Chapter XII: Part 12

CLUB-FOOT (_talipes_), the name given to deformities of the foot, some of which are congenital, others acquired--the latter being chiefly due to infantile paralysis. _Talipes equinus_ is that form in which the heel does not touch the ground, the child resting on the toes. In _talipes varus_ the foot is turned inwards and shortened, the inner edge of the foot is raised, and the child walks on the outer edge. These two conditions are often combined, the heel being drawn up and the foot twisted inward; the name given to the twofold deformity is _talipes equino-varus_. It is the most usual congenital form. In _talipes calcaneus_ the toes are pointed upwards and the foot rests on the heel. This is always an acquired (paralytic) deformity.

The treatment of congenital club-foot, which is almost invariably _varus_ or _equino-varus_, should be begun as soon as ever the abnormal condition of the foot is recognized. The nurse should be shown how to twist and coax the foot into the improved position, and should so hold it in her hand many times a day. And thus by daily, or, one might almost say, hourly manipulations, much good may be accomplished without distress to the infant. If after weeks or months of these measures insufficient progress has been made, the subcutaneous division of a tendon or two, or of some tendons and ligaments may be necessary, the foot being subsequently fixed up in the improved position in plaster of Paris. If these subcutaneous operations also prove disappointing, or if after their apparently successful employment the foot constantly relapses into the old position, a more radical procedure will be required. Of the many procedures which have been adopted there is, probably, none equal to that of free transverse incision introduced by the late Dr A. M. Phelps of New York. By this "open method" the surgeon sees exactly what structures are at fault and in need of division--skin, fasciae tendons, ligaments; everything, in short, which prevented the easy rectification of the deformity. After the operation, the foot is fixed, without any strain, in an over-corrected position, between plaster of Paris splints. By the adoption of this method the old instrument of torture known as "Scarpa's shoe" has become obsolete, as have also some of those operations which effected improvement of the foot by the removal of portions of the bony arch. Phelps's operation removes the deformity by increasing the length of the concave border of the foot rather than by shortening the convex borders as in cuneiform osteotomy; it is a levelling up, not a levelling down.

_Talipes valgus_ is very rare as a congenital defect, but is common enough as a result of infantile paralysis and as such is apt to be combined with the calcanean variety. "Flat-foot" is sometimes spoken of as _spurious talipes valgus_; it is due to the bony arches of the foot being called upon to support a weight beyond their power. The giving way of the arches may be due to weakness of the muscles, tendons or ligaments--probably of all three. It is often met with in feeble and flabby children, and in nurses, waiters, policemen and others whose feet grow tired from much standing. Exercises on tip-toe, especially with a skipping rope, massage, rest and tonic treatment will give relief, and shoes or boots may be supplied with the heel and sole thickened along the inner borders so that the weight may be received along the strong outer border of the foot. When the flat-footed individual stands it should be upon the outer borders of his feet, or better still, when convenient, on tip-toe, as this posture strengthens those muscles of the leg which run into the sole of the foot and hold up the bony arches. In certain extreme cases the surgeon wrenches the splay feet into an inverted position and fixes them in plaster of Paris, taking off the casing every day for the purpose of massage and exercises.

Flat-foot is often associated with knock-knee in children and young adults who are the subject of rickets.

_Morton's Disease._--In some cases of flat-foot the life of the individual is made miserable by neuralgia at the root of the toes, which comes on after much standing or walking, the distress being so great that, almost regardless of propriety, he is compelled to take off his boot. The condition is known as Morton's disease or _metatarsalgia_. The pain is due to the nerves of the toes (which come from the sole of the foot) being pressed upon by the rounded ends of the long bones of the foot near the web of the toes. It does not generally yield to palliative measures (though rest of the foot and a change to broad-toed, easy boots may be helpful), and the only effectual remedy is resection of the head of one of the metatarsal bones, after which relief is complete and permanent.

For paralytic club-foot, in which distressing corns have been developed over the unnatural prominences upon which the sufferer has been accustomed to walk, the adoption of the most promising conservative measures are usually disappointing, and relief and happiness may be obtainable only after the performance of Syme's amputation through the ankle-joint.

CLUE, or CLEW (O. Eng. _cluwe_), originally a ball of thread or wool, the thread of life, which, according to the fable, the Fates spin for every man. The ordinary figurative meaning, a piece of evidence leading to discovery, or a sign pointing to the right track, is derived from the story of Theseus, who was guided through the labyrinth by the ball of thread held by Ariadne.

CLUENTIUS HABITUS, AULUS, of Larinum in Samnium, the hero of a Roman _cause celebre_. In 74 B.C. he accused his stepfather Statius Albius Oppianicus of an attempt to poison him; had it been successful, the property of Cluentius would have fallen to his mother Sassia. Oppianicus and two others were condemned, and some years later Oppianicus died in exile. But the verdict was looked upon with suspicion, and it was known for a fact that one of the jurymen had received a large sum of money for distribution amongst his colleagues. The result was the degradation of Cluentius himself and several of the jurymen. In 66, Sassia induced her stepson Oppianicus to charge Cluentius with having caused the elder Oppianicus to be poisoned while in exile. On this occasion the defence was undertaken by Cicero in the extant speech _Pro Cluentio_. In the end Cluentius was acquitted. Cicero afterwards boasted openly that he had thrown dust in the eyes of the jury (Quintilian, _Instit._ ii. 17. 21, who quotes this speech more than any other). His efforts are chiefly devoted to proving that the condemnation of the elder Oppianicus was just and in no way the result of the jury having been bribed by Cluentius; only a small portion of the end of the speech deals with the specific charge. It was generally believed that the verdict in the former trial was an unfair one; and this opinion was most prejudicial to Cluentius. But even if it could be shown that Cluentius had bribed the jurymen, this did not prove that he had poisoned Oppianicus, although it supplied a sufficient reason for wishing to get him out of the way. The speech delivered by Cicero on this occasion is considered one of his best.

Editions of the speech by W. Y. Fausset (1887), W. Ramsay (1883); see
also H. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ (1885).

CLUMP, a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a mass, lump, group or cluster of indefinite form, as a clump of grass or trees. The word is used of a wooden and clumsy shoe, made out of one piece of wood, worn by German peasants, and by transference is applied to the thick extra sole added to heavy boots for rough wear. Shoemakers speak of "clumping" a boot when it is mended by having a new sole fastened by nails and not sewn by hand to the old sole.

CLUNES, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 97-1/2 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2426. It is the centre of an agricultural, pastoral and mining district, in which gold was first discovered in 1851. It lies in a healthy and picturesque situation at an elevation of 1081 ft. An annual agricultural exhibition and large weekly cattle sales are held in the town.

CLUNY, or CLUGNY, a town of east central France, in the department of Saone-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Grosne, 14 m. N.W. of Macon by road. Pop. (1906) 3105. The interest of the town lies in its specimens of medieval architecture, which include, besides its celebrated abbey, the Gothic church of Notre-Dame, the church of St Marcel with its beautiful Romanesque spire, portions of the ancient fortifications, and a number of picturesque houses belonging to the Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance periods. The chief remains of the abbey (see ABBEY) are the ruins of the basilica of St Peter and the abbot's palace. The church was a Romanesque building, completed early in the 12th century, and until the erection of St Peter at Rome was the largest ecclesiastical building in Europe. It was in great part demolished under the First Empire, but the south transept, a high octagonal tower, the chapel of Bourbon (15th century), and the ruins of the apse still remain. In 1750 the abbey buildings were largely rebuilt and now contain a technical school. Part of the site of the church is given up to the stabling of a government stud. The abbot's palace, which belongs to the end of the 15th century, serves as hotel-de-ville, library and museum. The town has quarries of limestone and building-stone, and manufactures pottery, leather and paper.

A mere village at the time when the abbey was founded (910), Cluny gradually increased in importance with the development of the religious fraternity, and in 1090 received a communal charter from the abbot St Hugh. In 1471 the town was taken by the troops of Louis XI. In 1529 the abbey was given "in commendam" to the family of Guise, four members of which held the office of abbot during the next hundred years. The town and abbey suffered during the Wars of Religion of the 16th century, and the abbey was closed in 1790. The residence erected in Paris at the end of the 15th century by the abbots Jean de Bourbon and Jacques d'Amboise, and known as the Hotel de Cluny (see HOUSE, Plate I., fig. 6), is occupied by the du Sommerard collection; but the College de Cluny founded in 1269 by the abbot Yves de Vergy, as a theological school for the order, is no longer in existence.

_The Order of Cluniac Benedictines._--The Monastery of Cluny was founded in 910 by William I. the Pious, count of Auvergne and duke of Guienne (Aquitaine). The first abbot was Berno, who had under his rule two monasteries in the neighbourhood. Before his death in 927 two or three more came under his control, so that he bequeathed to his successor the government of a little group of five or six houses, which became the nucleus of the order of Cluny. Berno's successor was Odo: armed with papal privileges he set to work to make Cluny the centre of a revival and reform among the monasteries of France; he also journeyed to Italy, and induced some of the great Benedictine houses, and among them St Benedict's own monasteries of Subiaco and Monte Cassino, to receive the reform and adopt the Cluny manner of life. The process of extension, partly by founding new houses, partly by incorporating old ones, went on under Odo's successors, so that by the middle of the 12th century Cluny had become the centre and head of a great order embracing 314 monasteries--the number 2000, sometimes given, is an exaggeration--in all parts of Europe, in France, Italy, the Empire, Lorraine, Spain, England, Scotland, Poland, and even in the Holy Land. And the influence of Cluny extended far beyond the actual order: many monasteries besides Monte Cassino and Subiaco adopted its customs and manner of life without subjecting themselves to its sway; and of these, many in turn became the centres of reforms which extended Cluny ideas and influences over still wider circles: Fleury and Hirsau may be mentioned as conspicuous examples. The gradual stages in the growth of the Cluny sphere of influence is exhibited in a map [VI. C.] in Heussi and Mulert's _Handatlas zur Kirchengeschichte_, 1905.

When we turn to the inner life of Cluny, we find that the decrees of Aix-la-Chapelle, which summed up the Carolingian movement for reform (see BENEDICTINES), were taken as the basis of the observance. Field work and manual labour were given up; and in compensation the tendency initiated by Benedict of Aniane, to prolong and multiply the church services far beyond the canonical office contemplated by St Benedict, was carried to still greater extremes, so that the services came to occupy nearly the whole day. The lessons at the night office became so lengthy that, e.g., the Book of Genesis was read through in a week; and the daily psalmody, between canonical office and extra devotions, exceeded a hundred psalms (see Edm. Bishop, _Origin of the Primer_, Early English Text Soc., Original Series, No. 109).

If its influence on the subsequent history of monastic and religious life and organization be considered, the most noteworthy feature of the Cluny system was its external polity, which constituted it a veritable "order" in the modern sense of the word, the first that had existed since that of Pachomius (see MONASTICISM). All the houses that belonged, either by foundation or incorporation, to the Cluny system were absolutely subject to Cluny and its abbot, who was "general" in the same sense as the general of the Jesuits or Dominicans, the practically absolute ruler of the whole system. The superiors of all the subject houses (usually priors, not abbots) were his nominees; every member of the order was professed by his permission, and had to pass some of the early years of his monastic life at Cluny itself; the abbot of Cluny had entire control over every one of the monks--some 10,000, it is said; it even came about that he had the practical appointment of his successor. For a description and criticism of the system, see F. A. Gasquet, _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_, pp. xxxii-xxxv (the Introduction to 2nd ed. (1895) of the English trans. of the _Monks of the West_); here it must suffice to say that it is the very antithesis of the Benedictine polity (see BENEDICTINES).

The greatness of Cluny is really the greatness of its early abbots. If the short reign of the unworthy Pontius be excepted, Cluny was ruled during a period of about 250 years (910-1157) by a succession of seven great abbots, who combined those high qualities of character, ability and religion that were necessary for so commanding a position; they were Berno, Odo, Aymard, Majolus (Maieul), Odilo, Hugh, Peter the Venerable. Sprung from noble families of the neighbourhood; educated to the highest level of the culture of those times; endowed with conspicuous ability and prudence in the conduct of affairs; enjoying the consideration and confidence of popes and sovereigns; employed again and again as papal legates and imperial ambassadors; taking part in all great movements of ecclesiastical and temporal politics; refusing the first sees in Western Christendom, the cardinalate, and the papacy itself: they ever remained true to their state as monks, without loss of piety or religion. Four of them, indeed, Odo, Maieul, Odilo and Hugh, are venerated as saints.

In the movement associated with the name of Hildebrand the influence of Cluny was thrown strongly on the side of religious and ecclesiastical reform, as in the suppression of simony and the enforcing of clerical celibacy; but in the struggle between the Papacy and the Empire the abbots of Cluny seem to have steered a middle course between Guelfs and Ghibellines, and to have exercised a moderating influence; St Hugh maintained relations with Henry IV. after his excommunication, and probably influenced him to go to Canossa. Hildebrand himself, though probably not a monk of Cluny, was a monk of a Cluniac monastery in Rome; his successor, Urban II., was actually a Cluny monk, as was Paschal II. It may safely be said that from the middle of the 10th century until the middle of the 12th, Cluny was the chief centre of religious influence throughout Western Europe, and the abbot of Cluny, next to the pope, the most important and powerful ecclesiastic in the Latin Church.

Everything at Cluny was on a scale worthy of so great a position. The basilica, begun 1089 and dedicated 1131, was, until the building of the present St Peter's, the largest church in Christendom, and was both in structure and ornamentation of unparalleled magnificence. The monastic buildings were gigantic.

During the abbacy of Peter the Venerable (1122-1157) it became clear that, after a lapse of two centuries, a renewal of the framework of the life and a revival of its spirit had become necessary. Accordingly he summoned a great chapter of the whole order whereat the priors and representatives of the subject houses attended in such numbers that, along with the Cluny community, the assembly consisted of 1200 monks. This chapter drew up the 76 statutes associated with Peter's name, regulating the whole range of claustral life, and solemnly promulgated as binding on the whole Cluniac obedience. But these measures did not succeed in saving Cluny from a rapid decline that set in immediately after Peter's death. The monarchical status of the abbot was gradually curtailed by the holding of general chapters at fixed periods and the appointment of a board of definitors, elected by the chapter, as a permanent council for the abbot. Owing to these restrictions and still more to the fact that the later abbots were not of the same calibre as the early ones, their power and influence waned, until in 1528 (if not in 1456) the abbey fell into "commendam." The rise of the Cistercians and the mendicant orders were contributory causes, and also the difficulties experienced in keeping houses in other countries subject to a French superior. And so the great system gradually became a mere congregation of French houses. Of the commendatory abbots the most remarkable were Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who both initiated attempts to introduce reforms into the Cluny congregation, the former trying to amalgamate it with the reformed congregation of St Maur, but without effect. Martene tells us that in the early years of the 18th century in the monastery of Baume, one of Berno's original group of Cluny houses--indeed the parent house of Cluny itself--no one was admitted as a monk who had not sixteen quarterings in his coat of arms. A reform movement took root in the Cluny congregation, and during the last century of its existence the monks were divided into two groups, the Reformed and the Unreformed, living according to different laws and rules, with different superiors, and sometimes independent, and even rival, general chapters. This most unhappy arrangement hopelessly impaired the vitality and work of the congregation, which was finally dissolved and suppressed in 1790, the church being deliberately destroyed.

Cluniac houses were introduced into England under the Conqueror. The first foundation was at Barnstaple; the second at Lewes by William de Warenne, in 1077, and it counted as one of the "Five Daughters of Cluny." In quick succession followed Thetford, Montacute, Wenlock, Bermondsey, and in Scotland, Paisley; a number of lesser foundations were made, and offshoots from the English houses; so that the English Cluniac dependencies in the 13th century amounted to 40. It is said that in the reign of Edward III. they transmitted to Cluny annually the sum of L2000, equivalent to L60,000 of our money. Such a drain on the country was naturally looked on with disfavour, especially during the French wars; and so it came about that as "alien priories" they were frequently sequestered by the crown. As the communities came to be composed more and more of English subjects, they tended to grow impatient of their subjection to a foreign house, and began to petition parliament to be naturalized and to become denizen. In 1351 Lewes was actually naturalized, but a century later the prior of Lewes appears still as the abbot of Cluny's vicar in England. Though the bonds with Cluny seem to have been much relaxed if not wholly broken, the Cluniac houses continued as a separate group up to the dissolution, never taking part in the chapters of the English Benedictines. At the end there were eight greater and nearly thirty lesser Cluniac houses: for list see Table in F. A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_; and _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Cluny."

The history of Cluny up to the death of Peter the Venerable may be
extracted out of Mabillon's _Annales_ by means of the Index; the story
is told in Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 18, 19.
Abridged accounts, with references to the most recent literature, may
be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S
20; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cluni"
(Grutzmacher); and Wetzer und Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art.
"Clugny" (Hefele). The best modern monograph is by E. Sackur, _Die
Cluniacenser_ (1891-1894). In English a good account is given in
Maitland, _Dark Ages_, SS xviii.-xxvi.; the Introduction to G. F.
Duckett's _Charters and Records of Cluni_ (1890) contains, besides
general information, a description of the church and the buildings,
and a list of the chief Cluniac houses in all countries. The story of
the English houses is briefly sketched in the second chapter of F. A.
Gasquet's _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (the larger ed.,
1886). (E. C. B.)

CLUSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL (1823-1900), French soldier and politician, was born at Paris. He was an officer in the _garde mobile_ during the revolution of 1848. He took part in several expeditions in Algeria, joined Garibaldi's volunteers in 1860, and in 1861 resigned his commission to take part in the Civil War in America. He served under Fremont and McClellan, and rose to the rank of general. Then, joining a band of Irish adventurers, he went secretly to Ireland, and participated in the Fenian insurrection (1866-67). He escaped arrest on the collapse of the movement, but was condemned to death in his absence. On his return to France he proclaimed himself a Socialist, opposed militarism, and became a member of the _Association Internationale des travailleurs_, a cosmopolitan Socialist organization, known as the "_Internationale_." On the proclamation of the Third Republic in 1871 he set to work to organize the social revolution, first at Lyons and afterwards at Marseilles. His energy, his oratorical gifts, and his military experience gave him great influence among the working classes. On the news of the communist rising of the 18th of March 1871 he hastened to Paris, and on the 16th of April was elected a member of the commune. Disagreements with the other communist leaders led to his arrest on the 1st of May, on a false charge of betraying the cause. On the 24th of the same month the occupation of Paris by the Versailles troops restored him to liberty, and he succeeded in escaping from France. He did not return to the country till 1884. In 1888 and 1889 he was returned as a deputy to the chamber by Toulon. He died in 1900. Cluseret published his _Memoires_ (of the Commune) at Paris in 1887-1888.

CLUSIUM (mod. _Chiusi_, q.v.), an ancient town of Italy, one of the twelve cities of Etruria, situated on an isolated hill at the S. end of the valley of the Clanis (China). It was according to Roman tradition one of the oldest cities of Etruria and indeed of all Italy, and, if Camars (the original name of the town, according to Livy) is rightly connected with the Camertes Umbri, its foundation would go back to pre-Etruscan times. It first appears in Roman history at the end of the 7th century B.C., when it joined the other Etruscan towns against Tarquinius Priscus, and at the end of the 6th century B.C. it placed itself, under its king Lars Porsena, at the head of the attempt to re-establish the Tarquins in Rome. At the time of the invasion of the Gauls in 391 B.C., on the other hand, Clusium was on friendly terms with Rome; indeed, it was the action of the Roman envoys who had come to intercede for the people of Clusium with the Gauls, and then, contrary to international law, took part in the battle which followed, which determined the Gauls to march on Rome. Near Clusium too, according to Livy (according to Polybius ii. 19. 5, [Greek: en te Kamertion chora], i.e. in Umbria near Camerinum), a battle occurred in 296 B.C. between the Gauls and Samnites combined, and the Romans; a little later the united forces of Clusium and Perusia were defeated by the Romans. The precise period at which Clusium came under Roman supremacy is, however, uncertain, though this must have happened before 225 B.C., when the Gauls advanced as far as Clusium. In 205 B.C. in the Second Punic War we hear that they promised ship timber and corn to Scipio. The Via Cassia, constructed after 187 B.C., passed just below the town. In the first civil war, Papirius Carbo took up his position here, and two battles occurred in the neighbourhood. Sulla appears to have increased the number of colonists, and a statue was certainly erected in his honour here. In imperial times we hear little of it, though its grain and grapes were famous. Christianity found its way into Clusium as early as the 3rd century, and the tombstone of a bishop of A.D. 322 exists. In A.D. 540 it is named as a strong place to which Vitiges sent a garrison of a thousand men.

Of pre-Roman or Roman buildings in the town itself there are few remains, except for some fragments of the Etruscan town walls composed of rather small rectangular blocks of travertine, built into the medieval fortifications. Under it, however, extends an elaborate system of rock-cut passages, probably drains. The chief interest of the place lies in its extensive necropolis, which surrounds the city on all sides. The earliest tombs (_tombe a pozzo_, shaft tombs) are previous to the beginning of Greek importation. Of _tombe a fosso_ there are none, and the next stage is marked by the so-called _tombe a ziro_, in which the cinerary urn (often with a human head) is placed in a large clay jar (_ziro_, Lat. _dolium_). These belong to the 7th century B.C., and are followed by the _tombe a camera_, in which the tomb is a chamber hewn in the rock, and which can be traced back to the beginning of the 6th century B.C. From one of the earliest of these came the famous Francois vase; another is the tomb of Poggio Renzo, or della Scimmia (the monkey), with several chambers decorated with archaic paintings. The most remarkable group of tombs is, however, that of Poggio Gaiella, 3 m. to the N., where the hill is honeycombed with chambers in three storeys (now, however, much ruined and inaccessible), partly connected by a system of passages, and supported at the base by a stone wall which forms a circle and not a square--a fact which renders impossible its identification with the tomb of Porsena, the description of which Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ xxxvi. 91) has copied from Varro. Other noteworthy tombs are those of the Granduca, with a single subterranean chamber carefully constructed in travertine, and containing eight sarcophagi of the same material; of Vigna Grande, very similar to this; of Colle Casuccini (the ancient stone door of which is still in working order), with two chambers, containing paintings representing funeral rites; of Poggio Moro and Valdacqua, in the former of which the paintings are almost destroyed, while the latter is now inaccessible.

A conception of the size of the whole necropolis may be gathered from the fact that nearly three thousand Etruscan inscriptions have come to light from Clusium and its district alone, while the part of Etruria north of it as far as the Arno has produced barely five hundred. Among the later tombs bilingual inscriptions are by no means rare, and both Etruscan and Latin inscriptions are often found in the same cemeteries, showing that the use of the Etruscan language only died out gradually. A large number of the inscriptions are painted upon the tiles which closed the niches containing the cinerary urns. The urns themselves are small, often of terra-cotta, originally painted, though the majority of them have lost their colour, and rectangular in shape. This style of burial seems peculiar to a district which E. Bormann (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi., Berlin, 1887, p. 373) defines as a triangle formed by the Clanis (with the lakes of Chiusi and Montepulciano, both small, shallow and fever-breeding), on the E., the villages of Cetona, Sarteano, Castelluccio and Monticchiello on the W., and Montepulciano and Acquaviva on the N. In Roman times the territory of Clusium seems to have extended as far as Lake Trasimene. The local museum contains a valuable and important collection of objects from the necropolis, including some specially fine _bucchero_, sepulchral urns of travertine, alabaster and terra-cotta, painted vases, stone _cippi_ with reliefs, &c.

Two Christian catacombs have been found near Clusium, one in the hill of S. Caterina near the railway station, the inscriptions of which seem to go back to the 3rd century, another 1 m. to the E. in a hill on which a church and monastery of S. Mustiola stood, which goes back to the 4th century, including among its inscriptions one bearing the date A.D. 303, and the tombstone of L. Petronius Dexter, bishop of Clusium, who died in A.D. 322. The total number of inscriptions known in Clusium is nearly 3000 Etruscan (_Corp. Inscr. Etrusc._, Berlin, 475-3306) and 500 Latin (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. 2090-2593). To the W. and N.W. of Chiusi--at Cetona, Sarteano, Chianciano and Montepulciano--Etruscan cemeteries have been discovered; the objects from them formed, in the latter half of the 19th century, interesting local collections described by Dennis, which have since mostly passed to larger museums or been dispersed.

See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London,1883), ii.
290 seq.; L. Giometti, _Guida di Chiusi_ (Poggibonsi, 1904).
(T. AS.)

CLUWER (CLUVER, CLUVIER, CLUVERIUS), PHILIP (1580-1623), German geographer and historian, was born at Danzig in 1580. After travelling in Germany and Poland (where he learnt Polish), he began the study of law at Leiden, but he soon turned his attention to history and geography, which were then taught there by Joseph Scaliger. After campaigning in Bohemia and Hungary, suffering imprisonment, and travelling in England, Scotland and France, he finally settled in Holland, where (after 1616) he received a regular pension from Leiden Academy. In 1611 he began to publish his works. He died at Leiden in 1623. His principal writings are: _Germania Antiqua_ (1616), _Siciliae Antiquae libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antiqua_ (1619), and the posthumous _Italia Antiqua_ (1624) and _Introductio in Universam Geographiam_ (1629).

CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863), British soldier, was born at Glasgow on the 20th of October 1792. He received his education at the Glasgow high school, and when only sixteen years of age obtained an ensigncy in the 9th foot, through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his maternal uncle. The youthful officer had an early opportunity of engaging in active service. He fought under Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, took part in the retreat of Sir John Moore, and was present at the battle of Corunna. He shared in all the fighting of the Peninsular campaigns, and was severely wounded while leading a storming-party at the attack on San Sebastian. He was again wounded at the passage of the Bidassoa, and compelled to return to England, when his conspicuous gallantry was rewarded by promotion without purchase. Campbell held a command in the American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the following year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection in Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by purchase, In 1832 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 98th foot, and with that regiment rendered distinguished service in the Chinese War of 1842. Campbell was next employed in the Sikh War of 1848-49, under Lord Gough. At Chillianwalla, where he was wounded, and at the decisive victory of Gujrat, his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the British arms; and his "steady coolness and military precision" were highly praised in official despatches. He was made a K.C.B. in 1849, and specially named in the thanks of parliament.

After rendering important services in India Sir Colin Campbell returned home in 1853. Next year the Crimean War broke out, and he accepted the command of the Highland brigade, which formed part of the duke of Cambridge's division. The brigade and its leader distinguished themselves very greatly at the Alma; and with his "thin red line" of Highlanders he repulsed the Russian attack on Balaklava. At the close of the war Sir Colin was promoted to be knight grand cross of the Bath, and elected honorary D.C.L. of Oxford. His military services, however, had as yet met with tardy recognition; but, when the crisis came, his true worth was appreciated. The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny (q.v.) called for a general of tried experience; and on the 11th of July 1857 the command was offered to him by Lord Palmerston. On being asked when he would be ready to set out, the veteran replied, "Within twenty-four hours." He was as good as his word; he left England the next evening, and reached Calcutta on the 13th of August. After spending upwards of two months in the capital to organize his resources, he started for the front on the 27th of October, and on the 17th of November relieved Lucknow for the second time. Sir Colin, however, considered Lucknow a false position, and once more abandoned it to the rebels, retaking it in March 1858. He continued in charge of the operations in Oudh until the embers of the revolt had died away. For these services he was raised to the peerage, in 1858, as Lord Clyde; and, returning to England in the next year, he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament and a pension of L2000 a year. He died on the 14th of August 1863.

Though not a great general, and lacking in the dash which won England so many victories in India, Lord Clyde was at once a brave soldier and a careful and prudent leader. The soldiers whom he led were devotedly attached to him; and his courteous demeanour and manly independence of character won him unvarying respect.

See Sir Owen Tudor Burne, _Clyde and Strathnairn_ ("Rulers of India"
series, 1891); and L. Shadwell, _Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_
(1881).

CLYDE (Welsh, _Clwyd_, "far heard," "strong," the _Glotta_ of Tacitus), the principal river of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is also the name of the estuary which forms the largest and finest firth on the west coast.

1. _The River._--Daer Water, rising in Gana Hill (2190 ft.) on the borders of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, after a course of 10-1/2 m., and Potrail Water, rising 3 m. farther W. in the same hilly country (1928 ft.), after running N.N.E. for 7 m., unite 3-1/2 m. S. of Elvanfoot to form the Clyde, of which they are the principal headstreams, though many mountain burns in these upland regions are also contributory. The old rhyme that "Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise a' out o' ae hillside" is not true, for Little Clyde Burn here referred to, rising in Clyde Law (2190 ft.), is only an affluent and not a parent stream. From the junction of the Daer and Potrail the river pursues a direction mainly northwards for several miles, winding eastwards around Tinto Hill, somewhat north-westerly to near Carstairs, where it follows a serpentine course westwards and then southwards. From Harperfield, a point about 4 m. above Lanark, it assumes a north-westerly direction, which, roughly, it maintains for the rest of its course as a river, which is generally held to end at Dumbarton, where it merges in the Firth. Its principal tributaries on the right are the Medwin (16 m. long), entering near Carnwath, the Mouse (15 m.), joining it at Lanark, the South Calder (16 m.) above Bothwell, the North Calder (12 m.) below Uddingston, the Kelvin (21 m.) at Glasgow, and the Leven (7 m.) at Dumbarton. The chief left-hand affluents are the Elvan (8 m.), entering at Elvanfoot, the Duneaton (19 m.), joining a few miles above Roberton, the Garf (6-1/2 m.) below Lamington, the Douglas (20 m.) above Bonnington, the Nethan (12 m.) at Crossford, the Avon (28 m.) at Hamilton, the Rotten Calder (10 m.) near Newton, and the Cart (1 m.), formed by the junction of the Black Cart (9 m.) and the White Cart (19 m.), below Renfrew.

The total length of the Clyde from the head of the Daer to Dumbarton is 106 m., and it drains an area estimated at 1481 sq. m. It is thus the third longest river in Scotland (being exceeded by the Spey and Tay), but in respect of the industries on its lower banks, and its sea-borne commerce, it is one of the most important rivers in the world. Near Lanark it is broken by the celebrated Falls, four in number, which are all found within a distance of 3-3/4 m. Bonnington Linn, the most graceful, 2 m. above Lanark, is divided into two parts by a mass of tree-clad rocks in mid-stream, and has a height of 30 ft. From this spot the river runs for half a mile through a rugged, red sandstone gorge till it reaches Corra Linn, the grandest of the Falls, where in three leaps, giving it the aspect of a splendid cascade, it makes a descent of 84 ft., which, however, it accomplishes during flood at a single bound. Almost 3/4 m. below Corra Linn, Dundaff Linn is reached, a fall of only 10 ft. Farther down, 1-3/4 m. below Lanark, at Stonebyres Linn, reproducing the characteristic features of Corra Linn, the river descends in ordinary water in three leaps, and in flood in one bold drop of 80 ft. Within this space of 3-3/4 m. the river effects a total fall of 230 ft., or 61-1/3 ft. in the mile. From Stonebyres Linn to the sea the fall is practically 4 ft. in every mile. The chief villages and towns on or close to the river between its source and Glasgow are Crawford, Lamington, New Lanark, Lanark, Hamilton, Bothwell, Blantyre and Uddingston. At Bowling (pop. 1018)--the point of transhipment for the Forth and Clyde Canal--the river widens decidedly, the fairway being indicated by a stone wall continued seawards as far as Dumbarton. Dunglass Point, near Bowling, is the western terminus of the wall of Antoninus, or Grim's Dyke; and in the grounds of Dunglass Castle, now a picturesque fragment, stands an obelisk to Henry Bell (1767-1830), the pioneer of steam navigation in Europe.

As far down as the falls the Clyde remains a pure fishing stream, but from the point at which it begins to receive the varied tribute of industry, its water grows more and more contaminated, and at Glasgow the work of pollution is completed. Towards the end of the 18th century the river was yet fordable at the Broomielaw in the heart of Glasgow, but since that period, by unexampled enterprise and unstinted expenditure of money, the stream has been converted into a waterway deep enough to allow liners and battleships to anchor in the harbour (see GLASGOW).

Clydesdale, as the valley of the upper Clyde is called, begins in the district watered by headstreams of the river, the course of which in effect it follows as far as Bothwell, a distance of 50 m. It is renowned for its breed of cart-horses (specifically known as Clydesdales), its orchards, fruit fields and market gardens, its coal and iron mines.

2. _The Firth._--From Dumbarton, where the firth is commonly considered to begin, to Ailsa Craig, where it ends, the fairway measures 64 m. Its width varies from 1 m. at Dumbarton to 37 m. from Girvan to the Mull of Kintyre. The depth varies from a low-tide minimum of 22 ft. in the navigable channel at Dumbarton to nearly 100 fathoms in the Sound of Bute and at other points. The Cumbraes, Bute and Arran are the principal islands in its waters. The sea lochs all lie on the Highland shore, and comprise Gare Loch, Loch Long, Loch Goil, Holy Loch, Loch Striven, Loch Riddon and Loch Fyne. The only rivers of any importance feeding the Firth are the Ayrshire streams, of which the chief are the Garnock, Irvine, Ayr, Doon and Girvan. The tide ascends above Glasgow, where its farther rise is barred by a weir. The head-ports are Glasgow, Port Glasgow, Greenock, Ardrossan, Irvine, Troon, Ayr and Campbeltown. In addition to harbour lights, beacons on rocks, and light-ships, there are lighthouses on Ailsa Craig, Sanda, Davaar, Pladda, Holy Isle, and Little Cumbrae, and at Turnberry Point, Cloch Point and Toward Point. The health and holiday resorts on the lochs, islands and mainland coast are numerous.

CLYDEBANK, a police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the Clyde, 6 m. from Glasgow. Pop. (1891) 10,014; (1901) 21,591. There are stations at Yoker, Clydebank, Kilbowie and Dalmuir, all comprised within the burgh since 1886, served by both the North British and the Caledonian railways. In 1875 the district was almost purely rural, but since that date flourishing industries have been planted in the different parts. At Clydebank are large shipbuilding yards and engineering works; at Yoker there is some shipbuilding and a distillery; at Kilbowie the Singer Manufacturing Company have an immense factory, covering nearly 50 acres and giving employment to many thousands of operatives; at Dalmuir are the building and repairing yards of the Clyde Navigation Trust. The important Rothesay Dock, under this trust, was opened by the prince and princess of Wales in April 1907. The municipality owns a fine town hall and buildings. Part of the parish extends across the Clyde into the shire of Renfrew.

CNIDUS (mod. _Tekir_), an ancient city of Caria in Asia Minor, situated at the extremity of the long peninsula that forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus or Gulf of Cos. It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion or Cape Krio, which anciently communicated with the continent by a causeway and bridge, and now by a narrow sandy isthmus. By means of the causeway the channel between island and mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger, or southern, now known as Port Freano, was further enclosed by two strongly-built moles that are still in good part entire. The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both insular and continental, can be traced throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the N.E. corner of the city, they are remarkably perfect. Our knowledge of the site is largely due to the mission of the Dilettanti Society in 1812, and the excavations executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858; but of recent years it has become a frequent calling station of touring steamers, which can still lie safely in the southern harbour. The agora, the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by the elder Praxiteles, the Aphrodite, was made for Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful is in the Vatican gallery. In a temple-enclosure C. T. Newton discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which now adorns the British Museum; and about 3 m. south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, 10 ft. in length and 6 in height, which has been supposed to commemorate the great naval victory of Conon over the Lacedaemonians in 394 B.C. Among the minor antiquities obtained from the city itself, or the great necropolis to the east, perhaps the most interesting are the leaden [Greek: katadesmoi], or imprecationary tablets, found in the temple of Demeter, and copied in facsimile in the appendix to the second volume of Newton's work. Peasants still find numerous antiquities, and the site would certainly repay more thorough excavation.

Cnidus was a city of high antiquity and probably of Lacedaemonian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus and Cos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindus, Camirus and Ialysus it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honour of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. The city was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members, known as [Greek: amnemones], and presided over by a magistrate called an [Greek: areoter]; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city was favourable for commerce, and the Cnidians acquired considerable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and founded the city of Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian War they were subject to Athens. In 394 B.C. Conon fought off the port the battle which destroyed Spartan hegemony. The Romans easily obtained their allegiance, and rewarded them for help given against Antiochus by leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period there must still have been a considerable population; for the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood. Eudoxus, the astronomer, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus, the builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most remarkable of the Cnidians mentioned in history.

See C. T. Newton and R. P. Pullen, _Hist. of Discoveries at
Halicarnassus, Cnidus, &c._ (1863).

CNOSSUS, KNOSSOS, or GNOSSUS, an ancient city of Crete, on the left bank of the Caeratus, a small stream which falls into the sea on the north side of the island. The city was situated about 3 m. from the coast, and, according to the old traditions, was founded by Minos, king of Crete. The locality was associated with a number of the most interesting legends of Greek mythology, particularly with those which related to Jupiter, who was said to have been born, to have been married, and to have been buried in the vicinity. Cnossus was also assigned as the site of the labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined. The truth behind these legends has been revealed in recent years by the excavations of Dr Evans. As the historical city was peopled by Dorians, the manners, customs and political institutions of its inhabitants were all Dorian. Along with Gortyna and Cydonia, it held for many years the supremacy over the whole of Crete; and it always took a prominent part in the civil wars which from time to time desolated the island. When the rest of Crete fell under the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the same fate, and became a Roman colony. Aenesidemus, the sceptic philosopher, and Chersiphron, the architect of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, were natives of Cnossus.

_The Site._--As the excavations at Cnossus are discussed at length in the article CRETE, it must suffice here briefly to enumerate the more important. The chief building is the Great Palace, the so-called "House of Minos," the excavation of which by Arthur Evans dates from 1900: a number of rooms lying round the central paved court, oriented north and south, have been identified, among them being the throne-room with some well-preserved wall paintings and a small bathroom attached, in the north-west quarter a larger bathroom and a shrine, and residential chambers in the south and east. The latter part of the palace is composed of a number of private rooms and halls, and is especially remarkable for its skilful drainage and water-supply systems.

In 1907 excavations on the south side of the palace showed that the plan was still incomplete, and a southern cryptoporticus, and outside it a large south-west building, probably an official residence, were discovered. Of special interest was a huge circular cavity under the southern porch into which the sub-structures of the palace had been sunk. This cavity was filled with rubbish, sherds, &c., the latest of which was found to date as far back as the beginning of the Middle Minoan age, and the later work of 1908 only proved (by means of a small shaft sunk through the debris) that the rock floor was 52 ft. below the surface. The first attempt to reach the floor by a cutting in the hill-side proved abortive, but the operations of 1910 led to a successful result. The cavity proved to be a great reservoir approached by a rock-cut staircase and of Early Minoan date.

In 1904-1905 a paved way running due west from the middle of the palace was excavated, and found to lead to another building described as the "Little Palace" largely buried under an olive grove. The first excavations showed that this building was on the same general plan and belonged to the same period as the "House of Minos," though somewhat later in actual date (17th century B.C.). Large halls, which had subsequently been broken up into smaller apartments, were found, and among a great number of other artistic remains one seal-impression of special interest showing a one-masted ship carrying a thorough-bred horse--perhaps representing the first importation of horses into Crete. A remarkable shrine with fetish idols was also discovered. The sacred Double-Axe symbol is prominent, as in the greater palace. By the end of 1910 the excavation of this smaller palace was practically completed. It was found to cover an area of more than 9400 ft. with a frontage of more than 130 ft., and had five stone staircases. One object of special interest found in the course of excavation is a black steatite vessel in the form of a bull's head. The modelling is of a very high order, and the one eye which remains perfect is cut out of rock crystal, with the pupil and iris marked by colours applied to the lower face of the crystal.

The work of excavation in the palace has been complicated by the necessity of propping up walls, floors and staircases. In some instances it has been found necessary to replace the original wooden pillars by pillars of stone. Again in the "Queen's Megaron" in the east wing of the Great Palace it was found that the exposure of the remains to the violent extremes of Cretan weather must soon prove fatal to them. It was therefore decided to restore the columns and part of the wall, and to roof over the whole area.

For recent excavations see R. M. Burrows, _The Discoveries in Crete_
(1907); A. Mosso, _The Palaces of Crete_ (1907); Lagrange, _La Crete
ancienne_ (1908); Dr. Evans's reports in _The Times_, Oct. 31, 1905,
July 15, 1907, Aug. 27, 1908, and 1909 (Index); D. Mackenzie, _Cretan
Palaces_.

COACH (through the Fr. _coche_, originally from the Magyar _kocsi_, an adjective from the Hungarian place named Kocs, between Raab and Buda, i.e. the sort of vehicle used there in the 15th century), a large kind of carriage for passengers (see CARRIAGE). As a general term it is used (as in "coach-building") for all carriages, and also in combination with qualifying attributes for particular forms (stage-coach, mail-coach, mourning-coach, hackney-coach, &c.); but the typical coach involves four wheels, springs and a roof. The stage-coach, with seats outside and in, was a public conveyance which was known in England from the 16th century, and before railways the stage-coaches had regular routes (stages) all over the country; through their carrying the mails (from 1784) the term "mail-coach" arose. Similar vehicles were used in America and on the European continent. The _diligence_, though not invariably with four horses, was the Continental analogue for public conveyance, with other minor varieties such as the _Stellwagen_ and _Eilwagen_.