_, or slave risings in Sicily, the local interest of which would naturally appeal to the author; _On Rhetoric_ and _Rhetorical Figures_; an _Alphabetical Selection of Phrases_, intended to serve as a guide to the acquirement of a pure Attic style--the first example of an Atticist lexicon, mentioned by Suidas in the preface to his lexicon as one of his authorities; _Against the Phrygians_, probably an attack on the florid style of the Asiatic school of rhetoric.

The fragments have been collected and edited by T. Burckhardt (1863), and E. Ofenloch (1907); some in C.W. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht ... der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, xxiii. (1896), contains full notices of recent works on Caecilius, by C. Hammer; F. Blass, _Griechische Beredsamkeit von Alexander bis auf Augustus_ (1865), treats of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Caecilius together; see also J. Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_ (1897).

CAECILIUS STATIUS, or STATIUS CAECILIUS, Roman comic poet, contemporary and intimate friend of Ennius, died in 168 (or 166) B.C. He was born in the territory of the Insubrian Gauls, and was probably taken as a prisoner to Rome (c. 200), during the great Gallic war. Originally a slave, he assumed the name of Caecilius from his patron, probably one of the Metelli. He supported himself by adapting Greek plays for the Roman stage from the new comedy writers, especially Menander. If the statement in the life of Terence by Suetonius is correct and the reading sound, Caecilius's judgment was so esteemed that he was ordered to hear Terence's _Andria_ (exhibited 166 B.C.) read and to pronounce an opinion upon it. After several failures Caecilius gained a high reputation. Volcacius Sedigitus, the dramatic critic, places him first amongst the comic poets; Varro credits him with pathos and skill in the construction of his plots; Horace (_Epistles_, ii. 1. 59) contrasts his dignity with the art of Terence. Quintilian (_Inst. Orat._, x. 1. 99) speaks somewhat disparagingly of him, and Cicero, although he admits with some hesitation that Caecilius may have been the chief of the comic poets (_De Optimo Genere Oratorum_, 1), considers him inferior to Terence in style and Latinity (_Ad Att._ vii. 3), as was only natural, considering his foreign extraction. The fact that his plays could be referred to by name alone without any indication of the author (Cicero, _De Finibus_, ii. 7) is sufficient proof of their widespread popularity. Caecilius holds a place between Plautus and Terence in his treatment of the Greek originals; he did not, like Plautus, confound things Greek and Roman, nor, like Terence, eliminate everything that could not be romanized.

The fragments of his plays are chiefly preserved in Aulus Gellius, who cites several passages from the _Plocium_ (necklace) together with the original Greek of Menander. The translation which is diffuse and by no means close, fails to reproduce the spirit of the original. Fragments in Ribbeck, _Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta_ (1898); see also W.S. Teuffel, _Caecilius Statius_, &c. (1858); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. iii. ch. 14; F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_ (1897).

[v.04 p.0934]

CAEC[=I]NA, the name of a distinguished Etruscan family of Volaterrae. Graves have been discovered belonging to the family, whose name is still preserved in the river and hamlet of Cecina.

AULUS CAECINA, son of Aulus Caecina who was defended by Cicero (69 B.C.) in a speech still extant, took the side of Pompey in the civil wars, and published a violent tirade against Caesar, for which he was banished. He recanted in a work called _Querelae_, and by the intercession of his friends, above all, of Cicero, obtained pardon from Caesar. Caecina was regarded as an important authority on the Etruscan system of divination (_Etrusca Disciplina_), which he endeavoured to place on a scientific footing by harmonizing its theories with the doctrines of the Stoics. Considerable fragments of his work (dealing with lightning) are to be found in Seneca (_Naturales Quaestiones_, ii. 31-49). Caecina was on intimate terms with Cicero, who speaks of him as a gifted and eloquent man and was no doubt considerably indebted to him in his own treatise _De Divinatione_. Some of their correspondence is preserved in Cicero's letters (_Ad Fam._ vi. 5-8; see also ix. and xiii. 66).

AULUS CAECINA ALIENUS, Roman general, was quaestor of Baetica in Spain (A.D. 68). On the death of Nero, he attached himself to Galba, who appointed him to the command of a legion in upper Germany. Having been prosecuted for embezzling public money, Caecina went over to Vitellius, who sent him with a large army into Italy. Caecina crossed the Alps, but was defeated near Cremona by Suetonius Paulinus, the chief general of Otho. Subsequently, in conjunction with Fabius Valens, Caecina defeated Otho at the decisive battle of Bedriacum (Betriacum). The incapacity of Vitellius tempted Vespasian to take up arms against him. Caecina, who had been entrusted with the repression of the revolt, turned traitor, and tried to persuade his army to go over to Vespasian, but was thrown into chains by the soldiers. After the overthrow of Vitellius, he was released, and taken into favour by the new emperor. But he could not remain loyal to any one. In 79 he was implicated in a conspiracy against Vespasian, and was put to death by order of Titus. Caecina is described by Tacitus as a man of handsome presence and boundless ambition, a gifted orator and a great favourite with the soldiers.

Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 53, 61, 67-70, ii. 20-25, 41-44, iii. 13; Dio Cassius lxv. 10-14, lxvi. 16; Plutarch, _Otho_, 7; Suetonius, _Titus_, 6; Zonaras xi. 17.

CÆDMON, the earliest English Christian poet. His story, and even his very name, are known to us only from Bæda (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 24). He was, according to Bæda (see BEDE), a herdsman, who received a divine call to poetry by means of a dream. One night, having quitted a festive company because, from want of skill, he could not comply with the demand made of each guest in turn to sing to the harp, he sought his bed and fell asleep. He dreamed that there appeared to him a stranger, who addressed him by his name, and commanded him to sing of "the beginning of created things." He pleaded inability, but the stranger insisted, and he was compelled to obey. He found himself uttering "verses which he had never heard." Of Cædmon's song Bæda gives a prose paraphrase, which may be literally rendered as follows:--"Now must we praise the author of the heavenly kingdom, the Creator's power and counsel, the deeds of the Father of glory: how He, the eternal God, was the author of all marvels--He, who first gave to the sons of men the heaven for a roof, and then, Almighty Guardian of mankind, created the earth." Bæda explains that his version represents the sense only, not the arrangement of the words, because no poetry, however excellent, can be rendered into another language, without the loss of its beauty of expression. When Cædmon awoke he remembered the verses that he had sung and added to them others. He related his dream to the farm bailiff under whom he worked, and was conducted by him to the neighbouring monastery at Streanæshalch (now called Whitby). The abbess Hild and her monks recognized that the illiterate herdsman had received a gift from heaven, and, in order to test his powers, proposed to him that he should try to render into verse a portion of sacred history which they explained to him. On the following morning he returned having fulfilled his task. At the request of the abbess he became an inmate of the monastery. Throughout the remainder of his life his more learned brethren from time to time expounded to him the events of Scripture history and the doctrines of the faith, and all that he heard from them he reproduced in beautiful poetry. "He sang of the creation of the world, of the origin of mankind and of all the history of Genesis, of the exodus of Israel from Egypt and their entrance into the Promised Land, of many other incidents of Scripture history, of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection and ascension, of the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles. He also made many songs of the terrors of the coming judgment, of the horrors of hell and the sweetness of heaven; and of the mercies and the judgments of God." All his poetry was on sacred themes, and its unvarying aim was to turn men from sin to righteousness and the love of God. Although many amongst the Angles had, following his example, essayed to compose religious poetry, none of them, in Bæda's opinion, had approached the excellence of Cædmon's songs.

Bæda's account of Cædmon's deathbed has often been quoted, and is of singular beauty. It is commonly stated that he died in 680, in the same year as the abbess Hild, but for this there is no authority. All that we know of his date is that his dream took place during the period (658-680) in which Hild was abbess of Streanæshalch, and that he must have died some considerable time before Bæda finished his history in 731.

The hymn said to have been composed by Cædmon in his dream is extant in its original language. A copy of it, in the poet's own Northumbrian dialect, and in a handwriting of the 8th century, appears on a blank page of the Moore MS. of Bæda's History; and five other Latin MSS. of Bæda have the poem (but transliterated into a more southern dialect) as a marginal note. In the old English version of Bæda, ascribed to King Alfred, and certainly made by his command if not by himself, it is given in the text. Probably the Latin MS. used by the translator was one that contained this addition. It was formerly maintained by some scholars that the extant Old English verses are not Bæda's original, but a mere retranslation from his Latin prose version. The argument was that they correspond too closely with the Latin; Bæda's words, "hic est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum," being taken to mean that he had given, not a literal translation, but only a free paraphrase. But the form of the sentences in Bæda's prose shows a close adherence to the parallelistic structure of Old English verse, and the alliterating words in the poem are in nearly every case the most obvious and almost the inevitable equivalents of those used by Bæda. The sentence quoted above[1] can therefore have been meant only as an apology for the absence of those poetic graces that necessarily disappear in translations into another tongue. Even on the assumption that the existing verses are a retranslation, it would still be certain that they differ very slightly from what the original must have been. It is of course possible to hold that the story of the dream is pure fiction, and that the lines which Bæda translated were not Cædmon's at all. But there is really nothing to justify this extreme of scepticism. As the hymn is said to have been Cædmon's first essay in verse, its lack of poetic merit is rather an argument for its genuineness than against it. Whether Bæda's narrative be historical or not--and it involves nothing either miraculous or essentially improbable--there is no reason to doubt that the nine lines of the Moore MS. are Cædmon's composition.

This poor fragment is all that can with confidence be affirmed to remain of the voluminous works of the man whom Bæda regarded as the greatest of vernacular religious poets. It is true that for two centuries and a half a considerable body of verse has been currently known by his name; but among modern scholars the use of the customary designation is merely a matter of convenience, and does not imply any belief in the correctness of the attribution. The so-called Cædmon poems are contained [v.04 p.0935] in a MS. written about A.D. 1000, which was given in 1651 by Archbishop Ussher to the famous scholar Francis Junius, and is now in the Bodleian library. They consist of paraphrases of parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and three separate poems the first on the lamentations of the fallen angels, the second on the "Harrowing of Hell," the resurrection, ascension and second coming of Christ, and the third (a mere fragment) on the temptation. The subjects correspond so well with those of Cædmon's poetry as described by Bæda that it is not surprising that Junius, in his edition, published in 1655, unhesitatingly attributed the poems to him. The ascription was rejected in 1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the character of the language, is now known to be fallacious, as most of the poetry that has come down to us in the West Saxon dialect is certainly of Northumbrian origin. Since, however, we learn from Bæda that already in his time Cædmon had had many imitators, the abstract probability is rather unfavourable than otherwise to the assumption that a collection of poems contained in a late 10th century MS. contains any of his work. Modern criticism has shown conclusively that the poetry of the "Cædmon MS." cannot be all by one author. Some portions of it are plainly the work of a scholar who wrote with his Latin Bible before him. It is possible that some of the rest may be the composition of the Northumbrian herdsman; but in the absence of any authenticated example of the poet's work to serve as a basis of comparison, the internal evidence can afford no ground for an affirmative conclusion. On the other hand, the mere unlikeness of any particular passage to the nine lines of the _Hymn_ is obviously no reason for denying that it may have been by the same author.

The _Genesis_ contains a long passage (ii. 235-851) on the fall of the angels and the temptation of our first parents, which differs markedly in style and metre from the rest. This passage, which begins in the middle of a sentence (two leaves of the MS. having been lost) is one of the finest in all Old English poetry. In 1877 Professor E. Sievers argued, on linguistic grounds, that it was a translation, with some original insertions, from a lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the author of the _Heliand_. Sievers's conclusions were brilliantly confirmed in 1894 by the discovery in the Vatican library of a MS. containing 62 lines of the _Heliand_ and three fragments of an old Saxon poem on the story of Genesis. The first of these fragments includes the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of the Old English _Genesis_. The Old Saxon Biblical poetry belongs to the middle of the 9th century; the Old English translation of a portion of it is consequently later than this.

As the _Genesis_ begins with a line identical in meaning, though not in wording, with the opening of Cædmon's _Hymn_, we may perhaps infer that the writer knew and used Cædmon's genuine poems. Some of the more poetical passages may possibly echo Cædmon's expressions; but when, after treating of the creation of the angels and the revolt of Lucifer, the paraphrast comes to the Biblical part of the story, he follows the sacred text with servile fidelity, omitting no detail, however prosaic. The ages of the antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately rendered into verse. In all probability the _Genesis_ is of Northumbrian origin. The names assigned to the wives of Noah and his three sons (Phercoba, Olla, Olliua, Olliuani[2]) have been traced to an Irish source, and this fact seems to point to the influence of the Irish missionaries in Northumbria.

The _Exodus_ is a fine poem, strangely unlike anything else in Old English literature. It is full of martial spirit, yet makes no use of the phrases of the heathen epic, which Cynewulf and other Christian poets were accustomed to borrow freely, often with little appropriateness. The condensation of the style and the peculiar vocabulary make the _Exodus_ somewhat obscure in many places. It is probably of southern origin, and can hardly be supposed to be even an imitation of Cædmon.

The _Daniel_ is often unjustly depreciated. It is not a great poem but the narration is lucid and interesting. The author has borrowed some 70 lines from the beginning of a poetical rendering of the Prayer of Azarias and the Song of the Three Children, of which there is a copy in the Exeter Book. The borrowed portion ends with verse 3 of the canticle, the remainder of which follows in a version for the most part independent, though containing here and there a line from _Azarias_. Except in inserting the prayer and the _Benedicite_, the paraphrast draws only from the canonical part of the book of Daniel. The poem is obviously the work of a scholar, though the Bible is the only source used.

The three other poems, designated as "Book II" in the Junius MS., are characterized by considerable imaginative power and vigour of expression, but they show an absence of literary culture and are somewhat rambling, full of repetitions and generally lacking in finish. They abound in passages of fervid religious exhortation. On the whole, both their merits and their defects are such as we should expect to find in the work of the poet celebrated by Bæda, and it seems possible, though hardly more than possible, that we have in these pieces a comparatively little altered specimen of Cædmon's compositions.

Of poems not included in the Junius MS., the _Dream of the Rood_ (see CYNEWULF) is the only one that has with any plausibility been ascribed to Cædmon. It was affirmed by Professor G. Stephens that the Ruthwell Cross, on which a portion of the poem is inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone the name "Cadmon";[3] but, according to Professor W. Vietor, the traces of runes that are still visible exclude all possibility of this reading. The poem is certainly Northumbrian and earlier than the date of Cynewulf. It would be impossible to prove that Cædmon was not the author, though the production of such a work by the herdsman of Streanæshalch would certainly deserve to rank among the miracles of genius.

Certain similarities between passages in _Paradise Lost_ and parts of the translation from Old Saxon interpolated in the Old English _Genesis_ have given occasion to the suggestion that some scholar may have talked to Milton about the poetry published by Junius in 1655, and that the poet may thus have gained some hints which he used in his great work. The parallels, however, though very interesting, are only such as might be expected to occur between two poets of kindred genius working on what was essentially the same body of traditional material.

The name Cædmon (in the MSS. of the Old English version of Bæda written _Cedmon, Ceadmann_) is not explicable by means of Old English; the statement that it means "boatman" is founded on the corrupt gloss _liburnam, ced_, where _ced_ is an editorial misreading for _ceol_. It is most probably the British _Cadman_, intermediate between the Old Celtic _Catumanus_ and the modern Welsh _Cadfan_. Possibly the poet may have been of British descent, though the inference is not certain, as British names may sometimes have been given to English children. The name Caedwalla or Ceadwalla was borne by a British king mentioned by Bæda and by a king of the West Saxons. The initial element _Caed_--or _Cead_ (probably adopted from British names in which it represents _catu_, war) appears combined with an Old English terminal element in the name _Caedbaed_ (cp., however, the Irish name Cathbad), and hypocoristic forms of names containing it were borne by the English saints Ceadda (commonly known as St Chad) and his brother Cedd, called Ceadwealla in one MS. of the _Old English Martyrology_. A Cadmon witnesses a Buckinghamshire charter of about A.D. 948.

The older editions of the so-called "Cædmon's Paraphrase" by F. Junius (1655); B. Thorpe (1832), with an English translation; K.W. Bouterwek (1851-1854); C.W.M. Grein in his _Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie_ (1857) are superseded, so far as the text is concerned, by R. Wülker's re-edition of Grein's _Bibliothek_, Bd. ii. (1895). This work contains also the texts of the _Hymn_ and the _Dream of the Rood_. The pictorial illustrations of the Junius MS. were published in 1833 by Sir H. Ellis.

(H. BR.)

[1] It is a significant fact that the Alfredian version, instead of translating this sentence, introduces the verses with the words, "This is the order of the words."

[2] The invention of these names was perhaps suggested by _Pericope Oollae et Oolibae_, which may have been a current title for the 23rd chapter of Ezekiel.

[3] Stephens read the inscription on the top-stone as _Cadmon mae fauaepo_, which he rendered "Cadmon made me." But these words are mere jargon, not belonging to any known or possible Old English dialect.

[v.04 p.0936] CAELIA, the name of two ancient cities in Italy, (1) In Apulia (mod. _Ceglie di Bari_) on the Via Traiana, 5 m. S. of Barium. Coins found here bearing the inscription [Greek: Kailinôn] prove that it was once an independent town. Discoveries of ruins and tombs have also been made. (2) In Calabria (mod. _Ceglie Messapica_) 25 m. W. of Brundusium, and 991 ft. above sea-level. It was in early times a place of some importance, as is indicated by the remains of a prehistoric _enceinte_ and by the discovery of several Messapian inscriptions.

See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1252.

CAEN, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of Calvados, 7½ m. from the English Channel and 149 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) 36,247. It is situated in the valley and on the left bank of the Orne, the right bank of which is occupied by the suburb of Vaucelles with the station of the Western railway. To the south-west of Caen, the Orne is joined by the Odon, arms of which water the "Prairie," a fine plain on which a well-known race-course is laid out. Its wide streets, of which the most important is the rue St Jean, shady boulevards, and public gardens enhance the attraction which the town derives from an abundance of fine churches and old houses. Hardly any remains of its once extensive ramparts and towers are now to be seen; but the castle, founded by William the Conqueror and completed by Henry I., is still employed as barracks, though in a greatly altered condition. St Pierre, the most beautiful church in Caen, stands at the northern extremity of the rue St Jean, in the centre of the town. In the main, its architecture is Gothic, but the choir and the apsidal chapels, with their elaborate interior and exterior decoration, are of Renaissance workmanship. The graceful tower, which rises beside the southern portal to a height of 255 ft., belongs to the early 14th century. The church of St Étienne, or l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes, in the west of the town, is an important specimen of Romanesque architecture, dating from about 1070, when it was founded by William the Conqueror. It is unfortunately hemmed in by other buildings, so that a comprehensive view of it is not to be obtained. The whole building, and especially the west façade, which is flanked by two towers with lofty spires, is characterized by its simplicity. The choir, which is one of the earliest examples of the Norman Gothic style, dates from the early 13th century. In 1562 the Protestants did great damage to the building, which was skilfully restored in the early 17th century. A marble slab marks the former resting-place of William the Conqueror. The abbey-buildings were rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, and now shelter the lycée. Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, was the foundress of the church of La Trinité or l'Abbaye-aux-Dames, which is of the same date as St Étienne. Two square unfinished towers flank the western entrance, and another rises above the transept. Queen Matilda is interred in the choir, and a fine crypt beneath it contains the remains of former abbesses. The buildings of the nunnery, reconstructed in the early 18th century, now serve as a hospital. Other interesting old churches are those of St Sauveur, St Michel de Vaucelles, St Jean, St Gilles, Notre-Dame de la Gloriette, St Étienne le Vieux and St Nicolas, the last two now secularized. Caen possesses many old timber houses and stone mansions, in one of which, the hôtel d'Ecoville (c. 1530), the exchange and the tribunal of commerce are established. The hôtel de Than, also of the 16th century, is remarkable for its graceful dormer-windows. The Maison des Gens d'Armes (15th century), in the eastern outskirts of the town, has a massive tower adorned with medallions and surmounted by two figures of armed men. The monuments at Caen include one to the natives of Calvados killed in 1870 and 1871 and one to the lawyer J.C.F. Demolombe, together with statues of Louis XIV, Élie de Beaumont, Pierre Simon, marquis de Laplace, D.F.E. Auber and François de Malherbe, the two last natives of the town. Caen is the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is the centre of an academy and has a university with faculties of law, science and letters and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy; there are also a lycée, training colleges, schools of art and music, and two large hospitals. The other chief public institutions are tribunals of first instance and commerce, an exchange, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The hôtel-de-ville contains the library, with more than 100,000 volumes and the art museum with a fine collection of paintings. The town is the seat of several learned societies including the Société des Antiquaires, which has a rich museum of antiquities. Caen, despite a diversity of manufactures, is commercial rather than industrial. Its trade is due to its position in the agricultural and horse-breeding district known as the "Campagne de Caen" and to its proximity to the iron mines of the Orne valley, and to manufacturing towns such as Falaise, Le Mans, &c. In the south-east of the town there is a floating basin lined with quays and connected with the Orne and with the canal which debouches into the sea at Ouistreham 9 m. to the N.N.E. The port, which also includes a portion of the river-bed, communicates with Havre and Newhaven by a regular line of steamers; it has a considerable fishing population. In 1905 the number of vessels entered was 563 with a tonnage of 190,190. English coal is foremost among the imports, which also include timber and grain, while iron ore, Caen stone[1], butter and eggs and fruit are among the exports. Important horse and cattle fairs are held in the town. The industries of Caen include timber-sawing, metal-founding and machine-construction, cloth-weaving, lace-making, the manufacture of leather and gloves, and of oil from the colza grown in the district, furniture and other wooden goods and chemical products.

Though Caen is not a town of great antiquity, the date of its foundation is unknown. It existed as early as the 9th century, and when, in 912, Neustria was ceded to the Normans by Charles the Simple, it was a large and important place. Under the dukes of Normandy, and particularly under William the Conqueror, it rapidly increased. It became the capital of lower Normandy, and in 1346 was besieged and taken by Edward III. of England. It was again taken by the English in 1417, and was retained by them till 1450, when it capitulated to the French. The university was founded in 1436 by Henry VI. of England. During the Wars of Religion, Caen embraced the reform; in the succeeding century its prosperity was shattered by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the city was the focus of the Girondist movement against the Convention.

See G. Mancel et C. Woinez, _Hist. de la ville de Caen et de ses progrès_ (Caen, 1836); B. Pent, _Hist. de la ville de Caen, ses origines_ (Caen, 1866); E. de R. de Beaurepaire, _Caen illustré: son histoire, ses monuments_ (Caen, 1896).

[1] A limestone well adapted for building. It was well known in the 15th and 16th centuries, at which period many English churches were built of it.

CAEPIO, QUINTUS SERVILIUS, Roman general, consul 106 B.C. During his year of office, he brought forward a law by which the jurymen were again to be chosen from the senators instead of the equites (Tacitus, _Ann._ xii. 60). As governor of Gallia Narbonensis, he plundered the temple of the Celtic Apollo at Tolosa (Toulouse), which had joined the Cimbri. In 105, Caepio suffered a crushing defeat from the Cimbri at Arausio (Orange) on the Rhone, which was looked upon as a punishment for his sacrilege; hence the proverb _Aurum Tolosanum habet_, of an act involving disastrous consequences. In the same year he was deprived of his proconsulship and his property confiscated; subsequently (the chronology is obscure, see Mommsen, _History of Rome_, bk. iv. ch. 5) he was expelled from the senate, accused by the tribune Norbanus of embezzlement and misconduct during the war, condemned and imprisoned. He either died during his confinement or escaped to Smyrna.

Livy, _Epit._ 67; Valerius Maximus iv. 7. 3; Justin xxxii. 3; Aulus Gellius iii. 9.

CAERE (mod. _Cerveteri_, _i.e._ _Caere vetus_, see below), an ancient city of Etruria about 5 m. from the sea coast and about 20 m. N.W. of Rome, direct from which it was reached by branch roads from the Via Aurelia and Via Clodia. Ancient writers tell us that its original Pelasgian name was Agylla, and that the Etruscans took it and called it Caere (when this occurred is not known), [v.04 p.0937] but the former name lasted on into later times as well as Caere. It was one of the twelve cities of Etruria, and its trade, through its port Pyrgos (_q.v._), was of considerable importance. It fought with Rome in the time of Tarquinus Priscus and Servius Tullius, and subsequently became the refuge of the expelled Tarquins. After the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C., the vestal virgins and the sacred objects in their custody were conveyed to Caere for safety, and from this fact some ancient authorities derive the word _caerimonia_, ceremony. A treaty was made between Rome and Caere in the same year. In 353, however, Caere took up arms against Rome out of friendship for Tarquinii, but was defeated, and it is probably at this time that it became partially incorporated with the Roman state, as a community whose members enjoyed only a restricted form of Roman citizenship, without the right to a vote, and which was, further, without internal autonomy. The status is known as the _ius Caeritum_, and Caere was the first of a class of such municipalities (Th. Mommsen, _Römische Staatsrecht_, iii. 583). In the First Punic War, Caere furnished Rome with corn and provisions, but otherwise, up till the end of the Republic, we only hear of prodigies being observed at Caere and reported at Rome, the Etruscans being especially expert in augural lore. By the time of Augustus its population had actually fallen behind that of the Aquae Caeretanae (the sulphur springs now known as the Bagni del Sasso, about 5 m. W.), but under either Augustus or Tiberius its prosperity was to a certain extent restored, and inscriptions speak of its municipal officials (the chief of them called _dictator_) and its town council, which had the title of _senatus_. In the middle ages, however, it sank in importance, and early in the 13th century, a part of the inhabitants founded Caere novum (mod. _Ceri_) 3 m. to the east.

The town lay on a hill of tufa, running from N.E. to S.W., isolated except on the N.E., and about 300 ft. above sea-level. The modern town, at the western extremity, probably occupies the site of the acropolis. The line of the city walls, of rectangular blocks of tufa, can be traced, and there seem to have been eight gates in the circuit, which was about 4 m. in length. There are no remains of buildings of importance, except the theatre, in which many inscriptions and statues of emperors were found. The necropolis in the hill to the north-west, known as the Banditaccia, is important. The tomb chambers are either hewn in the rock or covered by mounds. One of the former class was the family tomb of the Tarchna-Tarquinii, perhaps descended from the Roman kings; others are interesting from their architectural and decorative details. One especially, the Grotta dei Bassirilievi, has interesting reliefs cut in the rock and painted, while the walls of another were decorated with painted tiles of terracotta. The most important tomb of all, the Regolini-Galassi tomb (taking its name from its discoverers), which lies S.W. of the ancient city, is a narrow rock-hewn chamber about 60 ft. long, lined with masonry, the sides converging to form the roof. The objects found in it (a chariot, a bed, silver goblets with reliefs, rich gold ornaments, &c.) are now in the Etruscan Museum at the Vatican: they are attributed to about the middle of the 7th century B.C. At a short distance from the modern town on the west, thousands of votive terracottas were found in 1886, some representing divinities, others parts of the human body (_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 38). They must have belonged to some temple.

See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_, i. 226 seq.; C. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 1281.

(T. AS.)

CAERLEON, an ancient village in the southern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the right (west) bank of the Usk, 3 m. N.E. of Newport. Pop. (1901) 1411. Its claim to notice rests on its Roman and British associations. As _Isca Silurum_, it was one of the three great legionary fortresses of Roman Britain, established either about A.D. 50 (Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 32), or perhaps, as coin-finds suggest, about A.D. 74-78 in the governorship of Julius Frontinus, and in either case intended to coerce the wild Silures. It was garrisoned by the Legio II. Augusta from its foundation till near the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Though never seriously excavated, it contains plentiful visible traces of its Roman period--part of the ramparts, the site of an amphitheatre, and many inscriptions, sculptured stones, &c., in the local museum. No civil life or municipality seems, however, to have grown up outside its walls, as at York (_Ebur[=a]cum_). Like Chester (see DEVA), it remained purely military, and the common notion that it was the seat of a Christian bishopric in the 4th century is unproved and improbable. Its later history is obscure. We do not know when the legion was finally withdrawn, nor what succeeded. But Welsh legend has made the site very famous with tales of Arthur (revived by Tennyson in his _Idylls_), of Christian martyrs, Aaron and Julius, and of an archbishopric held by St Dubric and shifted to St David's in the 6th century. Most of these traditions date from Geoffrey of Monmouth (about 1130-1140), and must not be taken for history. The ruins of Caerleon attracted notice in the 12th and following centuries, and gave plain cause for legend-making. There is better, but still slender, reason for the belief that it was here, and not at Chester, that five kings of the Cymry rowed Edgar in a barge as a sign of his sovereignty (A.D. 973). The name Caerleon seems to be derived from the Latin _Castra legionum_, but it is not peculiar to Caerleon-on-Usk, being often used of Chester and occasionally of Leicester and one or two other places.

(F. J. H.)

CAERPHILLY, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, 152¼ m. from London by rail _via_ Cardiff, 7 m. from Cardiff, 12 m. from Newport and 6 m. from Pontypridd. The origin of the name is unknown. It was formerly in the ancient parish of Eglwysilan, but from that and Bedwas (Mon.) an ecclesiastical parish was formed in 1850, while the whole of the parishes of Eglwysilan and Llanfabon, with a total acreage of 14,426, were in 1893 constituted into an urban district; its population in 1901 was 15,385, of which 4343 were in the "town" ward. In 1858 was opened the Rhymney railway from Rhymney to Caerphilly and on to Taff's Well, whence it had running powers over the Taff Vale railway to Cardiff, but in 1871, by means of a tunnel about 2000 yds. long, under Cefn Onn, a direct line was provided from Caerphilly to Cardiff. A branch line, 4 m. long, was opened in 1894 to Senghenydd. The Pontypridd and Newport railway was constructed in 1887, and there is a joint station at Caerphilly for both railways. Some 2 m. eastwards there is a station on the Brecon and Merthyr railway at Bedwas.