Chapter XX: Part 20

Coming to the sexual generation, considerable variation is met with as regards the period in the life-history when sexual differentiation first makes its appearance. Sexuality may become evident at the very beginning of schizogony, as, e.g. in _Adelea ovata_ (Siedlecki, 1899), where the first-formed schizonts (those developed from the sporozoites) are differentiated into male and female (micro-and mega-schizonts) (see Plate II., fig. 5). Correspondingly, the merozoites, to which they give rise, are also different (micro-and mega-merozoites). In one or two cases sexuality appears even earlier in the cycle, and has thus been carried still farther back.

The Coccidia, as a whole, have not developed the phenomenon of association of the sexual individuals prior to gamete-formation which is so characteristic of Gregarines. Their method of endeavouring to secure successful sporulation, and thus the survival of the species, has been rather by the extreme specialization of the sexual process. In place of many female elements, which the primitive or ancestral forms may be assumed to have had,[4] there is always, save possibly for one exception,[5] only a single relatively huge megagamete formed, which offers a comparatively easy goal for one of the many microgametes. Nevertheless in the effort to render fertilization absolutely certain, a few Coccidia have acquired (secondarily) the power of associating; a state of things which enables those forms, moreover, to effect an economy in the number of male gametes, only three or four being developed. Instances are seen in _Adelea mesnili_ (Perez, 1903), _A. ovata_ (fig. 6), and _Klossia helicina_ (Siedlecki, 1899). It is very interesting to note that, in the two last cases, unless this association of the microgametocyte with the megagametocyte occurs, neither can the former produce male elements (microgametes) nor can the female individual maturate and become ready for fertilization. (Concerning this question of association see also GREGARINES.)

In sporogony, great variation is seen with respect to the number of spores and sporozoites formed; and, as in Gregarines, these characters are largely used for purposes of classification, under which heading they are better considered. Usually, the spores (fig. 7) are quite simple in outline, and not produced into spines or processes; exceptions are found, however, in a few instances (e.g. _Minchinia chitonis_). In one case (_Coccidium mitrarium_), the oocyst itself, instead of being spherical, is curiously shaped like a mitre.

The life-history as a whole is invariably undergone in a single host, i.e. there is no alternation of true hosts.[6] Schaudinn, in his work on the _Coccidia_ of _Lithobius_ (1900), showed that the oocysts expelled with the faeces may be eaten by wood-lice (Oniscus), but when this happens they pass through the intestine of the wood-louse unaltered, the latter not being an intermediate host but merely a carrier.

Classification.

The order Coccidiidea is divided into four families, characterized by
the number of sporocysts (if any) found in the oocyst.

Fam. ASPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. No sporozoites are formed in the oocyst,
the sporozoites being unenclosed (gymnospores).

Genus, _Legerella_, Mesnil. This genus actually conforms to Aime
Schneider's original definition of _Eimeria_, which was founded on
what were really the schizogonous generations of other forms, then
thought to be distinct. In view of the great confusion attending the
use of this name, however, Mesnil (1900) has suggested the new one
here adopted. Two species known, _L. nova_ and _L. testiculi_, both
from different species of _Glomeris_, a Myriapod; the former inhabits
the Malpighian tubules, the latter the testis.

Fam. DISPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. The oocyst contains 2 spores.

Genus 1. _Cyclospora_, A. Schneider. Spores dizoic, i.e. with two
sporozoites. _C. glomericola_, from the intestinal epithelium of
_Glomeris_, and _C. caryolytica_, from the intestinal epithelium of
the mole, intranuclear.

Genus 2. _Diplospora_, Labbe. Spores tetrazoic. _D. lacazei_, from
many birds, is the best-known species; and others have been described
from different Sauropsida. _D. lieberkuhni_ is an interesting form
occurring in the kidneys of the frog, which it reaches by way of the
circulation.

Genus 3. _Isospora_, Schn. Spores polyzoic. Founded for _I. rara_,
parasitic in the black slug (_Limax cinereo-niger_). Many authors
consider that Schneider was mistaken in attributing many sporozoites
to this form, and would unite with it the genus _Diplospora_.

Fam. TETRASPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. The oocyst contains 4 spores.

Genus 1. _Coccidium_,[7] Leuckart. The spores are dizoic and the
sporocysts rounded or oval. A very large number of species are known,
mostly from Vertebrate hosts. _C. cuniculi_ (= _C. oviforme_) from the
rabbit (intestine and diverticula), but also occurring sometimes in
other domestic animals; C. falciformis, from the mouse; _C. faurei_
from sheep; and _C. schubergi_, from _Lithobius_ (a centipede), are
among the best-known forms. All of them may cause disastrous epidemics
of coccidiosis.

Genus 2. _Paracoccidium_, Laveran and Mesnil. This genus is
distinguished from _Coccidium_ by the fact that the sporocysts become
dissolved up in the oocyst, thus leaving the 8 sporozoites unenclosed,
recalling the condition in _Legerella_. _P. prevoti_, unique species,
from the frog's intestine.

Genus 3. _Crystallospora_, Labbe. Spores also dizoic, but having the
form of a double pyramid. _C. crystalloides_ from a fish, _Motella
tricirrata_.

Genus 4. _Angeiocystis_, Brasil. Apparently 6 sporozoites, but the
only species, _A. audouiniae_, has only been briefly described; from a
Polychaete (_Audouinia_).

Fam. POLYSPOROCYSTIDAE, Leger. The oocyst contains numerous spores.

There are several genera with monozoic spores, characterized by
variations in the form and structure of the sporocysts, e.g.
_Barroussia_, Schn. (fig. 8), _Echinospora_, Leger, and _Diaspora_,
Leger; most of these forms are from Myriapods.

Genus _Adelea_, Schn. Dizoic spores; sporocysts round or oval, plain.
Several species are included in this well-known genus, among them
being _A. ovata_, _A. mesnili_, _A. dimidiata_; most of them are
parasitic in Insects or Myriapods.

Genus _Minchinia_, Labbe. Dizoic spores; the sporocysts are produced
at each pole into a long filament. _M. chitonis_, from the liver of
_Chiton_ (Mollusca).

Genus _Klossia_, Schn. The spores are tetrazoic (or perhaps polyzoic).
_K. helicina_ from the kidney of various land-snails is the best-known
form. Usually said to have 5 to 6 spores, but Mesnil considers that
the normal number is 4, as is the case in another species, _K. soror_.

Genus _Caryotropha_, Siedlecki. Many spherical spores (about 20) each
with 12 sporozoites. _C. mesnilii_, unique species, from the
spermatogonial (testis) cells of _Polymnia_ (a Polychaete). An
interesting point in the schizogony is the formation of schizontocytes
(see above).

A Coccidian parasitic in the kidneys of the mouse has been described
by Smith and Johnson (1902) and named by them _Klossiella_, on the
ground that it possessed many spores, each with about 20 sporozoites.
Woodcock has shown, however, that the authors were in all probability
dealing with a similar modification of schizogony to that which
obtains in _Caryotropha_. The sporogony of this form (and hence its
systematic position) remains at present, therefore, quite unknown.

There are several doubtful or insufficiently known genera, e.g.
_Bananella_, _Goussia_, _Hyaloklossia_, _Gonobia_, _Pfeifferella_ and
_Rhabdospora_, many of which probably represent only schizogonous
generations of other forms. (For information concerning these see
Labbe, 1897.)

Lastly it remains to mention the extremely interesting forms parasitic
in Cephalopods. For some years these have provided a fruitful source
of discussion to systematists. Here it may be stated simply that their
systematic position and nomenclature were thought to have been finally
settled by the researches of Jacquemet (1903) and Luhe (1902) in the
following terms:--

Genus _Eucoccidium_. Luhe (syn. _Legerina_ Jacq.), Coccidia possessing
polysporous oocysts and lacking schizogony, parasitic in Cephalopods.
Two well-known species: _E. eberthi_ (Labbe), (=_Benedenia_ seu
_Klossia e._ seu _octopiana_), parasitic in _Sepia_, which is tri- or
tetra-zoic; and _E. octopianum_ (Schn.), (syn. _Benedenia_ seu
_Klossia o._) from _Octopus_, which is polyzoic, having 10 to 12
sporozoites. In both forms cysts containing megaspores and
megasporozoites, and others containing microspores and
microsporozoites are found, considered as representing sexual
differentiation thrown back to the very earliest stages of the
life-cycle.

Quite recently much additional light has been thrown upon our
knowledge of these parasites, including a new one, _E. jacquemeti_.
Moroff (1906) has shown that not one but many megagametes are formed,
and fertilized by the microgametes. For this reason he regards them as
Gregarines rather than Coccidia. Further, Leger and Duboscq (1906)
have found that the characteristic coelomic parasites (_Aggregata_) of
Crustacea, generally regarded as gymnosporous Gregarines (i.e.
Gregarines in which the sporozoites are naked) constitute in reality
nothing more or less than a schizogonous generation of these
Cephalopodan parasites, which have thus an alternation of true hosts.
The ripe sporocysts from the Cephalopod are eaten by a particular crab
(e.g. _Portunus_ or _Inachus_, according to the parasite), the
sporozoites are liberated and traverse the mucous membrane of the
intestine, coming to rest in the surrounding lymphatic layer. Here a
large "cyst" is formed, projecting into the body-cavity, the contents
of which give rise to a great number of merozoites. On the crab being
devoured by the right species of Cephalopod, the merozoites doubtless
give rise to the sexual generation again.

As the name _Aggregata_ is much the older, and as, moreover, there is
no longer any reason to retain that of _Eucoccidium_, these parasites
must in future receive the former generic appellation. With regard to
the various specific names, however, they remain quite unsettled until
the life-history is properly worked out in different cases (see also
GREGARINES).

It seems to the writer a much more open question than Moroff and Leger
and Duboscq apparently suppose, whether these parasites are to be
relegated to the Gregarines. For undoubtedly they have many Coccidian
features, and on the other hand they differ in many ways from
Gregarines. The chief feature of agreement with the latter order is
the possession of many female gametes. As already said, there can be
little doubt that this was the condition in the Coccidian ancestor,
and it is by no means impossible that one or two forms existing at the
present day remain primitive in that respect. On the other hand, the
advanced character of the parasitism (the parasites remaining
intracellular up to and including gamete-formation); the entire lack
of the characteristic feature of association; the schizogony, which is
only a very rare occurrence in Gregarines, and which, in the present
case, strongly suggests the process in _Caryotropha_ and _Klossiella_;
and, last but not least, the varying number of the sporozoites (3 in
one form, 10-15 in others), which is very different from the almost
constant number (8) in Gregarines, are all characters in which these
forms agree with Coccidia and not with Gregarines. Having regard to
these points, the writer is inclined, for the present, to consider
_Aggregata_ as an offshoot rather from the Coccidian than from the
Gregarine branch of the Ectosporan tree.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following are some of the important papers dealing
with the order:--G. Bonnet-Eymard, "Sur l'Evolution de l'_Eimeria
nova_, Schneider," _C.R. Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 659, 1900; L. Brasil, "Sur
une Coccidie nouvelle, &c.," _C.R.Ac. Sci._ 139, p. 645, 1904; L.
Cuenot, "_Legerella testiculi_ n. sp., &c.," _Arch. Zool. exp._ (N. et
R.), (3) 10, p. 49, 6 figs., 1902; M. Jacquemet, "Sur la systematique
des Coccidies des Cephalopodes," _Arch. Protistenk._ 2 p., 190, 1903;
A. Labbe, "Recherches zoologiques, cytologiques et biologiques sur les
Coccidies," _Arch. zool. exp._ (3), 4, p. 517, 3 pls., 1897; A.
Laveran, "Sur les modes de reproduction d'_Isospora lacazei_," _C.R.
Soc. Biol_. 50, p. 1139, 1898; A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur deux
Coccidies intestinales de la _Rana esculenta_," op. cit. 54, p. 857, 9
figs., 1902; A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur la Coccidie trouvee dans
le rein de la _Rana esculenta_, &c.," _C.R.Ac. Sci._ 135, p. 82, 10
figs., 1902; A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques Protozoaires
parasites d'une tortue, &c." _t. c._ p. 609, 14 figs., 1902; L. Leger,
"Sur une nouvelle Coccidie a microgametes cilies," op. cit., 127, p.
418, 1898; L. Leger, "Sur la morphologie et le developpement des
microgametes des Coccidies," _Arch. zool. exp._ (N. et R.) (3), 6,
1898; L. Leger, "Essai sur la classification des Coccidies, &c.,"
_Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist._, Marseille (2), Bull. i. p. 71, 4 pls., 1898;
L. Leger "Sur la presence d'une Coccidie coelomique chez Olocrates,
&c.," _Arch. zool. exp_. (N. et R.) (3), 8, p. i., 1900; L. Leger,
"Sur le genre _Eimeria_ et la classification des Coccidies," _C.R.
Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 575, 1900; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "Recherches sur
les Myriapodes de Corse et leurs parasites," _Arch. zool. exp._ (4),
1, p. 307, 24 figs., 1903; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "Sur l'evolution
des Gregarines gymnosporees des Crustaces," _C.R.Ac. Sci._ 142, p.
1225, 1906; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "L'Evolution d'une _Aggregata_ de
la seiche chez le _Portunus depurator_," _C.R. Soc. Biol_. 6o, p.
1001, 1906; M. Luhe, "Uber Geltung und Bedeutung der Gattungsnamen
_Eimeria_ und _Coccidium_," C.B. Bakter (1) 31 Orig, p. 771, 1902;
C.B. Bakter, "Die Coccidien-Literatur der letzten vier Jahre," _Zool.
Centrlbl._ 10, 45 pp., 1903; F. Mesnil, "Sur la conservation du nom
generique _Eimeria_, &c.," _C.R. Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 603, 1900; F.
Mesnil, "Les Travaux recents sur les Coccidies," _Bull. Inst.
Pasteur_, i. pp. 473, 505, 1903; R. Metzner, "Untersuchungen an
Coccidium cuniculi," _Arch. Protistenk._ 2, p. 13, pl. ii. 1903; G.
Moussu and G. Marotel, "La Coccidiose du mouton et son parasite,"
_Arch. Parasitol._ 6, p. 82, 10 figs., 1902; T. Moroff, "Sur
l'evolution des pretendues Coccidies des Cephalopodes," _C.R.Ac. Sci._
142, p. 652, 1906; C. Perez, "Le Cycle evolutif de l'Adelea mesnili,
&c.," _Arch. Protistenk._ 2, p. 1, pl. 1, 1903; F. Schaudinn,
"Untersuchungen uber den Generationswechsel bei Coccidien," _Zool.
Jahrbucher_ (Anat.) 13, p. 197, 4 pls., 1900; F. Schaudinn, "Studien
uber krankheitserregende Protozoen--I. _Cyclospora caryolytica_, &c.,"
_Arb. kais. Gesundh.-amte_, 18, p. 378, 2 pls., 1902; M. Siedlecki,
"Reproduction sexuee ... chez ... _Coccidium proprium_," _C.R. Soc.
Biol._ 50, p. 664, figs., 1898; M. Siedlecki, "Etude cytologique ...
de la Coccidie de la seiche, &c.," _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 12, p. 799, 3
pls., 1898; M. Siedlecki, "Etude cytologique ... de Adelea ovata," op.
cit. 13, p. 169, 3 pls., 1899; M. Siedlecki, "Cycle evolutif de la
_Caryotropha mesnilii_, &c.," _Bull. Ac. Cracovie_, p. 561, 5 figs.,
1902; T. Smith and H. P. Johnson, "On a Coccidian (_Klossiella muris_,
gen. et spec. nov.), &c.," _J. exp. Med_. 6, p. 303, 3 pls., 1902;
H.M. Woodcock, "Notes on Sporozoa, I. On _Klossiella muris_, &c.,"
_Q.J. micr. Sci._ 48, p. 153, 2 figs., 1904. (H. M. Wo.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] A curious organism, parasitic in a gregarine, has lately been
described by Dogiel as a coccidian, and termed _Hyalosphaera_.

[2] It is important to note that in schizogony there is never any
cyst or cyst-membrane formed around the parasite.

[3] The merozoites are frequently arranged like the staves of a
barrel--whence the term _barillet_, which is frequently used.

[4] In _Cyclospora_, Schaudinn (1902) has noted certain abnormal
cases of the persistence and further multiplication of the
"reduction-nuclei" of the female element (i.e. the nuclear portions
given off during maturation), followed by multiple fertilization.
This occurrence points strongly to the conclusion that there were
originally many female gametes (cf. also the sporoblasts of
Gregarines).

[5] The remarkable forms parasitic in Cephalopods (of late known as
_Eucoccidium_), if still ranked with the Coccidia, furnish an
exception (see below).

[6] Again with the exception of _Eucoccidium_.

[7] Purists in systematic nomenclature maintain that this name should
be relinquished in favour of _Eimeria_, since the latter was the
first legitimate generic name given to a Coccidian. But one reason
against the use of _Eimeria_ has been stated already (it should be
used for _E. (Legerella) nova_, if anywhere); and in addition, the
word _Coccidium_ and its important derivatives are now so universally
established that it would be little short of ridiculous to displace
them.

COCCULUS INDICUS, the commercial name for the dried fruits of _Anamirta Cocculus_ (natural order Menispermaceae), a large climbing shrub, native to India. It contains a bitter poisonous principle, _picrotoxin_, used in small doses to control the night sweats of phthisis. It was formerly known as Levant nut and Levant shell, owing to the fact that it was brought to Europe by way of the Levant.

COCHABAMBA, a central department of Bolivia, occupying the eastern angle of the great Bolivian plateau, bounded N. by the department of El Beni, E. by Santa Cruz, S. by Chuquisaca and Potosi, and W. by Potosi, Oruro and La Paz. Area, 23,328 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 328,163. Its average elevation is between 8000 and 10,000 ft., and its mean temperature ranges from 50 deg. to 60 deg. F., making it one of the best climatic regions in South America. The rainfall is moderate and the seasons are not strongly marked, the difference being indicated by rainfall rather than by temperature. The rainy season is from November to February. Cochabamba is essentially an agricultural department, although its mineral resources are good and include deposits of gold, silver and copper. Its temperate climate favours the production of wheat, Indian corn, barley and potatoes, and most of the fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone. Coca, cacao, tobacco and most of the fruits and vegetables of the tropics are also produced. Its forest products include rubber and cinchona. Lack of transportation facilities, however, have been an insuperable obstacle to the development of any industry beyond local needs except those of cinchona and rubber. Sheep and cattle thrive in this region, and an experiment with silkworms gave highly successful results. The population is chiefly of the Indian and _mestizo_ types, education is in a backward state, and there are no manufactures other than those of the domestic stage, the natives making many articles of wearing apparel and daily use in their own homes. Rough highways and mule-paths are the only means of communication, but a projected railway from Cochabamba (city) to Oruro, 132 m., promises to bring this isolated region into touch with the commercial world. The department is divided into nine provinces, but there is no effective local government outside the municipalities. The capital is Cochabamba; other important towns are Punata, Tarata, Totora, Mizque and Sacaba.

COCHABAMBA, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of the same name and of the province of Cercado, situated on the Rocha, a small tributary of the Guapay river, in lat. 17 deg. 27' S. and long. 65 deg. 46' W. Pop. (1900) 21,886, mostly Indians and _mestizos_. The city stands in a broad valley of the Bolivian plateau, 8400 ft. above sea-level, overshadowed by the snow-clad heights of Tunari and Larati, 291 m. north-north-west of Sucre and 132 m. east-north-east of Oruro, with both of which places it is connected by rough mountain roads. A subsidized stage-coach line runs to Oruro. A contract for a railway between the two cities was made in 1906, connecting with the Antofagasta and Arica lines. The climate is mild and temperate, and the surrounding country fertile and cultivated. Cochabamba is often described as the most progressive city of Bolivia, but it has been held back by its isolated situation. The warehouses of the city are well supplied with foreign goods, and trade is active in spite of high prices. The city is provided with telegraphic communication via Oruro, and enjoys a large part of the Amazon trade through some small river ports on tributaries of the Mamore. The city is regularly laid out, and contains many attractive residences surrounded by gardens. It is an episcopal city (since 1847), containing many churches, four conventual establishments, and a missionary college of the "Propaganda Fide" for the conversion of Indians. The city has a university and two colleges, but they are poorly equipped and receive very little support from the government. Cochabamba was founded in the 16th century, and for a time was called Oropesa. It took an active part in the "war of independence," the women distinguishing themselves in an attack on the Spanish camp in 1815, and some of them being put to death in 1818 by the Spanish forces. In 1874 the city was seized and partly destroyed by Miguel Aguirre, but in general its isolated situation has been a protection against the disorders which have convulsed Bolivia since her independence.

COCHEM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on the Mosel, and 30 m. W. of Coblenz by the railway to Trier, which above the town enters the longest tunnel (2-1/2 m.) in Germany. Pop. 3500. It is romantically situated in the deep and winding valley of the Mosel, at the foot of a hill surrounded by a feudal castle dating from 1051, which has been restored in its former style. There is a considerable trade in wines.

COCHERY, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1819-1900), French statesman, was born at Paris. After studying law he soon entered politics, and was on the staff of the ministry of justice after the revolution of February 1848. From the _coup d'etat_ of 1851 to May 1869 he devoted himself to journalism. Then, elected deputy by the department of the Loiret, he joined the group of the Left Centre, and was a supporter of the revolution of the 4th of September 1870. His talent in finance won him a distinguished place in the chamber. From 1879 till 1885 he was minister of posts and telegraphs, and in January 1888 he was elected to the senate. He died in 1900.

His son, GEORGES CHARLES PAUL, born in 1855, was in his father's department from 1879 till 1885, deputy from 1885, five times president of the Budget Commission, minister of finance (1895-1898) and vice-president of the chamber (1898-1902), and again finance minister in the Briand Cabinet, 1909.

COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851- ), French politician, was born at Paris. He studied law, was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1893, and gradually became one of the leaders and principal orators of the Conservative party. He opposed the project of the income-tax in 1894, the revision of the Dreyfus case in 1899, and the separation of the church and state in 1905. He is known as an author by his works, _L'Evolution de la vie_ (1895); _Le Monde exterieur_ (1895); _Contre les barbares_ (1899); _Ententes et ruptures_ (1905).

COCHIN, a feudatory state of southern India, in political subordination to Madras, with an area of 1361 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by British Malabar, on the E. by British Malabar, Coimbatore and Travancore, on the S. by Travancore, and on the W. by British Malabar and the Arabian Sea. Isolated from the main territory, and situated to the north-east of it, lies the major portion of the Chittore _taluk_, entirely surrounded by British territory. The whole state may be divided into three well-defined regions or zones: (1) the eastern zone, consisting of broken forested portions of the Western Ghats, which, gradually decreasing in height, merge into (2) the central belt, comprising the uplands and plains that dip towards the lagoons or "backwaters" along the coast (see COCHIN, town), beyond which lies (3) the western zone, forming the littoral strip. The low belt which borders on the seas and the backwaters is by nature flat and swampy, but has in the course of ages become enriched by the work of man. On leaving the seaboard, an undulating country is found, diversified with grassy flats, naked hills and wooded terraces, intersected by numerous torrents and rapids, and profusely dotted with homesteads, orchards and cultivated fields, up to the very foot of the Ghats. Here the landscape, now on a grander scale, embraces great forests which form a considerable source of wealth. Of the total area of the state the forests and lagoons cover nearly 605 and 16 sq. m. respectively.

In 1901 the population was 812,025, showing an increase of 12% in the decade. More than one-fifth are Christians, mostly Syrians and Roman Catholics. The revenue is estimated at L153,000, subject to a tribute of L13,000. During recent years the financial condition of the state has been flourishing. The principal products are rice, cocoanuts, timber, cardamoms, pepper and a little coffee. Salt is manufactured along the coast. The capital is Ernakulam, but the raja resides at Tripunthora. The principal commercial centre is Mattancheri, adjoining the British town of Cochin. The chief means of communication is by boat along the backwaters; but in 1902 a metre-gauge line was constructed by the Madras railway at the expense of the state to connect Ernakulam with Shoranur.

_History._--What is now the native state of Cochin formed, until about the middle of the 9th century A.D., part of the ancient Chera or Kerala kingdom (see KERALA). Its port of Kodungalur (Kranganur, the ancient Muziris), at the mouth of the Periyar, was from early times one of the chief centres for the trade between Europe and India; and it was at Malankara, near Kodungalur, that the apostle Thomas is traditionally said to have landed. The history of Cochin is, however, like that of the Kerala kingdom generally, exceedingly obscure previous to the arrival of the Portuguese. The rajas of Cochin, who are of pure Kshatriya blood, claim descent from the Chera king Cheraman Perumal, the last of his race to rule the vast tract from Gokarn in North Kanara to Cape Comorin. About the middle of the 9th century this king, according to tradition, resigned his kingdom, embraced Islam, and went on pilgrimage to Arabia, where he died. Towards the end of the century the Chera kingdom was overrun and dismembered by the Cholas. It was in 1498 that Vasco da Gama reached the Malabar coast; and in 1502 the Portuguese were allowed to settle in the town of Cochin, where they built a fort and began to organize trade with the surrounding country. By the end of the century their influence had become firmly established, largely owing to the effective aid they had given to the rajas of Cochin in their wars with the Zamorin of Calicut. The Syrian Christians, forming at that time a large proportion of the population, now felt the weight of Portuguese ascendancy; in 1599 Menezes, the archbishop of Goa, held a synod at Udayamperur (Diamper), a village 12 m. south-east of Cochin, at which their tenets were pronounced heretical and their service-books purged of all Nestorian phrases. In 1663, however, Portuguese domination came to an end with the capture of Cochin by the Dutch, whose ascendancy continued for about a hundred years. In 1776 Hyder Ali of Mysore invaded the state and forced the raja to acknowledge his suzerainty and pay tribute. In 1791 Tippoo, son of Hyder Ali, ceded the sovereignty to the British, who entered into a treaty with the raja by which he became their vassal and paid an annual tribute of a lakh of rupees. On the 17th of October 1809, in consequence of an attempt of the hereditary chief minister Paliyath Achan, in 1808, to raise an insurrection against the British without his master's knowledge, a fresh treaty was made, by which the raja undertook to hold no correspondence with any foreign state and to admit no foreigners to his service without the sanction of the British government, which, while undertaking to defend the raja's territories against all enemies, reserved the right to dismantle or to garrison any of his fortresses. In 1818 the tribute, raised to 2-1/2 lakhs in 1808, was permanently fixed at 2 lakhs. Since then, under the rule of the rajas, the state has greatly advanced in prosperity, especially under that of H. H. Sir Sri Rama Varma (b. 1852), who succeeded in 1895, was made a K.C.S.I. in 1897, and G.C.S.I. in 1903.

COCHIN, a town of British India, in the district of Malabar, Madras. Pop. (1901) 19,274. The town lies at the northern extremity of a strip of land about 12 m. in length, but in few places more than a mile in breadth, which is nearly insulated by inlets of the sea and estuaries of streams flowing from the Western Ghats. These form the Cochin backwaters, which consist of shallow lagoons lying behind the beach-line and below its level. In the monsoon the Cochin backwaters are broad navigable channels and lakes; in the hot weather they contract into shallows in many places not 2 ft. deep. The town of Cochin is about a mile in length by half a mile in breadth. Its first European possessors were the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama founded a factory in 1502, and Albuquerque built a fort, the first European fort in India, in 1503. The British made a settlement in 1634, but retired when the Dutch captured the town in 1663. Under the Dutch the town prospered, and about 1778 an English traveller described it as a place of great trade, "a harbour filled with ships, streets crowded with merchants, and warehouses stored with goods from every part of Asia and Europe, marked the industry, the commerce, and the wealth of the inhabitants." In 1795 Cochin was captured from the Dutch by the British, and in 1806 the fortifications and public buildings were blown up by order of the authorities. The explosion destroyed much private property, and for a long time seriously affected the prosperity of the town. Considerable sea-borne trade is still carried on. A lighthouse stands on the ruins of the old fort. The chief exports are cocoanut products, for the preparation of which there are factories, and tea; and the chief import is rice. Cochin is the only port south of Bombay in which large ships can be built.

COCHIN-CHINA,[1] a French colony in the extreme south of French Indo-China. The term formerly included the whole Annamese empire--Tongking, Annam, and Lower Cochin-China, but it now comprises only the French colony, which corresponds to Lower Cochin-China, and consists of the six southern provinces of the Annamese empire annexed by France in 1862 and 1867. Cochin-China is bounded W. by the Gulf of Siam, N.W. and N. by Cambodia, E. by Annam, and S.E. by the China Sea. Except along part of the north-west frontier, where the canal of Vinh-The divides it from Cambodia, its land-limits are conventional. Its area is about 22,000 sq. m.

In 1901 the population numbered 2,968,529, of whom 4932 were French (exclusive of French troops, who numbered 2537), 2,558,301 Annamese, 231,902 Cambodians, 92,075 Chinese, 42,940 savages (Min Huong), the rest being Asiatics of other nationalities, together with a few Europeans other than French.

_Geography._--Cochin-China consists chiefly of an immense plain, flat and monotonous, traversed by the Mekong and extending from Ha-Tien in the west to Baria in the east, and from Bien-Hoa in the north-east to the southern point of the peninsula of Ca-Mau in the south-west. The last spurs of the mountains of Annam, which come to an end at Cape St Jacques, extend over parts of the provinces of Tay-Ninh, Bien-Hoa and Baria in the north-east and east of the colony, but nowhere exceed 2900 ft. in height; low hills are found in the north-western province of Chau-Doc. Cochin-China is remarkable for the abundance of its waterways. The Mekong divides at Pnom-Penh in Cambodia into two arms, the Fleuve superieur and the Fleuve inferieur, which, pursuing a course roughly parallel from north-west to south-east, empty into the China Sea by means of the numerous channels of its extensive delta. From June to October the inundations of the Mekong cover most of the country, portions of which, notably the Plaine des Joncs in the north and a large tract of the peninsula of Ca-Mau, are little else than marshes. Besides a great number of small coastal streams there are four other rivers of secondary importance, all of which water the east of the colony, viz. the Don-Nai, which rising in the Annamese mountains flows west, then abruptly south, reaching the sea to the west of Cape St Jacques; the Saigon river, which flowing from north-west to south-east passes Saigon, the capital of the colony, 12 m. below which it unites with the Don-Nai; and the two Vaicos, which join the Don-Nai close to its mouth. These rivers flow into the sea through numerous winding channels, forming a delta united by canals to that of the Mekong. The waterways of Cochin-China communicate by means of natural or artificial channels (_arroyos_), facilitating transport and aiding in the uniform distribution of the inundation to which the country owes its fertility. Canals from Chau-Doc to Ha-Tien and from Long Xuyen to Rach-Gia join the Mekong with the Gulf of Siam. East of Cape St Jacques the mountains of Annam come down close to the sea; west of that point, as far as the southern headland of Ca-Mau, the coast-line of Cochin-China runs north-east to south-west for about 160 m. in a straight line broken only by the mouths of the Don-Nai and Mekong. From Cape Ca-Mau to Rach-Gia it runs north for a distance of 120 m., then north-west as far as Ha-Tien, where the boundary line between it and Cambodia meets the sea.

_Climate and Fauna._--The climate of the country is warm, humid, and very trying to Europeans. The wet season, during which heavy rain falls almost daily, lasts from April to October, coinciding with the south-west monsoon. The hottest period lasts from the middle of April to the middle of June, the thermometer during that time often reaching 94 deg. F., and never descending below 86 deg.. The forest regions of Cochin-China harbour the tiger, panther, leopard, tiger-cat, ichneumon, wild boar, deer, buffalo, rhinoceros and elephant, as well as many varieties of monkeys and rats. Of birds some species of parrakeet, the "mandarin" blackbird, and the woodcock are not found in the rest of Indo-China. Duck, teal, cranes and other aquatic birds abound in the delta. Venomous reptiles are numerous, and the Mekong contains crocodiles.

_Agriculture and Industries._--The cultivation of the rice-fields, which cover large extents of the plains of Cochin-China, is by far the chief industry of the colony. Pepper is grown in considerable quantities in the districts of Ha-Tien and Bien-Hoa, and sugarcanes, coffee, cotton, tobacco and jute are also produced. The buffalo, used both for transport and in the rice-fields, and swine, the flesh of which forms an important element in the native diet, are the principal domestic animals. Oxen and cows are of secondary importance and the climate is unsuitable for sheep; horses of a small breed are used to some extent. The chief industrial establishments are those for the decortication of rice at Saigon and Cholon; they are in the hands of the Chinese, by whom most of the trade in the colony is conducted. Sugar-making, the distillation of rice-spirit, silk-weaving, fishing and the preparation of a fish-sauce (_nuoc-mam_) made from decayed fish, and the manufacture of salt from sea-water and of lime are carried on in many localities.

_Commerce._--Rice is the chief article of export, dried or salted fish, pepper and cotton ranking next in order of value. Imports include woven goods, metals, ironware, machinery, tea, wines and spirits, mineral oils, opium, paper, and arms and powder. The ports of Saigon and Mytho are accessible to the largest vessels, and are connected by a railway (see Indo-China, French). The roadsteads of Rach-Gia, Ca-Mau, and Ha-Tien can accommodate only vessels of low tonnage. In 1905 exports reached a value of L3,816,000, and imports a value of L4,834,000 (not including treasure and transit trade).

_Government and Administration._--Cochin-China is administered by a lieutenant-governor under the authority of the governor-general of Indo-China. He is assisted by the _conseil colonial_ numbering sixteen members, six of whom are French citizens elected by the French, six natives elected by the natives, the other four being members of the chamber of commerce of Saigon and the _conseil prive_. The _conseil colonial_, besides its advisory functions, discusses and votes the budget, determines the nature of the taxes, has supreme control over the tariffs, and extensive powers in the administration of colonial domains. The _conseil prive_ is a deliberative body under the presidency of the lieutenant-governor, composed of colonial officials together with two native members. The colony is divided into four circumscriptions (Saigon, My-Tho, Vinh-Long, Bassac), at the head of each of which is an inspector of native affairs. These are subdivided into twenty provinces, each administered by an administrator of native affairs by whose side is the provincial council consisting of natives and occupied with the discussion of ways and means and questions of public works. The provinces are divided into cantons and subdivided into communes. The commune forms the basis of the native social system. Its assembly of notables or municipal council forms a sort of oligarchy, the members of which themselves elect individuals from among the more prominent inhabitants to fill vacancies. The notables elect the provincial councillors in the proportion, usually, of one to every canton, and their delegates elect the chief of the canton, who voices the wishes of the natives to the government. Local administration, e.g. supervision of markets, policing, land-transfer, &c., are carried on by a mayor and two assistants, to whom the municipal council delegates its powers. The same body draws up the list of males liable to the poll-tax and of the lands liable to land-tax, these being the chief sources of revenue. There are French tribunals of first instance in nine of the chief towns of the colony, and in four of these there are criminal courts. These administer justice in accordance both with French law and, in the case of natives, with Annamese law, which has been codified for the purpose. Saigon has two chambers of the court of appeal of French Indo-China and a tribunal of commerce. Primary instruction is given in some six hundred schools. Cochin-China is represented in the French chamber by a deputy. The capital is Saigon (q.v.); of the other towns, Cholon (q.v.), My-Tho, Vinh-Long and Chau-Doc are of importance.

In 1904 the budget receipts amounted to L495,241 (as compared with L474,545 in 1899). To this sum the land and poll-tax and other direct taxes contributed L374,630. The main heads of expenditure, of which the total was L467,328, were as follows:--

Government L87,271
Administration 62,725
Public Works 40,454
Transport 38,173
Public Instruction 36,009
Topography and Surveying 32,036

_History._--The Khmer kingdom (see CAMBODIA), at its zenith from the 9th to the 12th centuries, included a large portion of the modern colony of Cochin-China, the coastal portion and perhaps the eastern region being under the dominion of the empire of Champa, which broke up during the 15th century. This eastern region was occupied in the 17th century by the Annamese, who in the 18th century absorbed the western provinces. From this period the history of Cochin-China follows that of Annam (q.v.) till 1867, when it was entirely occupied by the French and became a French colony. In 1887 it was united with Cambodia, Annam and Tongking to form the Indo-Chinese Union (see INDO-CHINA, FRENCH).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH; and ANNAM.

COCHINEAL, a natural dye-stuff used for the production of scarlet, crimson, orange and other tints, and for the preparation of lake and carmine. It consists of the females of _Coccus cacti_, an insect of the family _Coccidae_ of the order _Hemiptera_, which feeds upon various species of the _Cactaceae_, more especially the nopal plant, _Opuntia coccinellifera_, a native of Mexico and Peru. The dye was introduced into Europe from Mexico, where it had been in use long before the entrance of the Spaniards in the year 1518, and where it formed one of the staple tributes to the crown for certain districts. In 1523 Cortes received instructions from the Spanish court to procure it in as large quantities as possible. It appears not to have been known in Italy so late as the year 1548, though the art of dyeing then flourished there. Cornelius van Drebbel, at Alkmaar, first employed cochineal for the production of scarlet in 1650. Until about 1725 the belief was very prevalent that cochineal was the seed of a plant, but Dr Martin Lister in 1672 conjectured it to be a kind of kermes, and in 1703 Antony van Leeuwenhoek ascertained its true nature by aid of the microscope. Since its introduction cochineal has supplanted kermes (_Coccus ilicis_) over the greater part of Europe.

The male of the cochineal insect is half the size of the female, and, unlike it, is devoid of nutritive apparatus; it has long white wings, and a body of a deep red colour, terminated by two diverging setae. The female is apterous, and has a dark-brown plano-convex body; it is found in the proportion of 150 to 200 to one of the male insect. The dead body of the mother insect serves as a protection for the eggs until they are hatched. Cochineal is now furnished not only by Mexico and Peru, but also by Algiers and southern Spain. It is collected thrice in the seven months of the season. The insects are carefully brushed from the branches of the cactus into bags, and are then killed by immersion in hot water, or by exposure to the sun, steam, or the heat of an oven--much of the variety of appearance in the commercial article being caused by the mode of treatment. The dried insect has the form of irregular, fluted and concave grains, of which about 70,000 go to a pound. Cochineal has a musty and bitterish taste. There are two principal varieties--_silver cochineal_, which has a greyish-red colour, and the furrows of the body covered with a white bloom or fine down; and _black cochineal_, which is of a dark reddish brown, and destitute of bloom. _Granilla_ is an inferior kind, gathered from uncultivated plants. The best crop is the first of the season, which consists of the unimpregnated females; the later crops contain an admixture of young insects and skins, which contain proportionally little colouring matter.

The black variety of cochineal is sometimes sold for silver cochineal by shaking it with powdered talc or heavy-spar; but these adulterations can be readily detected by means of a lens. The duty in the United Kingdom on imported cochineal was repealed in 1845.

Cochineal owes its tinctorial power to the presence of a substance termed cochinealin or carminic acid, C17H18O10, which may be prepared from the aqueous decoction of cochineal. Cochineal also contains a fat and wax; cochineal wax or coccerin, C30H60(C31H61O3)2, may be extracted by benzene, the fat is a glyceryl myristate C3H5(C14H27O2)3.

COCHLAEUS, JOHANN (1479-1552), German humanist and controversialist, whose family name was Dobneck, was born of poor parents in 1479 at Wendelstein (near Nuremberg), whence his friends gave him the punning surname Cochlaeus (spiral), for which he occasionally substituted Wendelstinus. Having received some education at Nuremberg from the humanist Heinrich Grieninger, he entered (1504) the university of Cologne. In 1507 he graduated, and published under the name of Wendelstein his first piece, _In musicam exhortatorium_. He left Cologne (May 1510) to become schoolmaster at Nuremberg, where he brought out several school manuals. In 1515 he was at Bologna, hearing (with disgust) Eck's famous disputation against usury, and associating with Ulrich von Hutten and humanists. He took his doctor's degree at Ferrara (1517), and spent some time in Rome, where he was ordained priest. In 1520 he became dean of the Liebfrauenkirche at Frankfort, where he first entered the lists as a controversialist against the party of Luther, developing that bitter hatred to the Reformation which animated his forceful but shallow ascription of the movement to the meanest motives, due to a quarrel between the Dominicans and Augustinians. Luther would not meet him in discussion at Mainz in 1521. He was present at the diets of Worms, Regensburg, Spires and Augsburg. The peasants' war drove him from Frankfort; he obtained (1526) a canonry at Mainz; in 1529 he became secretary to Duke George of Saxony, at Dresden and Meissen. The death of his patron (1539) compelled him to take flight. He became canon (September 1539) at Breslau, where he died on the 10th of January 1552. He was a prolific writer, largely of overgrown pamphlets, harsh and furious. His more serious efforts retain no permanent value. With humanist convictions, he had little of the humanist spirit. We owe to him one of the few contemporary notices of the young Servetus.

See C. Otto, _Johannes Cochlaeus, der Humanist_ (1874); Haas, in I.
Goschler's _Dict. encydoped. de la theol. cath._ (1858); Brecher, in
_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1876); T. Kolde, in A. Hauck's
_Realencyklopadie fur prot. Theol. u. Kirche_ (1898). (A. Go.*)

COCK, EDWARD (1805-1802), British surgeon, was born in 1805. He was a nephew of Sir Astley Cooper, and through him became at an early age a member of the staff of the Borough hospital in London, where he worked in the dissecting room for thirteen years. Afterwards he became in 1838 assistant surgeon at Guy's, where from 1849 to 1871 he was surgeon, and from 1871 to 1892 consulting surgeon. He rose to be president of the College of Surgeons in 1869. He was an excellent anatomist, a bold operator, and a clear and incisive writer, and though in lecturing he was afflicted with a stutter, he frequently utilized it with humorous effect and emphasis. From 1843 to 1849 he was editor of _Guy's Hospital Reports_, which contain many of his papers, particularly on stricture of the urethra, puncture of the bladder, injuries to the head, and hernia. He was the first English surgeon to perform pharyngotomy with success, and also one of the first to succeed in trephining for middle meningeal haemorrhage; but the operation by which his name is known is that of opening the urethra through the perinaeum (see _Guy's Hospital Reports_, 1866). He died at Kingston in 1892.

COCKADE (Fr. _cocarde_, in 16th century _coquarde_, from _coq_, in allusion probably to the cock's comb), a knot of ribbons or a rosette worn as a badge, particularly now as part of the livery of servants. The cockade was at first the button and loop or clasp which "cocked" up the side of an ordinary slouch hat. The word first appears in this sense in Rabelais in the phrase "_bonnet a la coquarde_," which is explained by Cotgrave (1611) as a "Spanish cap or fashion of bonnet used by substantial men of yore ... worne proudly or peartly on th' one side." The bunch of ribbons as a party badge developed from this entirely utilitarian button and loop. The Stuarts' badge was a white rose, and the resulting white cockade figured in Jacobite songs after the downfall of the dynasty. William III.'s cockade was of yellow, and the House of Hanover introduced theirs of black, which in its present spiked or circular form of leather is worn in England to-day by the royal coachmen and grooms, and the servants of all officials or members of the services. At the battle of Sheriffmuir in the reign of George I. the English soldiers wore a black rosette in their hats, and in a contemporary song are called "the red-coat lads wi' black cockades." At the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789, cockades of green ribbon were adopted. These afterwards gave place to the tricolour cockade, which is said to have been a mixture of the traditional colours of Paris (red and blue) with the white of the Bourbons, the early Revolutionists being still Royalists. The French army wore the tricolour cockade until the Restoration. To-day each foreign nation has its special coloured cockade. Thus the Austrian is black and yellow, the Bavarian light blue and white, the Belgian black, yellow and red, French the tricolour, Prussian black and white, Russian green and white, and so on, following usually the national colours. Originally the wearing of a cockade, as soon as it had developed into a badge, was restricted to soldiers, as "to mount a cockade" was "to become a soldier." There is still a trace of the cockade as a badge in certain military headgears in England and elsewhere. Otherwise it has become entirely the mark of domestic service. The military cocked hat, the lineal descendant of the _bonnet a la coquarde_, became the fashion in France during the reign of Louis XV.

See _Genealogical Magazine_, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1897-1899);
Racinet, _La Costume historique_ (6 vols., Paris, 1888).