Chapter VIII: Chinese Literature (4)

The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes, the
original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other accounts
Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became an Ionian
state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos in very early
times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous population in
these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a mythical hero, son
of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early king of Chios. His
successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united the island to the
Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo (xiv. p. 633)
implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal government
was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a democracy. The
names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus, are mentioned. The
products of the island were largely exported on the ships of Miletus,
with which city Chios formed a close mercantile alliance in opposition
to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos. Similar commercial
considerations determined the Chians in their attitude towards the
Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to Cyrus as eagerly as
Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt their fleet of 100 sail
joined the Milesians in offering a desperate opposition at Lade (494).
The island was subsequently punished with great rigour by the
Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant Strattis, served in the
Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation in 479 Chios joined the
Delian League and long remained a firm ally of the Athenians, who
allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413 the island revolted,
and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian War it took the first
opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance, but in 357 again seceded.
As a member of the Delian League it had regained its prosperity, being
able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. Moreover, it was reputed one
of the best-governed states in Greece, for although it was governed
alternately by oligarchs and democrats neither party persecuted the
other severely. It was not till late in the 4th century that civil
dissension became a danger to the state, leaving it a prey to Idrieus,
the dynast of Caria (346), and to the Persian admiral Memnon (333).
During the Hellenistic age Chios maintained itself in a virtually
independent position. It supported the Romans in their Eastern wars,
and was made a "free and allied state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule
industry and commerce were undisturbed, its chief export at this time
being the Arvisian wine, which had become very popular. After
temporary occupations by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the
Venetians (1124-1125, 1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the
Genoese family of Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the
hands of a Genoese _maona_, or trading company, which was organized in
1362 under the name of "the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood,
formerly a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the
same time the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of
self-government and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415
the Genoese became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional
secessions which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453,
1479), the rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under
the Ottoman government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected.
But the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture
and reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians
(1694-1695), which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of
all were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were
seriously damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There
is a harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are worked by
a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an Italian
company.

AUTHORITIES.--Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266; Herodotus
i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; _Corpus Inscr.
Atticarum_, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in _Revue des deux
mondes_, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in _Historical Review_
(1889), pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, _L'Ile de Chio_ (ed.
Jullian, Paris, 1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia numorum_
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: _Greek_. (E. GR.;
M. O. B. C.)

CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of English cabinetmakers. The materials for the biography of Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, but he is known to have been the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is believed to have been the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father was a cabinet-maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he originated some of the forms which became characteristic of his son's work. Thus a set of chairs and settees was made, apparently at Worcester, for the family of Bury of Knateshill, at a period when the great cabinetmaker could have been no more than a boy, which are practically identical with much of the work that was being turned out of the family factory as late as the 'sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen Anne or early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th century we find the interlaced splats and various other details which marked the Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale and his son had removed to London, and at the end of 1749 the younger man--his father was probably then dead--established himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, whence in 1753 he removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the addition of the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest of his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he was elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership with James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death.

It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from that of the many copyists and adapters who throughout the second half of the 18th century--the golden age of English furniture--plundered remorselessly. Apart from his published designs, many of which were probably never made up, we have to depend upon the very few instances in which his original accounts enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he executed much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied that the Chinese bedroom there was designed by him. At Harewood House, the seat of the earl of Harewood in Yorkshire, we are on firmer ground. The house was furnished between 1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale were employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to show that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams that it might have been assigned to them without hesitation, was actually produced by Chippendale. This may be another of the many indications that Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it may be that Adam, as architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale's cabinetmakers and carvers executed. Chippendale's bills for this Adam work are still preserved. Stourhead, the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, contains much undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle, Shropshire, Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.

Our other main source of information is _The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director_, which was published by Thomas Chippendale in 1754. This book, the most important collection of furniture designs issued up to that time in England, contains one hundred and sixty engraved plates, and the list of subscribers indicates that the author had acquired a large and distinguished body of customers. The book is of folio size; there was a second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.

In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he has been encouraged to produce the book "by persons of distinction and taste, who have regretted that an art capable of so much perfection and refinement should be executed with so little propriety and elegance." He has some severe remarks upon critics, from which we may assume that he had already suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to the king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in his day "to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped together, taking the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in our most expensive decorations. It is called French, and let them have the praise of it! The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell are not beyond nor below it in poorness of imitation." It is the more likely that these barbs were intended for Chippendale, since he was guilty not only of many essays in Gothic, but of a vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as in the flamboyant style of Louis XV. The _Director_ contains examples of each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's surveyor. Chippendale has even shared with Sir William Chambers the obloquy of introducing the Chinese style, but he appears to have done nothing worse than "conquer," as Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other people. Nor would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a great transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were contemptible. Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work and carved tracery, are distinctly elegant and effective. Occasionally we find in one piece of furniture a combination of the three styles which Chippendale most affected at different periods--Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic--and it cannot honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is derived directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the inspiration of his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from some of the more artistic performances in rococo.

The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a solidity which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most lightsome efforts, such as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is always the first consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs most materially from his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of construction were eccentric in the extreme. It is indeed in the chair that Chippendale is seen at his best and most characteristic. From his hand, or his pencil, we have a great variety of chairs, which, although differing extensively in detail, may be roughly arranged in three or four groups, which it would sometimes be rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg, which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland; the claw and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight, square, uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work Chinese leg; the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg, which was supposed to be in the best Gothic taste; the inelegant rococo leg with the curled or hoofed foot; and even occasionally the spade foot, which is supposed to be characteristic of the somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His chair-backs were very various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes highly successful; often they took the form of the tracery of a church window, or even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were distinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have derived some of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases and cabinets which were among his most agreeable work. The most attractive feature of Chippendale's most artistic chairs--those which, originally derived from Louis Quinze models, were deprived of their rococo extravagances--is the back, which, speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing that has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or slightly pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design exquisitely carved--for Chippendale was a carver before everything--in a vast variety of designs ranging from the elaborate and extremely elegant, if much criticized, ribbon back, to a comparatively plain but highly effective splat. His armchairs, however, often had solid or stuffed backs. Next to his chairs Chippendale was most successful with settees, which almost invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, the arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases, cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork divisions. Some of those which he executed in the style which in his day passed for Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective. We have, too, from his hand many cases for long clocks, and a great number of tables, some of them with a remarkable degree of Gallic grace. He was especially successful in designing small tables with fretwork galleries for the display of china. His mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or extravagantly rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing the four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's most graceful work was lavished upon the woodwork of the lighter, more refined and less monumental four-poster, which, thanks in some degree to his initiative, took the place of the massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean bed. From an organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of domestic furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes he was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement is on the whole exceedingly high.

Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been criticized with considerable asperity, but not always justly. Chippendale's work has stood the supreme test of posterity more completely than that of any of his rivals or successors; and, unlike many men of genius, we know him to have been warmly appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an artist and a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been attached to the most splendid period of English furniture.

Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779, apparently at the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and administration of his intestate estate was granted to his widow Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas Chippendale III., John, Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in bankruptcy of the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we read in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style of Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's Lane, but in 1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57 Haymarket, whence it was in 1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street. Like his father, Thomas Chippendale III. was a member of the Society of Arts; and he is known to have exhibited five pictures at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He died at the end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823. (J. P. -B.)

CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074. Chippenham is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a hollow on the south side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a picturesque stone bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally Norman of the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A paved causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and Wick Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a market-woman, who built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed an estate for its maintenance. After the decline of its woollen and silk trades, Chippenham became celebrated for grain and cheese markets. There are also manufactures of broadcloth, churns, condensed milk, railway-signals, guns and carriages; besides bacon-curing works, flour mills, tanneries and large stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the marquess of Lansdowne, is 3-1/2 m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow, or Hubba's Low, 2-1/2 m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a _kistvaen_ or sepulchral chamber of stone; it is probably British, though tradition makes it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.

Chippenham (_Chepeham, Chippeham_) was the site of a royal residence where in 853 AEthelwulf celebrated the marriage of his daughter AEthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The town also figured prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th century, and in 933 was the meeting-place of the witan. In the Domesday Survey Chippenham appears as a crown manor and is not assessed in hides. The town was governed by a bailiff in the reign of Edward I., and returned two members to parliament from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553, when a charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance of two parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge over the Avon. In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles II., and in 1685 a new charter was received from James II., which was shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant. The Representation Act of 1868 reduced the number of parliamentary representatives to one, and the borough was disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of Chippenham from _cyppan_, to buy, implies that the town possessed a market in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important centre of the industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however, was awarded to the town for this commodity at the Great Exhibition of 1851.

CHIPPEWA[1] FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m. E. of St Paul, Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 8670; (1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by the electric line to Eau Claire. The first settlement on the site was made in 1837; and the city was chartered in 1870.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] For the Chippewa Indians see OJIBWAY, of which the word is a
popular adaptation.

CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and Worcester line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542. It is picturesquely situated towards the north of the Cotteswold hill-district. The many interesting ancient houses afford evidence of the former greater importance of the town. The church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several notable monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the 16th century and some almshouses complete, with the church, a picturesque group of buildings; and Campden House, also of the 16th century, deserves notice.

Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de Brunne that it was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon kings, the earliest record of Campden (_Campedene_) is in Domesday Book, when Earl Hugh is said to hold it, and to have there fifty villeins. The number shows that a large village was attached to the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh de Gondeville, and about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough must have grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of 1247, granting that they and all who should come to the market of Campedene should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of Campedene should come into the lord's amerciament he should be quit for 12d. unless he should shed blood or do felony. Probably Earl Ralph also granted the town a portman-mote, for the account of a skirmish in 1273 between the men of the town and the county mentions a bailiff and implies the existence of some sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was incorporated, but it never returned representatives to parliament. Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings, a relic of that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had given the town the name of Chipping.

CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26 m. N.W. of Oxford by a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the steep flank of a hill, and consists mainly of one very wide street. The church of St Mary the Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, is a fine building of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the hexagonal porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later style. The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (_Chepyngnorton_) was probably of some importance in Saxon times. At the Domesday Survey it was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding; it was assessed at fifteen hides, and comprised three mills. It returned two members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and 1304-1305, but was not represented after this date, and was not considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only charter of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it established a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; a common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace; and a court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan was granted a four days' fair at the feast of the Invention of the Cross; and in 1276 Roger, earl of March, was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St Barnabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held on Wednesday, and a fair was held at the Translation of St Thomas Becket. These continued to be held in the reign of James I., who annulled the former two fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St Matthew, St Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude.

CHIQUITOS (Span, "very small"), a group of tribes in the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, and between the head waters of the rivers Mamore and Itenez. When their country was first invaded they fled into the forests, and the Spaniards, coming upon their huts, the doorways of which are built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs: hence the name. They are in fact well formed and powerful, of middle height and of an olive complexion. They are an agricultural people, but made a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two centuries. In 1691, however, they made the Jesuit missionaries welcome, and rapidly became civilized. The Chiquito language was adopted as the means of communication among the converts, who soon numbered 50,000, representing nearly fifty tribes. Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the Chiquitos became decadent, and now number short of 20,000. Their houses, regularly ranged in streets, are built of adobes thatched with coarse grass. They manufacture copper boilers for making sugar and understand several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and make straw hats. They are fond of singing and dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable folk. The group is now divided into forty tribes.

CHIROMANCY (from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek: manteia], divination), the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by studying the lines of the palms of the hands (see PALMISTRY).

CHIRON, or CHEIRON, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs, the son of Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the foot of Mount Pelion, and was famous for his wisdom and knowledge of the healing art. He offers a remarkable contrast to the other Centaurs in manners and character. Many of the most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up and instructed by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by a poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality in favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the stars as the constellation _Sagittarius_ (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 414). In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown teaching Achilles to play the lyre.

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie_ and W.H. Roscher's
_Lexikon der Mythologie_; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1904).

CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek: pous], foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands and feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition; the use of the word is now restricted, however, to the care of the toes, "manicurist" having been invented for the corresponding attentions to the fingers. The word was first introduced in 1785, by a "corncutter" in Davies Street, London.

CHIROPTERA (Greek for "hand-wings"), an order of mammals containing the bats, all of which are unique in the class in possessing the power of true flight, and have their fore-limbs specially modified for this purpose.

c, Clavicle.
h, Humerus.
r, Radius.
u, Ulna.
d1, First digit.
d2, d3, d4, d5, Other digits of the fore-limb
supporting wm, the wing-membrane.
m, m, Metacarpal bones.
ph1, First phalanx.
ph2, Second phalanx.
ph3, Third phalanx.
am, Antebrachial membrane.
f, Femur.
t, Tibia.
fb, Fibula.
c, Calcar supporting im, the interfemoral membrane.
pcb, Post-calcaneal lobe.]

The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished by the possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accompanied by other modifications of bodily structure having relation to aerial locomotion. Thus, in direct contrast to all other mammals, in which locomotion is chiefly effected by action from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently greatly preponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the fore-limbs, being the agents in propelling the body forward during flight, immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight, and containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is remarkably capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close together; while the shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in comparison with the weak pelvis. The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved radius, and a carpus of six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated fingers, between which, the sides of the body, and the hinder extremities a thin expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb, outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports part of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight, extending from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to the hind-limbs, and known as the interfemoral membrane. The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal; the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is simple or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors, canines, premolars and molars; and the dental formula never exceeds i. 2/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/8, m. 3/3; total 38. Despite the forward position of the teats, which is merely an adaptive feature, bats are evidently mammals of low organization, and are most nearly related to the Insectivora.

In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat, when placed on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees directed upwards, while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking is thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwithstanding a general belief, bats can take wing from the walking posture.

The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slenderness and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae differ but slightly in number and form throughout the group. The general number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is 17, whereof 12 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are broad, but short. Except in fruit-bats (_Pteropodidae_), the vertebrae, from the third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms a single curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The bodies of the vertebrae are but slightly movable on each other, and in old individuals become partially welded. The caudal vertebrae are cylindrical bones without processes; their number and length varying in allied species. The development of these vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail in the insectivorous species supporting and controlling the position of the interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions when in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them in the capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is not required, and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats the presternum has a prominent keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles.

The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital processes are developed only in some _Pteropodidae_ and a few _Nycteridae_ and _Emballonuridae_; in _Pteropus leucopterus_ alone does a process from the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as to complete the orbital ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender, are present in all except in some of the species of _Phyllostomatidae_.

The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that they are unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender, with pointed recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for a short time with the permanent teeth. In the _Rhinolophidae_ the milk-teeth are absorbed before birth. The permanent teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even in the same family, as in _Phyllostomatidae_, whilst in other families, as _Rhinolophidae_, the resemblance between the dentition of species differing in many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate, with more or less well-defined W-shaped cusps, in the insectivorous species, or variously hollowed out or longitudinally grooved in the frugivorous kinds.

The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being long, strong and curved; and the scapula large, oval and triangular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus, though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius; and the rudimentary ulna is welded with the radius. A sesamoid bone exists in the tendon of the triceps muscle. The upper row of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform bones.

The "hand" has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which consist each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the second and third the number of phalanges is different in certain families. The first digit terminates in a claw, most developed in the frugivorous species, in most of which the second digit is also clawed, although in other bats this and the remaining digits are unarmed.

In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most species the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in males, and widely separated in females; in the _Rhinolophidae_ alone they form a symphysis. Only in the _Molossinae_ is there a well-developed fibula; in the rest this bone is either very slender or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or reduced to a small bony process above the heel, or absent. The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of slender, laterally compressed toes, with much-curved claws.

Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals possess so delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary bats tactile organs exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the muzzle, but in the sensitive structures forming the wing-membranes and ears, while in many species leaf-like expansions surrounding the nasal apertures or extending backwards behind them are added. These nose-leaves are made up partly of the extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and partly of the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.

In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in form; in most insectivorous species they are longer than the head, while in the long-eared bat their length nearly equals that of the head and body. The form is characteristic in each of the families; in most the "earlet," or tragus, is large, in some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch; its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves of sound by producing undulations in them. In the _Rhinolophidae_, the only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the auditory bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages their highest development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple and but slightly variable. In all bats the ears are extremely mobile, each independently at will.

The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires. The stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding respectively to the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera; in the former the pyloric extremity is, with one exception, elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter simple; an exceptional type is met with in the blood-suckers, where the cardiac extremity is elongated, forming a long appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying from one and a half to four times the length of the head and body; longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species. In _Rhinopoma_ and _Megaderma_ a small caecum has been found. The liver is characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe, which occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera the spigelian lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and the caudate is generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former lobe is large, while the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is generally well developed.

In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of slender, long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with the skull, while the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short pointed epiglottis. In the African epauletted bats, _Epomophorus_, the pharynx is long and capacious, the aperture of the larynx far removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it, opens a canal, leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the back of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls are ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle with the skull; while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartilaginous and expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of the pharynx, and (in males of some species) supporting the orifices of a pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2).

The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the form of the bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or absence of the tail. The wings consist of an "antebrachial membrane," which extends from the point of the shoulder along the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm to the base of the thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or wholly included in it; the "wing-membrane" spread out between the elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet; and the "interfemoral membrane," the most variable of all, which is supported between the extremity of the body, the legs and the calcar (fig. 1). The antebrachial and wing membranes are most developed in species fitted only for aerial locomotion which when at rest hang with the body enveloped in the wings; but in the _Emballonuridae_, and also in the _Molossinae_, which are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the antebrachial membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed along the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the wing-membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the forearm. The relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been referred to in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small size in the frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not require it, is easily understood. Scent-glands and pouches opening on the surface of the skin are developed in many species, but in most cases more so in males than in females (fig. 3). As rule, bats produce only a single offspring at a birth, which for some time is carried about by the female parent clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a time, which are carried about in the same manner.

Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera.

_Megachiroptera_.

Fruit-eating bats.

The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
generally of large size, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth and
marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate is continued behind
the last molar, narrowing slowly backwards; there are three phalanges
in the index finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when
present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated; and
the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.

All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
_Pteropodidae_, the first representatives of which are the African
epauletted bats, forming the genus _Epomophorus_. In this the dental
formula is _i._ 2/2 (or 1/2), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 1/2. Tail short or
absent, when present free from the interfemoral membrane; second
finger with a claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are
strictly limited to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished
by the large and long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the
white tufts of hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided
with glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck
near the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in
females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane, from
which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous
epaulet-like tufts on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of
air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the
integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These bats
appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which their
voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow without
loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat, _Hypsignathus
monstrosus_, represents an allied genus distinguished by the absence
of shoulder-pouches, and the presence of leaf-like expansions of skin
on the front of the muzzle, and of distinct cusps on the outer sides
of the cheek-teeth. The great majority of the bats of this group,
commonly known as "flying-foxes," are included in the typical genus
_Pteropus_, of which the dental formula is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._
3/3, _m._ 2/3. All are of large size, and the absence of a tail, the
long pointed muzzle, and the woolly fur covering the neck render their
recognition easy. One of the species, _P. edulis_, inhabiting Java,
measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the largest
member of the order.

The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the Seychelles
to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan, New Guinea,
Australia and Polynesia. Although two species inhabit the Comoro
Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not one is found in
Africa; while the common Indian species is closely allied to the
Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and Australia form the
headquarters of these bats, which in some places occur in countless
multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky odour, and when awake
the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter. Wallace's fruit-bat of
Celebes and Macassar has been made the type of a separate genus, as
_Styloctenium wallacei_. In _Roussettus_ (or _Cynonycteris_) the
dentition is as in _Pteropus_, but the tail is short, and the fur of
the nape of the neck not different from that of the back: its
distribution accords with that of _Pteropus_, except that it includes
Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. _R.
aegyptiacus_ inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other
deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in
Egyptian frescoes. _Boneia_, with two species, from Celebes, differs
in having only two upper incisors. _Harpyionycteris_ and
_Scotonycteris_, respectively from the Philippines and West Africa,
are represented by a single species each; but of _Cynopterus_, which
is mainly confined to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some
half-score different kinds. The dentition is _i._ 2/[2 or 1], _c._
1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, the muzzle is shorter than in _Roussettus_,
with the upper lip grooved in front as in _Pteropus_, while the tail
and fur resemble those of the former genus. These bats are extremely
voracious, a specimen of the Indian _C. marginatus_ having eaten a
banana twice its own weight in three hours. Among several Austro-Malay
genera, such as _Ptenochirus_ and _Balionycteris_, the tube-nosed bats
of the genus _Gelasinus_ (or _Harpyia_) are remarkable for the
conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5). _Cephalotes_, with one species,
ranging from Celebes to the Solomon group, has the dentition _i._ 1/1,
_c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 2/3, premaxillae not united in front,
nostrils simple, muzzle short, index finger without a claw, tail
short. As in _Gelasinus_, the wing-membrane arises from the middle
line of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal thin
process of skin; the wings are naked, but the back covered with hair.
_Leipenyx_ is an allied West African genus with one species.

The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily _Pteropodinae_, while
the remainder represent a second group, _Carponycterinae_ (or
_Macroglossinae_), characterized by having the facial part of the
skull produced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the
gum, and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior
third, and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
representative of the first genus, _Notopteris macdonaldi_, inhabiting
Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long
as the forearm. The dentition is _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._
2/2, while the index finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the
spine. _Eonycteris_, with the dentition _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3,
_m._ 2/3, is also represented by a single species, _E. spelaea_, from
Tenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, which has
somewhat the appearance of a _Roussettus_, but the absence of a claw
in the index finger and the presence of the characteristic tongue and
teeth at once distinguish it. _Carponycteris_ (_Macroglossus_) and
_Melonycteris_, the former with several and the latter with a single
species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan genera, the index
finger in both having a claw, but the number of the teeth being the
same as in _Eonycteris_. _C. minimus_ is the smallest known species of
the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat of Europe, with the
fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-eared bat. It is nearly
as common in certain parts of Burma as _Cynopterus marginatus_, and
extends eastwards through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland,
where it is associated with _Melonycteris melanops_, distinguished by
its larger size and the total absence of the tail. An allied small
_Carpopycteris_ inhabits India. _Trygenycteris_ (_Megaloglossus_)
_woermanni_, of West Africa, is the only member of the group occurring
west of the Himalaya. _Callinycteris_ of Celebes, with the dentition
_i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3, has a short tail and no
index-claws, while _Nesonycteris_ of the Solomons, with the dentition
_i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, differs by the absence of the
tail.

_Microchiroptera._

Insect-eating bats.

The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes all the
insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively small
size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these bats, with a few
specialized exceptions, the crowns of the cheek-teeth are surmounted
by sharp cusps, divided by transverse grooves. In the skull the bony
palate narrows abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally
behind the last molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two
or none) in the index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the
outer and inner sides of the ear commence interiorly from separate
points of origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the
interfemoral membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach,
except in the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe
of the liver large, and the caudate generally small.

The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to say
nothing of species) that only some of the more important types can be
mentioned.

Brief references have already been made to the manner in which in many
or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey. From the
observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats, when walking,
carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the membrane connecting
this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of pouch or bag. If a large
insect be encountered the bat seizes it with a snatch, and slightly
spreading its folded wings and pressing them on the ground in order to
steady itself, brings its feet forwards so as to increase the capacity
of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending its neck and thrusting its
head beneath the body, it pushes the insect. Although the latter,
especially if large, will often struggle violently, when once in the
pouch it but rarely escapes, from which it is subsequently extracted
and devoured. It is assumed that the same method of capture is
employed when on the wing; and a naturalist who has observed the
long-eared bat picking moths off willows states that the bat always
hovers when taking off the moth, and bends up the tail so as to form a
receptacle for the insect as it drops.

In the _Rhinolophidae_, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
which are situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle
so as to look upwards; the ears are large and generally separate,
without trace of a tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are rudimentary,
suspended from the nasal cartilages, and support a single pair of
small incisors; the molars have acute W-shaped cusps; the skull is
large, and the nasal bones which support the nose-leaf much expanded
vertically and laterally. In females a pair of teat-like appendages
are found in front of the pubis; and the long tail extends to the
margin of the interfemoral membrane. The middle finger has two
phalanges, but the index is rudimentary. The fibula is rudimentary.

The _Rhinolophidae_ are the most highly organized of insectivorous
bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the fullest
development. Compared with theirs, the bones of the extremities and
the wings of other bats appear coarsely formed, and their teeth seem
less perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies of insects. The
complicated nasal appendages reach their highest development, and the
differences in their form afford characters in the discrimination of
the species, which resemble one another closely in dentition and the
colour of the fur.

In the first subfamily, _Rhinolophinae_, the first toe has two, and
the other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is
not connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
In the horseshoe bats, _Rhinolophus_, the dentition is i. 1/2, c. 1/1,
p. 2/3, m. 3/8, the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between
the nasal orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the
antitragus large. Among the numerous forms _R. luctus_ is the largest,
and inhabits elevated hill-tracts in India and Malaysia; _R.
hipposiderus_ of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is
one of the smallest; and _R. ferrum-equinum_ represents the average
size of the species, which are mainly distinguished from one another
by the form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from
England to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is
represented by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe
bats, at least in some instances, suspend themselves head downwards,
with the wings wrapped round the body after the manner of fruit bats.
The posture of ordinary bats is quite different, and while the lesser
horseshoe (_R. hipposiderus_) alights from the air in an inverted
position, other bats, on first coming to rest, do so with the head
upwards, and then reverse their position.

In the second subfamily, _Hippo-siderinae_ (formerly called
_Phyllorhinae_), the toes are equal and include two phalanges each,
while the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a
process derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
_Hipposiderus, Cloeeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops_ and
_Coelops_ represent this subfamily. _Hipposiderus_ (_Phyllorhina_),
with many species, ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the
dental formula i. 1/2, c. 1/1, p. 2/2, or 1/2, m. 3/3, differs from
_Rhinolophus_ in the form of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate
behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided with a central process covering the
nostrils; the largest species, _H. armiger_, appears to be the most
northerly, having been taken at Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at
an elevation of 5500 ft. Many are provided with a frontal sac behind
the nose-leaf, rudimentary in females (see fig. 7), which can be
everted at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance,
and its extremity supports a tuft of straight hairs. _Rhinonycteris_,
represented by _R. aurantia_ from Australia, and _Triaenops_. by _T.
persicus_ from Persia and other species from Africa and Madagascar,
are closely allied genera. _Triaenops_ (fig. 8) is characterized by
the remarkable form of its nasal appendages and ears, and the presence
of a bony projection from the upper extremity of the second phalange
of the fourth finger. _Coelops_ (_C. Frithi_), from the Bengal
Sanderbans, Java and Siam is distinguished by the peculiar form of its
nose-leaf and the length of the metacarpal bone of the index finger,
as well as by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral membrane.
_Cloeeotis_ is represented by a single East African species, and
_Anthops_ by one from the Solomon Islands characterized by the
nose-leaf covering the whole front of the face.

False vampires.

The next family, _Nycteridae_, which is also Old World, is a small
one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof. Max
Weber as a subfamily under the name of _Myadermatinae_. It differs by
the presence of a small tragus in the ears, which are united at their
bases; and by the nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae
are either small and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first
phalange of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the
metacarpus. There are only pectoral teats.

Of the two genera, _Megaderma_, as represented by the five species of
false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified
premaxillae and upper incisors (i. 0/2, p. (2 or 1)/2), the
cylindrical narrow muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of
which conceals the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large
bifid tragus, and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in
the base of which the short tail is concealed. _M. gigas_ (fig. 9),
from central Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of
the suborder. _M. lyra_, common in India (fore-arm 2.7 in.), has been
caught in the act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small bat
which it afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa,
the Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. _Nycteris_, which is common
to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified
premaxillae and upper incisors (_i._ 2/3, _p._ 1/2), and a long tail;
but lacks a nose-leaf. As in _Megaderma_, the frontal bones are deeply
hollowed and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar
cylindrical form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a
nose-leaf, the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged
groove extending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of
the large ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far
back as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the
exception of _N. javanica_, the species are limited to Africa.

Vampires.

According to the classification followed by Dr G.E. Dobson, the
extensive family of New World bats known as _Phyllostomatidae_ was
widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in Prof. Max
Weber's system they are placed next one another--an arrangement which
has the great advantage of bringing together all the bats furnished
with nose-leaves. It is indeed probable that the vampires, as the
members of the present family may be collectively termed, are the New
World representatives of the Old World _Rhinolophidae_ and
_Nycteridae_.