Chapter VIII: Chinese Literature (3)

CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean, about 12 m. from the coast of Peru (to which country they belong), opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from Callao, in 13 deg. 38' S., 76 deg. 28' W. The largest of the group, known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is only four-fifths of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They are of granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs, worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of the Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for vast deposits of guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian government in 1840. The supply, however, was exhausted in 1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands were the chief object in a contest known as the Guano War between President Echenique and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were seized by the Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.

CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province of Fu-kien, of which the Chinese name is _Ch'ueanchow-fu_ or _Ts'ueanchow-fu_. It stands in 24 deg. 57' N., 118 deg. 35' E. The walls have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace much vacant ground. The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco, china-ware, nankeens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by the Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian Mission has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond the northern branch of the Min (several miles from the city) there is a suburb called Loyang, approached by the most celebrated bridge in China.

Ch'ueanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand banks, has been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is carried on through the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a large and populous city. It was in the middle ages the great port of Western trade with China, and was known to the Arabs and to Europeans as _Zait[=u]n_ or _Zayton_, the name under which it appears in Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol history of Rash[=i]ddud[=i]n, as well as in Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo and other medieval travellers. Some argument has been alleged against the identity of Zayton with Ch'ueanchow, and in favour of its being rather Changchow (a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'ueanchow), or a port on the river of Changchow near Amoy. "Port of Zayton" may have embraced the great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part of which lies within the _Fu_ or department of Ch'ueanchow; but there is hardly room for doubt that the Zayton of Marco Polo and Abulfeda was the Ch'ueanchow of the Chinese. Ibn Batuta informs us that a rich silk texture made here was called _Zait[=u]niya_; and there can be little doubt that this is the real origin of the word "Satin," _Zettani_ in medieval Italian, _Aceytuni_ in Spanish.

CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (_Chinchilla lanigera_), of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes between 8000 and 12,000 ft. It typifies not only the genus _Chinchilla_, but the family _Chinchillidae_, for the distinctive features of which see RODENTIA. The ordinary chinchilla is about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long tail, and in the form of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a dense soft fur 3/4 in. long on the back and upwards of an inch in length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly mottled on the upper surf ace and dusky white beneath; the ears being long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas live in burrows, and these subterranean dwellings undermine the ground in some parts of the Chilean Andes to such an extent as to cause danger to travellers on horseback. They associate in communities, forming their burrows among loose rocks, and coming out to feed in the early morning and towards sunset. They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on their haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The Indians in hunting them employ the grison (_Galictis vittata_), a member of the weasel family, which is trained to enter the crevices of the rocks where the chinchillas lie concealed during the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent was prized by the ancient Peruvians, who made coverlets and other articles with the skin, and at the present day the skins are exported in large numbers to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and trimmings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances become rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary fecundity, the female usually producing five or six young twice a year. They are docile in disposition, and thus well fitted for domestication. The Peruvian chinchilla (_C. brevicaudata_) is larger, with relatively shorter ears and tail; while still larger species constitute the genus _Lagidium_, ranging from the Andes to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in place of five front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently formed skull. (See also VISCACHA). (R. L.*)

CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the Zambezi valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the Chinde branch of the Zambezi, in 18 deg. 40' S., 36 deg. 30' E. Pop. (1907) 2790, of whom 218 were Europeans. Large steamers are unable to cross the bar, over which the depth of water varies from 10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to the discovery in 1889 that the branch of the river on the banks of which it is built is navigable from the ocean (see ZAMBEZI). The Portuguese in 1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres--subsequently increased to 25--to the British government, on which goods in transit to British possessions could be stored duty free. This block of land is known as the British Concession, or British Chinde. The prosperity of the town largely depends on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North East Rhodesia. There is also a considerable export from Portuguese districts, sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.

CHINDWIN, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy, its entire course being in Burmese territory. It is called Ningthi by the Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the junction of the Tanai, the Tawan and the Taron or Turong, but it is still uncertain which is the main stream. The Tanai has hitherto been looked on as the chief source. It rises in about 25 deg. 30' N. and 97 deg. E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of the Kumon range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first part of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns to the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end of the valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes through the Taron or Turong valley, takes the name of the Chindwin, and maintains a general southerly course until it enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing through the entire length of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in about 21 deg. 30' N. and 95 deg. 15' E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the interval forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands. The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pag[=a]n. It was choked up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened out by an exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called Tanaikha, but _kha_ is merely the Kachin word for river), as long as it retains that name, is a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds. wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The river is navigated by native boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches cannot come up from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.

The Taron, Turong or Towang river seems to be the real main source of
the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the north, and has
a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources are in the
hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft. above
sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E. and W.
direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then turns S.,
and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into the
Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives the
Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai, the chief
branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are covered at
least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the Chindwin is
interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs. At the
village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates transhipment from
large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river comes in on
the left bank at Homalin, and from this point downwards the steamers
of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the greater part of the
year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-cultivated valley, and
during the rainy season it is navigable for a distance of 150 m. from
its mouth by steamers of light draught. Ordinarily regular steam
communication with Homalin ceases in the dry weather, but from Kindat,
nearly 150 m. below it, there are weekly steamers all the year round.
Below Kindat the only considerable affluent of the Chindwin is the
Myit-tha, which receives the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises
considerably during the rains, but in March and April it is here and
there so shallow as to make navigation difficult even for small steam
launches. Whirlpools and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some
trouble, but much has been done to improve navigation since the
British annexation. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin
district, and Monywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river.
(J. G. SC.)

CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the Sagaing division of Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an area of 19,062 sq. m., and a population, according to the census of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin has an area of 3480 sq. m., and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin lies to the north of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the Chin, N[=a]ga and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the Myitkyina, Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on the S. by the Pakokku and Sagaing districts; and both districts are bounded on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakokku on the southern stretch. The western portion of both districts is hilly, and the greater part of Upper Chindwin is of the same character. Both have valuable teak forests. The total rainfall averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper Chindwin 60 in. Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very accessible. Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed and of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the headquarters of the upper district, and Monywa, with a population of 7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alon, close to Monywa, and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus of the railway from Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900.

CHINESE PAVILLON, TURKISH CRESCENT, TURKISH JINGLE, or JINGLING JOHNNY (Fr. _chapeau chinois_; Ger. _tuerkischer Halbmond, Schellenbaum_; Ital. _cappello chinese_), an instrument of percussion of indefinite sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite musical tones. The _chapeau chinois_ was formerly an adjunct in military bands, but never in the orchestra, where an instrument of somewhat similar shape, often confused with it and known as the _Glockenspiel_ (q.v.), is occasionally called into requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft. high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with small jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star. Below this pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a fanciful double crescent or squat lyre, likewise furnished with tiny bells. The two points of the crescent are curved over, ending in fanciful animal heads from whose mouths hang low streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is played by shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, a movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or at most twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy to the military music. The Turkish crescent or "jingling Johnny," as it was familiarly called in the British army bands, was introduced by the Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into disuse now, having been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel harmonica. Edinburgh University possesses two specimens.[1] In the 18th century at Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands hired was one well known as playing in London on winter evenings in front of the Spring-Garden coffee house and opposite Wigley's. This band consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ (see BARREL-ORGAN), a tambourine, a violin, pipes and the Turkish jingle.[2] (K.S.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical
Instruments_ (London, 1891), p. 233.

[2] See Hone's _Everyday Book_, i. 1248.

CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of Essex, England, 101/2 m. N. of London (Liverpool Street station) by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373. It lies between the river Lea and the western outskirts of Epping Forest. The church of All Saints has Early English and Perpendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead hunting lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of the finest trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill (an urban district; pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.

CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British India, in the Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by rail from Madras, had a population in 1901 of 10,551. With Chandragiri in North Arcot, Chingleput was once the capital of the Vijayanagar kings, after their overthrow by the Mussulmans at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, subject to these kings, granted to the East India Company the land on which Fort St George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings in the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was taken by the French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive, after which it proved invaluable to the British, especially when Lally in his advance on Madras left it unreduced in his rear. During the wars of the British with Hyder Ali it withstood his power, and afforded a refuge to the natives; and in 1780, after the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro here found refuge. The town is noted for its manufacture of pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.

The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras, stretching along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative headquarters are at Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,312,122, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Salt is extensively manufactured all along the coast. Cotton and silk weaving is also largely carried on, and there are numerous indigo vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.

CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies on the border between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the plains of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Assam and Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong hill tracts. The Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border of India what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895 the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma, and constituted a scheduled district which is now administered by a political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract forms a parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide. The country consists of a much broken and contorted mass of mountains, intersected by deep valleys. The main ranges run generally N. to S., and vary in height from 5000 to 9000 ft., among the most important being the Letha or Tang, which is the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers; the Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs and sheds the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma and that from its western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang, which with its prolongations is the main watershed of the southern hills, its eastern slopes draining into the Myittha and thus into the Chindwin, while the western fall drains into the Boinu river, which winding through the hills discharges itself eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak yet discovered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 m. S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).

It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal and
Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners and
customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge of
pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known to
march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a meal or
sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow them.
The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been able to
penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once. The
pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British
administration. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have
been constructed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the
people have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the
indigenous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
179,292. The Pakokku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have an
area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116. (J. G. SC.)

CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KIANG-FU, a treaty port of China, in the province of Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai, from which it is distant 160 m. It is in railway communication both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 m. distant), and being at the point where the Grand Canal running N. and S. intersects the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well situated to be a commercial entrepot. The total value of exports and imports for 1904 was L4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the war of 1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate resistance. It was laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853, and was recaptured by the imperial forces in 1858.

CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this conflict arose out of the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan for influence in Korea. In the 16th century a prolonged war in the peninsula had ended with the failure of Japan to make good her footing on the mainland--a failure brought about largely by lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, 1882, 1884) Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had fostered the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of 1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of Tientsin, wherein it was agreed that in the event of future intervention each should inform the other if it were decided to despatch troops to the peninsula. Nine years later the occasion arose. A serious rebellion induced the Korean government to apply for military assistance from China. Early in June 1894 a small force of Chinese troops were sent to Asan, and Japan, duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her minister at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima. A complicated situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present in Korea by the request of the government to put down rebellion. The Japanese controlled the capital, and declined to recognize Korea as a tributary of China. But she proposed that the two powers should unite to suppress the disturbance and to inaugurate certain specified reforms. China considered that the measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. The reply was that Japan considered the government of Korea "lacking in some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence." By the middle of July war had become inevitable unless the Peking government were willing to abandon all claims over Korea, and as Chinese troops were already in the country by invitation, it was not to be expected that the shadowy suzerainty would be abandoned.

At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who delivered an ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of July. On the 23rd the palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile China had despatched about 8000 troops to the Yalu river. The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese in possession of Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while the Chinese occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those despatched to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the sea was essential for the secure transport and supply of her troops. Without it the experience of the war of the 16th century would be repeated. China, too, could only utilize overland routes to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and delays entailed. To both powers the naval question was thus important.

By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had
already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to attack
the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Soeng-hwan, but
the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part of his forces
by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile a portion of the
Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships and transports
off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success, sinking, amongst other
vessels, the transport "Kowshing" (July 25). The loss of more than
1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially lightened Oshima's
task. The intention of the Chinese to crush their enemies between
their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was completely frustrated, and the
Japanese obtained control of all southern Korea.

Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite of the
fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and General
Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found himself in a
position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged upon the place
on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong walls carried it,
though only after severe fighting.

Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the scene of
war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy was still to
be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern Squadron (which
alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained inactive in
Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito's fleet had not
directly interfered with the hostile transports which were reinforcing
the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the battle of Ping-Yang,
Ting, who had conveyed a large body of troops to the mouth of the
Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on his return journey off
Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September. The heavy battleships
"Chen-Yuen" and "Ting-Yuen" constituted the strongest element of the
Chinese squadron, for the Japanese, superior as they were in every
other factor of success, had no vessels which could compare with these
in the matter of protection. Ting advanced in a long irregular line
abreast; the battleships in the centre, the lighter vessels on the
wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed in line ahead against the Chinese
right wing, crushing their weaker opponents with their fire. In the
end the Chinese fleet was defeated and scattered, but the two heavy
battleships drew off without serious injury. This battle of the Yalu
gave Japan command of the sea, but Ito continued to act with great
caution. The remnants of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port
Arthur, whence after repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.

The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops, but
on the lower Yalu--their own frontier--large forces threatened a
second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive with his
1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
difficulties--though without serious opposition from the enemy--forced
the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the
Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng and
Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced several columns
towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its conquests and prepare
for a future advance. General Tachimi's brigade occupied
Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On the 7th of November a
column from the Yalu took Takushan, and a few days later a converging
attack from these two places was made upon Hsiu-yuen, which was
abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile Tachimi, skirmishing with the
enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A
simultaneous forward move by both sides led to the action of
Tsao-ho-ku (November 30), after which both sides withdrew--the Chinese
to the line of the mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden,
with the Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the
Japanese right north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to
Chiulien-cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in
the hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made in
co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal Oyama, had
been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo as a support to
the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was the siege and
capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal of Port Arthur.

The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of Kinchow and
the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian regime, and Tairen
under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications around Port Arthur
itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation of the 2nd army
began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive columns of the Japanese
gradually moved towards Kinchow, which was carried without difficulty
on the 6th of November. Even less resistance was offered by the modern
forts of Ta-lien-wan. The Japanese now held a good harbour within a
few miles of the main fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and
on the 17th of November the advance was resumed. The attack was made
on the 19th at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as Yamaji
began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern forts, pushed
home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M. practically all
resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for this important success
with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the Chinese general Sung, who had
marched from Hai-cheng to engage the 2nd army, appeared before
Kinchow, where he received on the 22nd a severe repulse at the hands
of the Japanese garrison. Marshal Oyama subsequently stationed his
advanced guard towards Hai-cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a
brigade of infantry at Port Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace
were made by China; but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with
credentials, was not received by the Tokyo government.

The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung and
Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move across the
mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura left Antung for
Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng, and strong flank
guards followed parallel routes on either side. The march was
accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the 13th of December. In
the meantime Tachimi had moved northward from Feng-hwang-cheng, in
order to distract the attention of the Chinese from Hai-cheng, and
there were some small engagements between this force and that of
Ikotenga, who ultimately retired beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang.
Sung had already left Kai-ping to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of
the fall of that place; his communications with Ikotenga being now
severed, he swerved to the north-west and established a new base at
Niu-chwang. Once on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was
essential that he should be prevented from joining forces with
Ikotenga, General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At
Kang-wang-tsai (December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual
steadiness, and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge
the enemy. The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their
efforts, but secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced
troops of the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and
only the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the Chinese
was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese lost 300
killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither of these
actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very far. On
the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga attacked Hai-cheng
from the north, but was repulsed.

Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken operations
against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard of
northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been refitting since
the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both armies would
accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in the summer
against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval demonstration
was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei, and on the 19th
the Japanese began their disembarkation at Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m.
from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was scarcely opposed, and on the 26th
the Japanese advance was begun. The south-eastern defences of
Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by the 6th division, whilst the 2nd
division reached the inner waters of the bay, driving the Chinese
before them. The fleet under Ito co-operated effectively. On the night
of the 4th-5th of February the Chinese squadron in harbour was
attacked by ten torpedo boats. Two boats were lost, but the
armour-clad "Ting-Yuen" was sunk. On the following night a second
attack was made, and three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the
"Ching-Yuen" was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the
12th Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
Chinese squadron, including the "Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.

While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a second
peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese declined
to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February the Chinese
made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji near Kai-ping
fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of February at
Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under General Ma-yu-kun.
This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on the ground, the
thermometer registering zero F., and no less than 1500 cases of
frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of General Nozu, after
freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga, to seize Niu-chwang
port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan, and the Chinese,
threatened in front and flank, retired to Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two
more attacks on Hai-cheng had been repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions
then moved on Niu-chwang, and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined
in the advance. The column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which
was obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All
three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured on
the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being thoroughly
broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent the Japanese from
proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since they could, after the
break-up of the ice, land and supply large forces at Shan-hai-kwan,
within 170 m. of the capital. Two more Japanese divisions were sent
out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme commander. Seven divisions were at
Port Arthur ready to embark, when negotiations were reopened. Li
Hung-Chang proceeded to Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on
the 17th of April 1895. An expedition was sent towards the end of
March to the Pescadores, and later the Imperial Guard division was
sent to Formosa.

It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and 56,862
were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the losses in the
Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds of these losses
were incurred by the 1st army in the trying winter campaign in
Manchuria.

The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
_China-Japan War_ (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, _The Japan-China
War_ (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, _Epitome of the China-Japanese
War_ (London, 1896), the official publication of the British War
Office; Atteridge, _Wars of the Nineties_, pp. 535-636 (London, 1899);
von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, _Der japanisch-chinesische Krieg_
(Leipzig, 1895); von Mueller, _Der Krieg zwischen China und Japan_
(Berlin, 1895); Bujac, _Precis de quelques campagnes contemporaines:
II. La Guerre sino-japonaise_ (Paris and Limoges).

CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Vienne, 32m. S.W. of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906) 4071. Chinon lies at the foot of the rocky eminence which is crowned by the ruins of the famous castle. Its narrow, winding streets contain many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the Romanesque style, but only the facade and nave are left. The church of St Etienne dates from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the 12th, 15th and 16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone considerable modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the east, the Chateau de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining. The Chateau du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the keep, the Pavilion de l'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the principal apartment of which the first meeting between Joan of Arc and Charles VII. took place. Of the Chateau du Coudray, which is separated by a moat from the Chateau du Milieu, the chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and two less ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has trade in wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope manufacture, tanning and cooperage are among its industries. Chinon (Caino) existed before the Roman occupation of Gaul, and was from early times an important fortress. It was occupied by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after forming part of the royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and from them to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle, and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in 1205 after a year's siege.

CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the mouth of the Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen and traders, and used huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks. The tribe is practically extinct, but the name survives in the trade language known as "Chinook jargon." This has been analysed as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths other Indian tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan linguistic family includes a number of separate tribes.

The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from W. or N. over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it descends as a dry wind warm in winter and cool in summer (cf. _Foehn_). It is due to a cyclone passing northward, and continues from a few hours to several days. It moderates the climate of the eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly on account of its warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so that it is said to "lick up" the snow from the slopes.

See Gill, _Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_ (Portland, Ore., 1891); Boas,
"Chinook Texts," in _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology
(Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, "Bibliography of Chinookan
Languages," _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
1893); Horatio Hale, _Manual of Oregon Trade Language_ (London, 1890);
G.C. Shaw, _The Chinook Jargon_ (Seattle, 1909); _Handbook of American
Indians_ (Washington, 1907).

CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m. above Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcutta is situated. In 1759 a British force under Colonel Forde was attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on its march to Chandernagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were entirely routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was restored to the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India made by the king of the Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for the British possessions in Sumatra. Hugli College is maintained by government; and there are a number of schools, several of which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian missionaries. Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.

CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu _ch[=i]nt_, spotted or variegated. This name was given to a kind of stained or painted calico produced in India. It is now applied to a highly glazed printed calico, commonly made in several colours on a light ground and used for bed hangings, covering furniture, &c.

CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Venice, from which it is 181/2 m. S. by sea. Pop. (1901) 21,384 (town), 31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly by fishermen, and is situated upon an island at the S. end of the lagoons. It is traversed by one main canal, La Vena. The peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants still survive to some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and indeed is probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro, though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia, a canalized estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus (Brenta) went to form the harbour. In 672 it entered the league of the cities of the lagoons, and recognized the authority of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed by Pippin, but in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, whose fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a determined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380. Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west. (T. AS.)

_Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80)._--The naval war of 1378-1380, carried on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies, the lord of Carrara and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional interest as one in which a superior naval power, having suffered disaster in its home waters, and having been invaded, was yet able to win in the end by holding out till its squadrons in distant seas could be recalled for its defence.

When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly concerned
for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and the Black
Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese. The more
powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched into the
eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and captain of
Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against the Genoese in
the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the command of Vettor
Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland, which were then
small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and the Hungarians. Her only
ally in the war, Bernabo Visconti of Milan, gave her little help on
this side, but his mercenaries invaded the territory of Genoa. The
danger on land seemed trifling to Venice so long as she could keep the
sea open to her trade and press the war against the Genoese in the
Levant.

During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were carried
out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the Genoese
stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their squadrons
to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to the south of
the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in a gale by 10
Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese admiral, Luigi de'
Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others were wrecked.
Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for Famagusta in Cyprus,
then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed his course to Genoa itself,
which was thrown into a panic by the defeat at Anzio, it is possible
that he might have dictated peace, but he thought his squadron too
weak, and preferred to follow the Genoese galleys which had fled to
Famagusta. During the summer of 1378 he was employed partly in
attacking the enemy in Cyprus, but mainly in taking possession of the
Istrian and Dalmatian towns which supported the Hungarians from fear
of the aggressive ambition of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the
coast of Istria, where his crews suffered from exposure and disease.
Genoa, having recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at
Anzio, decided to attack Venice at home while the best of her ships
were absent with Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic
under Luciano Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of
1378, but when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola
in Istria on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his
crews were still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to
avoid battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening
the Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced
into battle by the commissioner (_proveditore_) Michael Steno, who as
agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians were
defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano Doria
fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, did
not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his successor,
Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the Lido, the
outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in August they
entered on a combined naval and military attack on the city, in
combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The Venetians had
closed the passages through the outer banks except at the southern
end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of Chioggia. The barrier
here approaches close to the mainland, and the position facilitated
the co-operation of the Genoese with the Carrarese and Hungarians, but
Chioggia is distant from Venice, which could only be reached along the
canals across the lagoon. The Venetians had taken up the buoys which
marked the fairway, and had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The
allies, after occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the
13th of August took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000
men.

There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing to
the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon. The
senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that they were
resolved to "bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark" the Venetians
decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had been imprisoned
after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the confidence of the
people and the affection of the sailors, was released and named
commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy. Under his
guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and ingenious policy
of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels were much hampered by
the shallow water and intricate passages through the lagoon. By taking
advantage of their embarrassment and his own local knowledge, Pisani
carried out a series of movements which entirely turned the tables on
the invaders. Between the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a
succession of night attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with
stores not only in the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice,
but in the fairways leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both
ends of the island of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the
very moment when they thought they were about to besiege Venice.
Pisani stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy closely.
The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the Doge
Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the general
hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till they had
recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been ordered to return,
but the slowness and difficulty of communication and movement under
14th century conditions delayed his reappearance. The besiegers of
Chioggia were at the end of their powers of endurance, and Pisani had
been compelled to give a promise that the siege would be raised, when
Zeno's fleet reached the anchorage off Brondolo on the 1st of January
1380. The attack on Chioggia was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese
held out resolutely in the hope of relief from home. But the resources
of Genoa had been taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent
to sea. It was not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo
Maruffo, was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a
relieving force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island,
and their fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused
to be drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was past.
Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the sea, and
before the close of the year was able to make peace as a conqueror.

AUTHORITIES.--S. Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_ (Venice,
1855); W.C. Hazlitt, _History of the Venetian Republic_ (London,
1860); Horatio F. Brown, _Venice_ (London, 1893). (D.H.)

CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the Greeks Chios ([Greek: Chios, 's te Chio]) and by the Turks Saki Adasi; the soft pronunciation of [CHI] before [iota] in modern Greek, approximating to _sh_, caused [Greek: Chio] to be Italianized as Scio. It forms, with the islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos, a sanjak of the Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long from N. to S., and from 8 to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well deserves the epithet "craggy" ([Greek: paipaloessa]) of the Homeric hymn. Its figs were noted in ancient times, but wine and gum mastic have always been the most important products. The climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even palms grow freely. The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district called by Strabo Ariusia, was known as _vinum Arvisium_. Early in the 7th century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of welding iron ([Greek: kollesis]: see J.G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, note on x. 16. 1, vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large crater whose parts were all connected by this process was constructed by him, and preserved as one of the most interesting relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long line of Chian sculptors (see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the fame of Chian art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school of epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received text of Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the poet's birthplace. The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on the E. coast. A theatre and a temple of Athena Poliuchus existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of the city there is a curious monument of antiquity, commonly called "the school of Homer"; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out of the native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast there is a monastery of great wealth with a church founded by Constantine IX. Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the city and encompassing the island, one passes in succession the promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae, the southern extremity of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; Notium, probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town Bolissus (now Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena, the north-western point; the wine-growing district Ariusia; Cardamyle (now Cardhamili); the north-eastern promontory was probably named Phlium, and the mountains that cross the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or Pellenaeus.