Chapter X: Part 10

CLONMEL, a municipal borough and the county town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 112 m. S.W. from Dublin on a branch from Thurles of the Great Southern & Western railway, which makes a junction here with the Waterford and Limerick line of the same company. Pop. (1901) 10,167. Clonmel is built on both sides of the Suir, and also occupies Moore and Long Islands, which are connected with the mainland by three bridges. The principal buildings are the parish church, two Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan friary, two convents, an endowed school dating from 1685, and the various county buildings. The beauty of the environs, and especially of the river, deserves mention; and their charm is enhanced by the neighbouring Galtee, Knockmealdown and other mountains, among which Slievenaman (2364 ft.) is conspicuous. A woollen manufacture was established in 1667, and was extensively carried on until the close of the 18th century. The town contains breweries, flour-mills and tanneries, and has a considerable export trade in grain, cattle, butter and provisions. It stands at the head of navigation for barges on the Suir. It was the centre of a system, established by Charles Bianconi (1786-1875) in 1815 and subsequently, for the conveyance of travellers on light cars, extending over a great part of Leinster, Munster and Connaught. It is governed by a mayor and corporation, which, though retained under the Local Government (Ireland) Act of 1898, has practically the status of an urban district council. By the same act a part of the town formerly situated in county Waterford was added to county Tipperary. It was a parliamentary borough, returning one member, until 1885; having returned two members to the Irish parliament until the union.

The name, _Cluain mealla_, signifies the Vale of Honey. In 1269 the place was chosen as the seat of a Franciscan friary by Otho de Grandison, the first English possessor of the district; and it frequently comes into notice in the following centuries. In 1641 it declared for the Roman Catholic party, and in 1650 it was gallantly defended by Hugh O'Neill against the English under Cromwell. Compelled at last to capitulate, it was completely dismantled, and was never again fortified. Remains of the wall are seen in the churchyard, and the West Gate still stands in the main street.

CLOOTS, JEAN BAPTISTE DU VAL DE GRACE, BARON VON (1755-1794), better known as ANACHARSIS CLOOTS, a noteworthy figure in the French Revolution, was born near Cleves, at the castle of Gnadenthal. He belonged to a noble Prussian family of Dutch origin. The young Cloots, heir to a great fortune, was sent at eleven years of age to Paris to complete his education. There he imbibed the theories of his uncle the Abbe Cornelius de Pauw (1739-1799), philosopher, geographer and diplomatist at the court of Frederick the Great. His father placed him in the military academy at Berlin, but he left it at the age of twenty and traversed Europe, preaching his revolutionary philosophy as an apostle, and spending his money as a man of pleasure. On the breaking out of the Revolution he returned in 1789 to Paris, thinking the opportunity favourable for establishing his dream of a universal family of nations. On the 19th of June 1790 he appeared at the bar of the Assembly at the head of thirty-six foreigners; and, in the name of this "embassy of the human race," declared that the world adhered to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. After this he was known as "the orator of the human race," by which title he called himself, dropping that of baron, and substituting for his baptismal names the pseudonym of Anacharsis, from the famous philosophical romance of the Abbe Jean Jacques Barthelemy. In 1792 he placed 12,000 livres at the disposal of the Republic--"for the arming of forty or fifty fighters in the sacred cause of man against tyrants." The 10th of August impelled him to a still higher flight; he declared himself the personal enemy of Jesus Christ, and abjured all revealed religions. In the same month he had the rights of citizenship conferred on him; and, having in September been elected a member of the Convention, he voted the king's death in the name of the human race, and was an active partisan of the war of propaganda. Excluded at the instance of Robespierre from the Jacobin Club, he was soon afterwards implicated in an accusation levelled against the Hebertists. His innocence was manifest, but he was condemned, and guillotined on the 24th of March 1794.

Cloots' main works are: _La Certitude des preuves du mahometisme_ (London, 1780), published under the pseudonym of Ali-Gur-Ber, in answer to Bergier's _Certitude des preuves du christianisme; L'Orateur du genre humain, ou Depeches du Prussien Cloots au Prussien Herzberg_ (Paris, 1791), and _La Republique universelle_ (1792).

The biography of Cloots by G. Avenel (2 vols., Paris, 1865) is too
eulogistic. See the three articles by H. Baulig in _La Revolution
francaise_, t. 41 (1901).

CLOQUET, a city of Carlton county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the St Louis river, 28 m. W. by S. of Duluth. Pop. (1890) 2530; (1900) 3072; (1905, state census) 6117, of whom 2755 were foreign-born (716 Swedes, 689 Finns, 685 Canadians, 334 Norwegians); (1910) 7031. Cloquet is served by the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, the Duluth & North-Eastern, and (for freight only) the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The river furnishes good water-power, and the city has various manufactures, including lumber, paper, wood pulp, match blocks and boxes. The first mill was built in 1878, and the village was named from the French word _claquet_ (sound of the mill). Cloquet was incorporated as a village in 1883 and was chartered as a city in 1903.

CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903), Irish geologist, was born in Dublin in 1822. He was educated at Weymouth and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1846; and two years later he entered holy orders. For a year he was curate of All Saints, Northampton; from 1849 to 1857 he was rector of Shangton in Leicestershire; and then for four years he was curate of Waltham-on-the-Wolds. In 1861, on the death of his father, he returned to Dublin, and while giving his services to various churches in the city, devoted himself almost wholly to literary and scientific pursuits, and especially to the glacial geology of Ireland, on which subject he became an acknowledged authority. His paper, read before the Geological Society of Ireland in 1866, on the "General Glaciation of Ireland" is a masterly description of the effects of glaciation, and of the evidence in favour of the action of land-ice. Later on he discussed the origin of the elevated shell-bearing gravels near Dublin, and expressed the view that they were accumulated by floating ice when the land had undergone submergence. He was for a time treasurer of the Royal Irish Academy, an active member of the Royal Dublin Society, and president in 1878 of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Astronomy and physics, as well as the ancient language and antiquities of Ireland, attracted his attention. He died in Dublin on the 12th of September 1903.

The obituary by Prof. G.A.J. Cole in _Irish Naturalist_, vol. xii.
(1903) pp. 301-306, contains a list of publications and portrait.

CLOSE (from Lat. _clausum_, shut), a closed place or enclosure. In English law, the term is applied to a portion of land, enclosed or not, held as private property, and to any exclusive interest in land sufficient to maintain an action for trespass _quare clausum fregit_. The word is also used, particularly in Scotland, of the entry or passage, including the common staircase, of a block of tenement houses, and in architecture for the precincts of a cathedral or abbey.

The adjective "close" (i.e. closed) is found in several phrases, such as "close time" or "close season" (see GAME LAWS); close borough, one of which the rights and privileges were enjoyed by a limited class (see BOROUGH); close rolls and writs, royal letters, &c., addressed to particular persons, under seal, and not open to public inspection (see RECORD; _Chancery_; LETTERS PATENT). From the sense of "closed up," and so "confined," comes the common meaning of "near."

CLOSURE (Fr. _cloture_), the parliamentary term for the closing of debate according to a certain rule, even when certain members are anxious to continue the debate. (See PARLIAMENT: _Procedure_.)

CLOT, ANTOINE BARTHELEMY (1793-1868), French physician, known as CLOT BEY, was born at Grenoble on the 7th of November 1793, and graduated in medicine and surgery at Montpellier. After practising for a time at Marseilles he was made chief surgeon to Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt. At Abuzabel, near Cairo, he founded a hospital and schools for all branches of medical instruction, as well as for the study of the French language; and, notwithstanding the most serious religious difficulties, instituted the study of anatomy by means of dissection. In 1832 Mehemet Ali gave him the dignity of bey without requiring him to abjure his religion; and in 1836 he received the rank of general, and was appointed head of the medical administration of the country. In 1849 he returned to Marseilles, though he revisited Egypt in 1856. He died at Marseilles on the 28th of August 1868. His publications included: _Relation des epidemies de cholera qui ont regne a l'Heggiaz, a Suez, et en Egypte_ (1832); _De la peste observee en Egypte_ (1840); _Apercu general sur l'Egypte_ (1840); _Coup d'oeil sur la peste et les quarantaines_ (1851); _De l'ophthalmie (1864)_.

CLOTAIRE (CHLOTHACHAR), the name of four Frankish kings.

CLOTAIRE I. (d. 561) was one of the four sons of Clovis. On the death of his father in 511 he received as his share of the kingdom the town of Soissons, which he made his capital, the cities of Laon, Noyon, Cambrai and Maastricht, and the lower course of the Meuse. But he was very ambitious, and sought to extend his domain. He was the chief instigator of the murder of his brother Clodomer's children in 524, and his share of the spoils consisted of the cities of Tours and Poitiers. He took part in the various expeditions against Burgundy, and after the destruction of that kingdom in 534 obtained Grenoble, Die and some of the neighbouring cities. When Provence was ceded to the Franks by the Ostrogoths, he received the cities of Orange, Carpentras and Gap. In 531 he marched against the Thuringi with his brother Theuderich (Thierry) I., and in 542 with his brother Childebert against the Visigoths of Spain. On the death of his great-nephew Theodebald in 555, Clotaire annexed his territories; and on Childebert's death in 558 he became king of all Gaul. He also ruled over the greater part of Germany, made expeditions into Saxony, and for some time exacted from the Saxons an annual tribute of 500 cows. The end of his reign was troubled by internal dissensions, his son Chram rising against him on several occasions. Following Chram into Brittany, where the rebel had taken refuge, Clotaire shut him up with his wife and children in a cottage, to which he set fire. Overwhelmed with remorse, he went to Tours to implore forgiveness at the tomb of St Martin, and died shortly afterwards.

CLOTAIRE II. (d. 629) was the son of Chilperic I. On the assassination of his father in 584 he was still in his cradle. He was, however, recognized as king, thanks to the devotion of his mother Fredegond and the protection of his uncle Gontran, king of Burgundy. It was not until after the death of his cousin Childebert II. in 595 that Clotaire took any active part in affairs. He then endeavoured to enlarge his estates at the expense of Childebert's sons, Theodebert, king of Austrasia, and Theuderich II., king of Burgundy; but after gaining a victory at Laffaux (597), he was defeated at Dormelles (600), and lost part of his kingdom. After the war between Theodebert and Theuderich and their subsequent death, the nobles of Austrasia and Burgundy appealed to Clotaire, who, after putting Brunhilda to death, became master of the whole of the Frankish kingdom (613). He was obliged, however, to make great concessions to the aristocracy, to whom he owed his victory. By the constitution of the 18th of October 614 he gave legal force to canons which had been voted some days previously by a council convened at Paris, but not without attempting to modify them by numerous restrictions. He extended the competence of the ecclesiastical tribunals, suppressed unjust taxes and undertook to select the counts from the districts they had to administer. In 623 he made his son Dagobert king of the Austrasians, and gradually subdued all the provinces that had formerly belonged to Childebert II. He also guaranteed a certain measure of independence to the nobles of Burgundy, giving them the option of having a special mayor of the palace, or of dispensing with that officer. These concessions procured him a reign of comparative tranquillity. He died on the 18th of October 629, and was buried at Paris in the church of St Vincent, afterwards known as St Germain des Pres.

CLOTAIRE III. (652-673) was a son of King Clovis II. In 657 he became the nominal ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms, but was deprived of Austrasia in 663, retaining Neustria and Burgundy until his death.

CLOTAIRE IV. (d. 719) was king of Austrasia from 717 to 719.
(C. PF.)

CLOTH, properly a covering, especially for the body, clothing, then the material of which such a covering is made; hence any material woven of wool or hair, cotton, flax or vegetable fibre. In commercial usage, the word is particularly applied to a fabric made of wool. The word is Teutonic, though it does not appear in all the branches of the language. It appears in German as _Kleid_, dress (_Kleidung_, clothing), and in Dutch as _kleed_. The ultimate origin is unknown; it may be connected with the root _kli-_ meaning to stick, cling to, which appears in "clay," "cleave" and other words. The original meaning would be either that which clings to the body, or that which is pressed or "felted" together. The regular plural of "cloth" was "clothes," which is now confined in meaning to articles of clothing, garments, in which sense the singular "cloth" is not now used. For that word, in its modern sense of material, the plural "cloths" is used. This form dates from the beginning of the 17th century, but the distinction in meaning between "cloths" and "clothes" is a 19th-century one.

CLOTHIER, a manufacturer of cloth, or a dealer who sells either the cloth or made-up clothing. In the United States the word formerly applied only to those who dressed or fulled cloth during the process of manufacture, but now it is used in the general sense, as above.

CLOTILDA, SAINT (d. 544), daughter of the Burgundian king Chilperic, and wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. On the death of Gundioc, king of the Burgundians, in 473, his sons Gundobald, Godegesil and Chilperic divided his heritage between them; Chilperic apparently reigning at Lyons, Gundobald at Vienne and Godegesil at Geneva. According to Gregory of Tours, Chilperic was slain by Gundobald, his wife drowned, and of his two daughters, Chrona took the veil and Clotilda was exiled. This account, however, seems to have been a later invention. At Lyons an epitaph has been discovered of a Burgundian queen, who died in 506, and was most probably the mother of Clotilda. Clotilda was brought up in the orthodox faith. Her uncle Gundobald was asked for her hand in marriage by the Frankish king Clovis, who had just conquered northern Gaul, and the marriage was celebrated about 493. On this event many romantic stories, all more or less embroidered, are to be found in the works of Gregory of Tours and the chronicler Fredegarius, and in the _Liber historiae Francorum_. Clotilda did not rest until her husband had abjured paganism and embraced the orthodox Christian faith (496). With him she built at Paris the church of the Holy Apostles, afterwards known as Ste Genevieve. After the death of Clovis in 511 she retired to the abbey of St Martin at Tours. In 523 she incited her sons against her uncle Gundobald and provoked the Burgundian war. In the following year she tried in vain to protect the rights of her grandsons, the children of Clodomer, against the claims of her sons Childebert I. and Clotaire I., and was equally unsuccessful in her efforts to prevent the civil discords between her children. She died in 544, and was buried by her husband's side in the church of the Holy Apostles.

There is a mediocre _Life_ in _Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script. rer. Merov._,
vol. ii. See also G. Kurth, _Sainte Clotilde_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1897).
(C. PF.)

CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as "clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon _cl[=u]d_ is only used in the sense of "a mass of rock," _wolcen_ being used for "cloud"), a mass of condensed vapour hanging in the air at some height from the earth.

_Classification of Clouds._--The earliest serious attempt to name the varieties of cloud was made by J.B. Lamarck in 1801, but he only used French terms, and those were not always happily chosen. The field was therefore still clear when in 1803 Luke Howard published, in _Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine_, an entirely independent scheme in which the terms were all Latin, and were applied with such excellent judgment that his system remains as the broad basis of those in use to-day. He recognized three primary types of cloud--Cirrus, Cumulus and Stratus--and four derivative or compound forms,--Cirro-cumulus, Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus.

His own definitions were:--

(1) _Cirrus._--Parallel, flexuous or diverging fibres, extensible in
any or all directions.

(2) _Cumulus._--Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from a
horizontal base.

(3) _Stratus._--A widely-extended continuous horizontal sheet,
increasing from below.

(4) _Cirro-cumulus._--Small, well-defined, roundish masses, in close
horizontal arrangement.

(5) _Cirro-stratus._--Horizontal or slightly inclined masses,
attenuated towards a part or the whole of their circumferences, bent
downward, or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of small
clouds having these characters.

(6) _Cumulo-stratus._--The cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus, and
either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter or
superadding a widespread structure to its base.

(7) _Cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus._--The rain-cloud: a cloud or
system of clouds from which rain is falling. It is a horizontal sheet,
above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally
and from beneath.

This system was universally adopted, and apart from some ambiguity in the definitions of cumulo-stratus and nimbus, it was sufficiently detailed for many purposes, such as the general relations between clouds and the movements of the barometer. When, however, such questions as the mode of origin of particular forms of cloud came to be investigated, it was at once felt that Howard's classes were too wide, and something much more detailed was required. The result has been the promulgation from time to time of revised schemes, most of these being based on Howard's work, and differing from him by the introduction of new terms or of subdivisions of his types. Some of these new terms have come more or less into use, such as A. Poey's _pallium_ to signify a uniform sheet, but as a general rule the proposals were not accompanied by a clear enough exposition of their precise meaning for others to be quite sure of the author's intention. Other writers not appreciating how fully Howard's names had become established, boldly struck out on entirely new lines. The most important of these were probably those due respectively to (1) Poey, published in the _Annuaire de la societe meteorologique de France_, 1865, (2) M. l'Abbe Maze, published in the _Memoires du congres meteorologique international_, 1889, and (3) Frederic Gaster, _Quart. Jour. R. Meteorological Society_, 1893. In all of these Howard's terms are used, but the systems were much more elaborate, and the verbal descriptions sometimes difficult to follow.

In his book _Cloudland_ (1894) Clement Ley published a novel system. He grouped all clouds under four heads, in accordance with the mode in which he believed them to be formed.

I. _Clouds of Radiation._

Nebula Fog.
Nebula Stillans Wet fog.
Nebula Pulverea Dust fog.

II. _Clouds of Interfret._

Nubes Informis Scud.
Stratus Quietus Quiet cloud.
Stratus Lenticularis Lenticular cloud.
Stratus Maculosus Mackerel cloud.
Stratus Castellatus Turret cloud.
Stratus Precipitans Plane shower.

III. _Clouds of Inversion._

Cumulo-rudimentum Rudiment.
Cumulus Heap cloud.
Cumulo-stratus Anvil cloud.
Cumulo-stratus Mammatus Tubercled anvil cloud.
Cumulo-nimbus Shower cloud.
Cumulo-nimbus Nivosus Snow shower.
Cumulo-nimbus Grandineus Hail shower.
Cumulo-nimbus Mammatus Festooned shower cloud.
Nimbus Rainfall cloud.
Nimbus nivosus Snowfall.
Nimbus grandineus Hailfall.

IV. _Clouds of Inclination._

Nubes Fulgens Luminous cloud.
Cirrus Curl cloud.
Cirro-filum Gossamer cloud.
Cirro-velum Veil cloud.
Cirro-macula Speckle cloud.
Cirro-velum Mammatum.[1] Draped veil cloud.

It will be seen that Ley's scheme is really an amplification of Howard's. The term "Interfret" is defined as the interaction of horizontal currents of different velocities. Inversion is a synonym for vertical convection, and Inclination is used to imply that such clouds consist of sloping lines of falling ice particles.

While Ley had been finishing his work and seeing it through the press, H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and R. Abercromby had devised another modification which differed from Howard's chiefly by the introduction of a new class, which they distinguished by the use of the prefix _Alto_. This scheme was formally adopted by the International Meteorological Conference held at Munich in 1891, and a committee was appointed to draw up an atlas showing the exact forms typical of each variety considered. Finally in August 1894 a small sub-committee consisting of Messrs H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenbach-Burckhardt and Teisserenc de Bort was charged with the task of producing the atlas. Their task was completed in 1896, and meteorologists were at last supplied with a fairly detailed scheme, and one which was adequately illustrated, so that there could be no doubt of the authors' meaning. It is as follows:--

_The International Classification._

(a) Separate or globular masses (most frequently seen in dry weather).

(b) Forms which are widely extended, or completely cover the sky (in wet weather).

A. _Upper clouds_, average altitude 9000 metres.[2]

a. 1. Cirrus.
b. 2. Cirro-stratus.

B. _Intermediate clouds_, between 3000 m. and 7000 m.

a. 3. Cirro-cumulus.
4. Alto-cumulus.
b. 5. Alto-stratus.

C. _Lower clouds_, 2000 m.

a. 6. Strato-cumulus.
b. 7. Nimbus.

D. _Clouds of Diurnal Ascending Currents._

a. 8. Cumulus, apex 1800 m., base 1400 m.
b. 9. Cumulo-nimbus, apex 3000 m. to 8000 m., base 1400 m.

E. _High Fogs_, under 1000 m.

10. Stratus.

_Explanations._

1. _Cirrus_ (Ci.).--Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous-looking,
taking the form of feathers, generally of a white colour, sometimes
arranged in belts which cross a portion of the sky in great circles
and by an effect of perspective, converge towards one or two points of
the horizon (the Ci.-S. and the Ci.-Cu. often contribute to the
formation of these belts). See Plate, fig. 1.

2. _Cirro-stratus_ (Ci.-S.).--A thin, whitish sheet, at times
completely covering the sky, and only giving it a whitish appearance
(it is then sometimes called cirro-nebula), or at others presenting,
more or less distinctly, a formation like a tangled web. This sheet
often produces halos around the sun and moon. See fig. 2.

3. _Cirro-cumulus_ (Ci.-Cu.).--Small globular masses, or white flakes
without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged in groups and
often in lines. See fig. 3.

4. _Alto-cumulus_ (A.-Cu.).--Largish globular masses, white or
greyish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so
closely packed that their edges appear confused. The detached masses
are generally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Cu.) at the
centre of the group; at the margin they form into finer flakes
(changing to Ci.-Cu.). They often spread themselves out in lines in
one or two directions. See fig. 4.

5. _Alto-stratus_ (A.-S.).--A thick sheet of a grey or bluish colour,
showing a brilliant patch in the neighbourhood of the sun or moon, and
without causing halos, sometimes giving rise to coronae. This form
goes through all the changes like Cirro-stratus, but according to
measurements made at Upsala, its altitude is one-half as great. See
fig. 5.

6. _Strato-cumulus_ (S.-Cu.).--Large globular masses or rolls of dark
cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in winter, and
occasionally giving it a wavy appearance. The layer is not, as a rule,
very thick, and patches of blue sky are often seen through intervening
spaces. All sorts of transitions between this form and Alto-cumulus
are seen. It may be distinguished from nimbus by its globular or
rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring rain. See fig.
6.

7. _Nimbus_ (N.), _Rain Cloud._--A thick layer of dark clouds, without
shape and with ragged edges, from which continued rain or snow
generally falls. Through openings in these clouds an upper layer of
cirro-stratus or alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen. If the
layer of nimbus separates up into shreds, or if small loose clouds are
visible floating at a low level, underneath a large nimbus they may be
described as _fracto-nimbus_ (Scud of sailors). See fig. 9.

8. _Cumulus_ (Cu.) _(Wool-pack Clouds)._--Thick clouds of which the
upper surface is dome-shaped and exhibits protuberances while the base
is horizontal. These clouds appear to be formed by a diurnal
ascensional movement which is almost always observable. When the cloud
is opposite the sun, the surfaces usually presented to the observer
have a greater brilliance than the margins of the protuberances. When
the light falls aslant, these clouds give deep shadows, but if they
are on the same side as the sun they appear dark, with bright edges.
See fig. 7.

The true cumulus has clear superior and inferior limits. It is often
broken up by strong winds, and the detached portions undergo continual
changes. These altered forms may be distinguished by the name of
_Fracto-cumulus_.

9. _Cumulo-nimbus_ (Cu.-N.); _The Thunder-cloud; Shower-cloud._--Heavy
masses of clouds, rising in the form of mountains, turrets or anvils,
generally having a sheet or screen of fibrous appearance above (false
cirrus) and underneath, a mass of cloud similar to nimbus. From the
base there generally fall local showers of rain or snow (occasionally
hail or soft hail). Sometimes the upper edges have the compact form of
cumulus, rising into massive peaks round which the delicate false
cirrus floats, and sometimes the edges themselves separate into a
fringe of filaments similar to that of cirrus. This last form is
particularly common in spring showers. See fig. 10.

The front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently presents the form
of a large bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly
brighter in colour.

10. _Stratus_ (S.).--A horizontal sheet of lifted fog. When this sheet
is broken up into irregular shreds by the wind, or by the summits of
mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-stratus. See
fig. 8.

The scheme also provides that where a stratus or nimbus takes a lumpy
form, this fact shall be described by the adjective _cumuliformis_,
and if its base shows downward projecting bosses the word _mammato_ is
prefixed.

Issued as it has been with the authority of an international congress of specialists, this scheme has been generally accepted, and must be regarded as the orthodox system, and for the great majority of observations it is quite detailed enough. But it does not give universal satisfaction. Cirrus clouds, for instance, exhibit many forms, and these so diverse that they must be due to very different causes. Hence for the minuter study of cloud forms a more elaborate scheme is still needed.

Hence in 1896 H. H. Clayton of the Blue Hill observatory, Massachusetts, published in the _Annals_ of the astronomical observatory of Harvard College a highly detailed scheme in which the International types and a number of subdivisions were grouped under four classes--_stratiforms_ or sheet clouds; _cumuliforms_ or woolpack clouds; _flocciforms_, including strato-cumulus, alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus; and _cirriforms_ or hairy clouds. The International terms are embodied and the special varieties are distinguished by the use of prefixes such as tracto-cirrus or cirrus bands, grano-cirro-cumulus or granular cirrus, &c.

Again in 1904 F. L. Obenbach of the Cleveland observatory devised a different system, published in the annual report, in which the International types are preserved, but each is subdivided into a number of species. In the absence of any atlas to define the precise meaning of the descriptions given, neither of these American schemes has come into general use.

Further proposals were put forward by A. W. Clayden in _Cloud Studies_ (1905). His scheme accepts the whole of the International names which he regards as the cloud genera, and suggests specific Latin names for the chief varieties, accompanying the descriptions by photographs. The proposed scheme is as follows.

_Genus._ _Species._

Cirrus Cirro-nebula Cirrus haze.
Cirro-filum Thread cirrus.
Cirrus Excelsus High "
" Ventosus Windy "
" Nebulosus Hazy "
" Caudatus Tailed "
" Vittatus Ribbon "
" Inconstans Change "
" Communis Common "
Cirro-stratus Communis Common Ci. S.
Nebulosus Hazy "
Vittatus Ribbon "
Cumulosus Flocculent Ci.-S.
Cirro-cumulus Cirro-macula Speckle cloud.
Nebulosus Hazy Ci. cu.
Alto-clouds Alto-stratus
" " maculosus Mackerel sky.
" " fractus
Alto-strato-cumulus
Alto-cumulus informis
" " nebulosus
Alto-clouds Alto-cumulus castellatus Turret cloud.
" " glomeratus High ball cumulus.
" " communis
" " stratiformis Flat alto-cum.
Stratus Stratus maculosus
" " radius Roll cloud.
" " lenticularis Fall cloud.
Strato-cumulus
Cumulus Cumulus minor Small cumulus.
" major Large cumulus.
Cumulo-nimbus Storm cloud.

The term nimbus is to be applied to any cloud from which rain is falling, but if the true form of the cloud is visible the term should be used as a qualifying adjective. The prefix fracto- or the adjective fractus should be used when the cloud is undergoing disintegration or appears ragged or broken. Mammato- is used in the ordinary sense, and finally undatus or waved is to be added to the name of any cloud showing a wave-like or rippled structure. (A. W. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Varieties.

[2] 1 metre = 3.28 ft.

CLOUDBERRY, _Rubus Chamaemorus_, a low-growing creeping herbaceous plant, with stem not prickly, and with simple obtusely lobed leaves and solitary white flowers, resembling those of the blackberry, but larger--one inch across,--and with stamens and pistils on different plants. The orange-yellow fruit is about half an inch long and consists of a few large drupes with a pleasant flavour. The plant occurs in the mountainous parts of Great Britain, and is widely distributed through the more northerly portions of both hemispheres. In northern Denmark and Sweden the fruit is gathered in large quantities and sold in the markets.

CLOUD-BURST, a sudden and violent storm of rain. The name probably originated from the idea that the clouds were solid masses full of water that occasionally burst with disastrous results. A whirlwind passing over the sea sometimes carries the water upwards in a whirling vortex; passing over the land its motion is checked and a deluge of water falls. Occasionally on high lands far from the sea violent storms occur, with rain that seems to descend in sheets, sweeping away bridges and culverts and tearing up roads and streets, being due to great and rapid condensation and vortical whirling of the resulting heavy clouds (see METEOROLOGY).

CLOUDED LEOPARD (_Felis nebulosa_ or _macroscelis_), a large arboreal cat from the forests of south-east Asia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Formosa. This cat, often called the clouded tiger, is beautifully marked, and has an elongated head and body, long tail and rather short limbs. The canine teeth are proportionately longer than in any other living cat. Little is known of the habits of the clouded leopard, but it preys on small mammals and birds, and rarely comes to the ground. The native Malay name is _Arimaudahan_ ("tree-tiger"). The species is nearly related to the small Indian marbled cat (_F. marmorata_), and Fontaniers cat (_F. tristis_) of Central Asia. (R. L.*)

CLOUET, FRANCOIS (d. 1572), French miniature painter. The earliest reference to him is the document dated December 1541 (see CLOUET, JEAN), in which the king renounces for the benefit of the artist his father's estate which had escheated to the crown as the estate of a foreigner. In it the younger Janet is said to have "followed his father very closely in the science of his art." Like his father, he held the office of groom of the chamber and painter in ordinary to the king, and so far as salary is concerned, he started where his father left off. A long list of drawings contains those which are attributed to this artist, but we still lack perfect certainty about his works. There is, however, more to go upon than there was in the case of his father, as the praises of Francois Clouet were sung by the writers of the day, his name was carefully preserved from reign to reign, and there is an ancient and unbroken tradition in the attribution of many of his pictures. There are not, however, any original attestations of his works, nor are any documents known which would guarantee the ascriptions usually accepted. To him are attributed the portraits of Francis I. at the Uffizi and at the Louvre, and various drawings relating to them. He probably also painted the portrait of Catherine de' Medici at Versailles and other works, and in all probability a large number of the drawings ascribed to him were from his hand. One of his most remarkable portraits is that of Mary, queen of Scots, a drawing in chalks in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and of similar character are the two portraits of Charles IX. and the one at Chantilly of Marguerite of France. Perhaps his masterpiece is the portrait of Elizabeth of Austria in the Louvre.

He resided in Paris in the rue de Ste Avoye in the Temple quarter, close to the Hotel de Guise, and in 1568 is known to have been under the patronage of Claude Gouffier de Boisy, Seigneur d'Oiron, and his wife Claude de Baune. Another ascertained fact concerning Francois Clouet is that in 1571 he was "summoned to the office of the Court of the Mint," and his opinion was taken on the likeness to the king of a portrait struck by the mint. He prepared the death-mask of Henry II., as in 1547 he had taken a similar mask of the face and hands of Francis I., in order that the effigy to be used at the funeral might be prepared from his drawings; and on each of these occasions he executed the painting to be used in the decorations of the church and the banners for the great ceremony.

Several miniatures are believed to be his work, one very remarkable portrait being the half-length figure of Henry II. in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. Another of his portraits is that of the duc d'Alencon in the Jones collection at South Kensington, and certain representations of members of the royal family which were in the Hamilton Palace collection and the Magniac sale are usually ascribed to him. He died on the 22nd of December 1572, shortly after the massacre of St Bartholomew, and his will, mentioning his sister and his two illegitimate daughters, and dealing with the disposition of a considerable amount of property, is still in existence. His daughters subsequently became nuns.

His work is remarkable for the extreme accuracy of the drawing, the elaborate finish of all the details, and the exquisite completeness of the whole portrait. He must have been a man of high intelligence, and of great penetration, intensely interested in his work, and with considerable ability to represent the character of his sitter in his portraits. His colouring is perhaps not specially remarkable, nor from the point of style can his pictures be considered specially beautiful, but in perfection of drawing he has hardly any equal.

To Monsieur Louis Dimier, the leading authority upon his works, and to
his volume on _French Painting in the Sixteenth Century_, as well as
to the works of MM. Bouchot, La Borde and Maulde-La Claviere, the
present writer is indebted for the information contained in this
article. (G. C. W.)

CLOUET, JEAN (d. c. 1541). French miniature painter, generally known as JANET. The authentic presence of this artist at the French court is first to be noted in 1516, the second year of the reign of Francis I. By a deed of gift made by the king to the artist's son of his father's estate, which had escheated to the crown, we learn that he was not actually a Frenchman, and never even naturalized. He is supposed to have been a native of the Low Countries, and probably his real name was Clowet. His position was that of groom of the chamber to the king, and he received a stipend at first of 180 livres and later of 240. He lived several years in Tours, and there it was he met his wife, who was the daughter of a jeweller. He is recorded as living in Tours in 1522, and there is a reference to his wife's residence in the same town in 1523, but in 1529 they were both settled in Paris, probably in the neighbourhood of the parish of Ste Innocent, in the cemetery of which they were buried. He stood godfather at a christening on the 8th of July 1540, but was no longer living in December 1541, and therefore died between those two dates.

His brother, known as CLOUET DE NAVARRE, was in the service of Marguerite d'Angouleme, sister of Francis I., and is referred to in a letter written by Marguerite about 1529. Jean Clouet had two children, Francois and Catherine, who married Abel Foulon, and left one son, who continued the profession of Francois Clouet after his decease. Jean Clouet was undoubtedly a very skilful portrait painter, but it must be acknowledged without hesitation that there is no work in existence which has been proved to be his. There is no doubt that he painted a portrait of the mathematician, Oronce Fine, in 1530, when Fine was thirty-six years old, but the portrait is now known only by a print. Janet is generally believed, however, to have been responsible for a very large number of the wonderful portrait drawings now preserved at Chantilly, and at the Bibliotheque Nationale, and to him is attributed the portrait of an unknown man at Hampton Court, that of the dauphin Francis, son of Francis I. at Antwerp, and one other portrait, that of Francis I. in the Louvre.

Seven miniature portraits in the _Manuscript of the Gallic War_ in the Bibliotheque Nationale (13,429) are attributed to Janet with very strong probability, and to these may be added an eighth in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, and representing Charles de Cosse, Marechal de Brissac, identical in its characteristics with the seven already known. There are other miniatures in the collection of Mr Morgan, which may be attributed to Jean Clouet with some strong degree of probability, inasmuch as they closely resemble the portrait drawings at Chantilly and in Paris which are taken to be his work. In his oil paintings the execution is delicate and smooth, the outlines hard, the texture pure, and the whole work elaborately and very highly finished in rich, limpid colour. The chalk drawings are of remarkable excellence, the medium being used by the artist with perfect ease and absolute sureness, and the mingling of colour being in exquisite taste, the modelling exceedingly subtle, and the drawing careful, tender and emphatic. The collection of drawings preserved in France, and attributed to this artist and his school, comprises portraits of all the important persons of the time of Francis I. In one album of drawings the portraits are annotated by the king himself, and his merry reflections, stinging taunts or biting satires, add very largely to a proper understanding of the life of his time and court. Definite evidence, however, is still lacking to establish the attribution of the best of these drawings and of certain oil paintings to the Jean Clouet who was groom of the chambers to the king.

The chief authority in France on the work of this artist is Monsieur
Louis Dimier, and to his works, and to information derived direct from
him, the present writer is indebted for almost all the information
given in this article. (G. C. W.)

CLOUGH, ANNE JEMIMA (1820-1892), English educationalist, was born at Liverpool on the 20th of January 1820, the daughter of a cotton merchant. She was the sister of Arthur Hugh Clough, the poet. When two years old she was taken with the rest of the family to Charleston, South Carolina. It was not till 1836 that she returned to England, and though her ambition was to write, she was occupied for the most part in teaching. Her father's failure in business led her to open a school in 1841. This was carried on until 1846. In 1852, after making some technical studies in London and working at the Borough Road and the Home and Colonial schools, she opened another small school of her own at Ambleside in Westmorland. Giving this up some ten years later, she lived for a time with the widow of her brother Arthur Hugh Clough--who had died in 1861--in order that she might educate his children. Keenly interested in the education of women, she made friends with Miss Emily Davies, Madame Bodichon, Miss Buss and others. After helping to found the North of England council for promoting the higher education of women, she acted as its secretary from 1867 to 1870 and as its president from 1873 to 1874. When it was decided to open a house for the residence of women students at Cambridge, Miss Clough was chosen as its first principal. This hostel, started in Regent Street, Cambridge, in 1871 with five students, and continued at Merton Hall in 1872, led to the building of Newnham Hall, opened in 1875, and to the erection of Newnham College on its present basis in 1880. Miss Clough's personal charm and high aims, together with the development of Newnham College under her care, led her to be regarded as one of the foremost leaders of the women's educational movement. She died at Cambridge on the 27th of February 1892. Two portraits of Miss Clough are at Newnham College, one by Sir W. B. Richmond, the other by J. J. Shannon.

See _Memoir of Anne Jemima Clough_, by Blanche Athena Clough (1897).

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1819-1861), English poet, was born at Liverpool on the 1st of January 1819. He came of a good Welsh stock by his father, James Butler Clough, and of a Yorkshire one by his mother, Anne Perfect. In 1822 his father, a cotton merchant, moved to the United States, and Clough's childhood was spent mainly at Charleston, South Carolina, much under the influence of his mother, a cultivated woman, full of moral and imaginative enthusiasm. In 1828 the family paid a visit to England, and Clough was left at school at Chester, whence he passed in 1829 to Rugby, then under the sway of Dr Thomas Arnold, whose strenuous views on life and education he accepted to the full. Cut off to a large degree from home relations, he passed a somewhat reserved and solitary boyhood, devoted to the well-being of the school and to early literary efforts in the _Rugby Magazine_. In 1836 his parents returned to Liverpool, and in 1837 he went with a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Here his contemporaries included Benjamin Jowett, A. P. Stanley, J. C. Shairp, W. G. Ward, Frederick Temple and Matthew Arnold.

Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church movement led by J. H. Newman. Clough was for a time carried away by the flood, and, although he recovered his equilibrium, it was not without an amount of mental disturbance and an expenditure of academic time, which perhaps accounted for his failure to obtain more than a second class in his final examination. He missed a Balliol fellowship, but obtained one at Oriel, with a tutorship, and lived the Oxford life of study, speculation, lectures and reading-parties for some years longer. Gradually, however, certain sceptical tendencies with regard to the current religious and social order grew upon him to such an extent as to render his position as an orthodox teacher of youth irksome, and in 1848 he resigned it. The immediate feeling of relief showed itself in buoyant, if thoughtful, literature, and he published poems both new and old. Then he travelled, seeing Paris in revolution and Rome in siege, and in the autumn of 1849 took up new duties as principal of University Hall, a hostel for students at University College, London. He soon found that he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of the Carlyles, nor did the atmosphere of Unitarianism prove any more congenial than that of Anglicanism to his critical and at bottom conservative temper. A prospect of a post in Sydney led him to engage himself to Miss Blanche Mary Shore Smith, and when it disappeared he left England in 1852, and went, encouraged by Emerson, to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Here he remained some months, lecturing and translating Plutarch for the book-sellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership in the Education Office brought him to London once more. He married, and pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appointment in 1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study certain aspects of foreign military education. At this, as at every period of his life, he enjoyed the warm respect and admiration of a small circle of friends, who learnt to look to him alike for unselfish sympathy and for spiritual and practical wisdom. In 1860 his health began to fail. He visited first Malvern and Freshwater, and then the East, France and Switzerland, in search of recovery, and finally came to Florence, where he was struck down by malaria and paralysis, and died on the 13th of November 1861. Matthew Arnold wrote upon him the exquisite lament of _Thyrsis_.

Shortly before he left Oxford, in the stress of the Irish potato-famine, Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the undergraduates, with the title, _A Consideration of Objections against the Retrenchment Association at Oxford_ (1847). His Homeric pastoral _The Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich_, afterwards rechristened _Tober-na-Vuolich_ (1848), was inspired by a long vacation after he had given up his tutorship, and is full of socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery. _Ambarvalia_ (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas Burbidge, contains shorter poems of various dates from 1840, or earlier, onwards. _Amours de Voyage_, a novel in verse, was written at Rome in 1849; _Dipsychus_, a rather amorphous satire, at Venice in 1850; and the idylls which make up _Mari Magno, or Tales on Board_, in 1861. A few lyric and elegiac pieces, later in date than the _Ambarvalia_, complete the tale of Clough's poetry. His only considerable enterprise in prose was a revision of the 17th century translation of Plutarch by Dryden and others, which occupied him from 1852, and was published as _Plutarch's Lives_ (1859).

No part of Clough's life was wholly given up to poetry, and he probably had not the gift of detachment necessary to produce great literature in the intervals of other occupations. He wrote but little, and even of that little there is a good deal which does not aim at the highest seriousness. He never became a great craftsman. A few of his best lyrics have a strength of melody to match their depth of thought, but much of what he left consists of rich ore too imperfectly fused to make a splendid or permanent possession. Nevertheless, he is rightly regarded, like his friend Matthew Arnold, as one of the most typical English poets of the middle of the 19th century. His critical instincts and strong ethical temper brought him athwart the popular ideals of his day both in conduct and religion. His verse has upon it the melancholy and the perplexity of an age of transition. He is a sceptic who by nature should have been with the believers. He stands between two worlds, watching one crumble behind him, and only able to look forward by the sternest exercise of faith to the reconstruction that lies ahead in the other. On the technical side, Clough's work is interesting to students of metre, owing to the experiments which he made, in the _Bothie_ and elsewhere, with English hexameters and other types of verse formed upon classical models.

Clough's _Poems_ were collected, with a short memoir by F. T.
Palgrave, in 1862; and his _Letters and Remains_, with a longer
memoir, were privately printed in 1865. Both volumes were published
together in 1869 and have been more than once reprinted. Another
memoir is _Arthur Hugh Clough: A Monograph_ (1883), by S. Waddington.
Selections from the poems were made by Mrs Clough for the Golden
Treasury series in 1894, and by E. Rhys in 1896. (E. K. C.)

CLOUTING, the technical name given to a light plain cloth used for covering butter and farmers' baskets, and for dish and pudding cloths. The same term is often given to light cloths of the nursery diaper pattern.

CLOVELLY, a fishing village in the Barnstaple parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 11 m. W.S.W. of Bideford. Pop. (1901) 621. It is a cluster of old-fashioned cottages in a unique position on the sides of a rocky cleft in the north coast; its main street resembles a staircase which descends 400 ft. to the pier, too steeply to allow of any wheeled traffic. Thick woods shelter it on three sides, and render the climate so mild that fuchsias and other delicate plants flourish in midwinter. All Saints' church, restored in 1866, is late Norman, containing several monuments to the Carys, lords of the manor for 600 years. The surrounding scenery is famous for its richness of colour, especially in the grounds of Cary Court, and along "The Hobby," a road cut through the woods and overlooking the sea. Clovelly is described by Dickens in A Message from the Sea.

CLOVER, in botany, the English name for plants of the genus _Trifolium_, from Lat. _tres_, three, and _folium_, a leaf, so called from the characteristic form of the leaf, which has three leaflets (trifoliate), hence the popular name trefoil. It is a member of the family _Leguminosae_, and contains about three hundred species, found chiefly in north temperate regions, but also, like other north temperate genera, on the mountains in the tropics. The plants are small annual or perennial herbs with trifoliate (rarely 5- or 7-foliate) leaves, with stipules adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple, white, or rarely yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods are enclosed in the calyx. Eighteen species are native in Britain, and several are extensively cultivated as fodder-plants. _T. pratense_, red or purple clover, is the most widely cultivated.

This plant, either sown alone or in mixture with rye-grass, has for a long time formed the staple crop for soiling; and so long as it grew freely, its power of shooting up again after repeated mowings, the bulk of crop thus obtained, its palatableness to stock and feeding qualities, the great range of soils and climate in which it grows, and its fitness either for pasturage or soiling, well entitled it to this preference. Except on certain rich calcareous clay soils, it has now, however, become an exceedingly precarious crop. The seed, when genuine, which unfortunately is very often not the case, germinates as freely as ever, and no greater difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a full plant during autumn and the greater part of winter; but over most part of the country, the farmer, after having his hopes raised by seeing a thick cover of vigorous-looking clover plants over his field, finds to his dismay, by March or April, that they have either entirely disappeared, or are found only in capricious patches here and there over the field. No satisfactory explanation of this "clover-sickness" has yet been given, nor any certain remedy, of a kind to be applied to the soil, discovered. One important fact is, however, now well established, viz. that when the cropping of the land is so managed that clover does not recur at shorter intervals than eight years, it grows with much of its pristine vigour. The knowledge of this fact now determines many farmers in varying their rotation so as to secure this important end. At one time there was a somewhat prevalent belief that the introduction of beans into the rotation had a specific influence of a beneficial kind on the clover when it came next to be sown; but the true explanation seems to be that the beans operate favourably only by the incidental circumstance of almost necessarily lengthening the interval betwixt the recurrences of clover.