Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

The continental equivalent of the chimere is the _zimarra_ or
_simarre_, which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni,
Barbier de Montault) as a kind of _soutane_ (cassock), from which it
is distinguished by having a small cape and short, open arms
(_manches-fausses_) reaching to the middle of the upper arm and
decorated with buttons. In France and Germany it is fitted more or
less to the figure; in Italy it is wider and falls down straight in
front. Like the _soutane_, the _zimarra_ is not proper to any
particular rank of clergy, but in the case of bishops and prelates it
is ornamented with red buttons and bindings. It never has a train
(_cauda_). It is not universally worn, e.g. in Germany apparently only
by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the _zimarra_ with the _epitogium_
which Domenico Magri, in his _Hierolexicon_ (ed. 1677), calls the
uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the _soutane_ (_toga_)
instead of the _mantellum_ (_vestis suprema clericorum loco pallii_),
with a cross-reference to _Tabardum_, the "usual" upper garment
(_pallium usuale_); and this definition is repeated in the 8th edition
of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the middle of
the 18th century the _zimarra_ was still in common use as an
out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half of
the 19th century the _zimarra_, though still worn by certain civilians
(e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn
by university professors. A black _zimarra_ lined with white, and
sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn by
the pope.

More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in
significance, is the purple _mantelletum_ worn over the rochet by
bishops, and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in
presence of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary
suspension of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so
long as the pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia
cardinals and prelates wear the _mantelletum_, while the pope wears
the _zimarra_, and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the
pope's death is to expose his rochet by laying aside the
_mantelletum_, the other cardinals following his example, as a symbol
that during the vacancy of the papacy the pope's jurisdiction is
vested in the Sacred College. On the analogy of the _mantelletum_
certain Anglican prelates, American and colonial, have from time to
time appeared in purple chimeres; which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson
justly points out, is a most unhappy innovation, since it has no
historical justification, and its symbolism is rather unfortunate.

AUTHORITIES.--See the _Report_ of the sub-committee of Convocation on
the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31 (London, 1908);
the Rev. N.F. Robinson, "The black chimere of Anglican Prelates: a
plea for its retention and proper use," in _Transactions of the St
Paul's Ecclesiological Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 181-220 (London, 1898);
Herbert Druitt, _Costume on Brasses_ (London, 1906); G. Moroni,
_Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecclesiastica_ (Venice, 1861),
vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra": X. Barbier de Montault, _Traite pratique de
la construction, &c., des eglises_, ii. 538 (Paris, 1878). (W. A. P.)

CHIMESYAN (_Tsimshian_), a tribe of North American Indians, now some 3000 in number, living around the mouth of the Skeena river, British Columbia, and on the islands near the coast. They are a powerfully built people, who tattoo and wear labrets and rings in noses and ears. They are skilful fishermen, and live in large communal houses. They are divided into clans and distinct social orders.

CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, 70 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897) 10,756, mostly Sarts. It occupies a strategical position at the west end of the valley between the Alexander range and the Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of commercial routes from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the north-east, (2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail since 1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864, stands on high ground above the town, but is now in ruins. Chimkent is visited by consumptive patients who wish to try the koumiss cure. It has cotton mills and soap-works.

CHIMNEY (through the Fr. _cheminee_, from _caminata_, sc. _camera_, a Lat. derivative of _caminus_, an oven or furnace), in architecture, that portion of a building, rising above the roof, in which are the flues conveying the smoke to the outer air. Originally the term included the fireplace as well as the chimney shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and Heddington, Essex, there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue was carried through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only, and was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from openings in the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300) were treated decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that the smoke issued at the top, and later in the century that more than one flue was carried up in the same shaft. There are a few examples of the clustered shaft in stone, but as a rule they are contemporaneous with the general use of brick. The brick chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at Hampton Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle, Gloucestershire.

In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft was recognized as an important architectural feature, and was of considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of the roofs. In the chateau of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts are decorated with angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the late Flamboyant style; and at Chambord and Blois they are carved with pilasters and niches with panelling above, carved with the salamander and other armorial devices. In the Roman palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and (when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise their real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character, the chimneys at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of terminations, and as a rule the smoke comes out on the sides and not through the top. (R. P. S.)

_Factory Chimneys_.--Chimneys, besides removing the products of
combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the
cold air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at
the bottom to take its place. An ascending current is thus established
in the chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the
square root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity
also increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but
since the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand,
the amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase
indefinitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the
outside air is about 600 deg. F., but the rate of increase is very slow
after the difference has passed about 300 deg. F. In designing a chimney
the dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned
to the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional
retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second.
Increased velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft,
gives increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a
second is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not
in general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases,
especially when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of
objectionable vapours, they have been made double that height, or even
more. In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular
form offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given
height and sectional area requires less material to secure stability
than the octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand,
there is more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly
used, but many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced
concrete is also employed.

CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which in medieval times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke, and at a later date to the decorative framework, often carried up to the ceiling. "Chimneypiece" or "mantelpiece" is now the general term for the jambs, mantelshelf and external accessories of a fireplace. For many centuries the chimneypiece was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a room, but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical significance has grown less.

Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust, or
with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding its way up
to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known is that in
the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in the joints
carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first half of
the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the greater width
of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown across and
constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust of the arch
being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic work of the
14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased in order to allow
of the members of the family sitting on either side of the fire on the
hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber were employed to
carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so deeply recessed as
to become externally an important architectural feature, as at Haddon
Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is in the great hall of the
Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly 30 ft. wide, having two
intermediate supports to carry the hood; the stone flues are carried
up between the tracery of an immense window above. In the early
Renaissance style, the chimneypiece of the Palais de Justice at Bruges
is a magnificent example; the upper portion, carved in oak, extends
the whole width of the room, with statues of nearly life size of
Charles V. and others of the royal family of Spain. The most prolific
modern designer of chimneypieces was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765
published a large series, on which at a later date the Empire style in
France was based. In France the finest work of the early Renaissance
period is to be found in the chimneypieces, which are of infinite
variety of design.

The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the purer
Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely simple in
design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece, with
classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the chimney breast
being panelled like the rest of the room. In the latter part of the
century the classic architrave was abandoned in favour of a much
bolder and more effective moulding, as in the chimneypieces at Hampton
Court, and the shelf was omitted.

In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones classic
type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and XV. Figure
sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on each side,
which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the overmantel
developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait over the
chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the designs of the
brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century later they came
again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood enriched with
ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the carved wood
decoration of old times. (R. P. S.)

CHIMPANZEE (_Chimpanzi_), the vernacular name of the highest species of the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives of the genus _Anthropopithecus_. Chimpanzees, of which there appear to be at least two species, range through the tropical forest-zone of Africa from the west coast to Uganda. The typical _A. troglodytes_ has been long known to European science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his time, having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy or _Homo sylvestris_, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History branch of the British Museum alongside the volume in which it is described. It was not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee received what is now recognized as a scientific name, having been christened in that year _Simia troglodytes_ by the naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his classification it was included in the same genus as the orang-utan; and it has recently been suggested that the name _Simia_ pertains of right to the chimpanzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical West African chimpanzee and the gorilla (q.v.) there is no difficulty in drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have to deal with the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some of which are so gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine to which group they really pertain. In height the adult male chimpanzee of the typical form does not exceed 5 ft., and the colour of the hair is a full black, while the skin, especially that of the face, is light-coloured; the ears are remarkably large and prominent, and the hands reach only a short distance below the knees. The head is rounded and short, without prominent beetling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the middle line of the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are of no very great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very marked difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown; while in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal.

In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked
gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is
Schweinfurth's chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes
schweinfurthi_), which inhabits the Niam-Niam country, and, although
evidently belonging to the same species as the typical race, exhibits
certain gorilla-like features. These traits are still more developed
in the bald chimpanzee (_A. tschego_) of Loango, the Gabun, and other
regions of French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse
covering of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races
is, however, the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (_A. kulu-kamba_) of du
Chaillu, which inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape "Mafuka,"
which lived in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came
from Loango, was apparently a member of this species, although it was
at one time regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla.
These gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a
female chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has
been described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are
particularly well marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be
still more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and
prominence of the ears proclaim that both "Mafuka" and "Johanna" were
chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like feature in "Johanna" is,
however, the presence of large folds at the sides (_ala_) of the
nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee, but in the
gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees exhibit great
docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom survive for any
great length of time. They likewise display a much higher degree of
intelligence than any of the other man-like apes. (See PRIMATES.)
(R. L.*)

CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of the Chinese empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese Empire includes Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang (East Turkestan, Kulja, Dzungaria, &c., _i.e._ all the Chinese dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south). Its most southern point is in 18 deg. 50' N.; its most northern in 53 deg. 25' N.; its most western in 74 deg. E., and its most eastern in 135 deg. E. It lies, however, mainly between 20 deg. and 50 deg. N. and 80 deg. and 130 deg. E. It is considerably larger than the whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained the various estimates closely approximate, varying between 4,277,000 and 4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W., N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, along a frontier extending some 6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of the Pacific known as the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the China Sea, French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states. It is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along the meridian of Kashgar (76 deg. E.) has a breadth of but 250 m. It rapidly broadens and for the greater part of its area is over 1800 m. across in a direct N. and S. line. Its greatest length is from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to the S.W. confines of Tibet, a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its seaboard, about 5000 m. following the indentations of the coast, is almost, wholly in China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also the western shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria.

China[1] proper or the Eighteen Provinces (_Shih-pa-sheng_) occupies the south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N. by Mongolia, W. by Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S. by Tongking and the gulf of that name, S.E. by the South China Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Chih-li and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 sq. m.

This vast country is separated from the rest of continental Asia by lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which determine the general course--west to east--of its principal rivers. On the north and west the Mongolian and Tibetan tablelands present towards China steep escarpments across which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders of Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China from Burma and Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the transition from the Manchurian plateau to the alluvial plain of northern China is not abrupt, but, before the advent of railways, Manchuria afforded few and difficult means of access to other regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the rest of the world save by sea routes.