Chapter XI: Part 11

COLLE, CHARLES (1709-1783), French dramatist and song-writer, the son of a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He was early interested in the rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the most famous maker of couplets in Paris. From a notary's office Colle was transferred to that of M. de Neulan, the receiver-general of finance, and remained there for nearly twenty years. When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of Panard. The example of these three masters of the vaudeville, while determining his vocation, made him diffident; and for some time he composed nothing but _amphigouris_--verses whose merit was measured by their unintelligibility. The friendship of the younger Crebillon, however, diverted him from this by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of the famous "Caveau" gave him a field for the display of his fine talent for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which numbered among its members Helvetius, Charles Duclos, Pierre Joseph Bernard, called Gentil-Bernard, Jean Philippe Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two Crebillons, was dissolved, and was not reconstituted till twenty years afterwards. His first and his best comedy, _La Verite dans le vin_, appeared in 1747. Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent comic actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made Colle his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that Colle composed the greater part of his _Theatre de societe_. In 1763 Colle produced at the Theatre Francais _Dupuis et Desronais_, a successful sentimental comedy, which was followed in 1771 by _La Veuve_, which was a complete failure. In 1774 appeared _La Partie de chasse de Henri Quatre_ (partly taken from Dodsley's _King and the Miller of Mansfield_), Colle's last and best play. From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of songs, Colle was writing his _Journal_, a curious collection of literary and personal strictures on his boon companions as well as on their enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpe as on Corneille. Colle died on the 3rd of November 1783. His lyrics are frank and jovial, though often licentious. The subjects are love and wine; occasionally, however, as in the famous lyric (1756) on the capture of Port Mahon, for which the author received a pension of 600 livres, the note of patriotism is struck with no unskilful hand, while in many others Colle shows himself possessed of considerable epigrammatic force.

See also H. Bonhomme's edition (1868) of his _Journal et Memoires_
(1748-1772); Grimm's _Correspondance_; and C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
_Nouveaux lundis_, vol. vii.

COLLECTIVISM, a term used to denote the economic principle of the ownership by a community of all the means of production in order to secure to the people collectively an equitable distribution of the produce of their associated labour. Though often used in a narrow sense to express the economic basis of Socialism, the latter term is so generally employed in the same sense that collectivism is best discussed in connexion with it (see SOCIALISM).

COLLECTOR, a term technically used for various officials, and particularly in India for the chief administrative official of a district. The word was in this case originally a translation of _tahsildar_, and indicates that the special duty of the office is the collection of revenue; but the collector has also magisterial powers and is a species of autocrat within the bounds of his district. The title is confined to the regulation provinces, especially Madras; in the non-regulation provinces the same duties are discharged by the deputy-commissioner (see COMMISSIONER).

COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 16 m. N.W. of Siena. Pop. (1901) town 1987; commune 9879. The old (upper) town (732 ft. above sea-level), contains the cathedral, dating from the 13th century, with a pulpit partly of this period; the facade has been modernized. There are also some old palaces of good architecture, and the old house where Arnolfo di Cambio, the first architect of the cathedral at Florence (1232-1301) was born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the paper and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less important.

COLLEGE (_Collegium_), in Roman law, a number of persons associated together by the possession of common functions,--a body of colleagues. Its later meaning applied to any union of persons, and _collegium_ was the equivalent of [Greek: hetaireia]. In many respects, e.g. in the distinction between the responsibilities and rights of the society and those of individual members thereof, the collegium was what we should now call a corporation (q.v.). Collegia might exist for purposes of trade like the English gilds, or for religious purposes (e.g. the college of augurs, of pontifices, &c.), or for political purposes, e.g. _tribunorum plebis collegia_. By the Roman law a collegium must have at least three members. The name is now usually applied to educational corporations, such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which, in the numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the colleges of Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges are in the eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of the earlier statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spoken of as having an ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common law since the Reformation has been that they are purely lay corporations, notwithstanding that most or all of their members may be persons in priest's orders. This is said to have been settled by Dr Patrick's case (_Raymond's Reports_, p. 101).

Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary association of students and teachers at the university. According to some accounts these must at one time have been numerous and flourishing beyond anything we are now acquainted with. We are told, for example, of 300 halls or societies at Oxford, and 30,000 students. In early times there seems to have been a strong desire to confine the scholars to certain licensed houses beyond the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth and culture, and notably the political bishops and chancellors of England, obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively the places of abode for students attending the university. At the same time the corporations thus founded were not necessarily attached to the locality of the university. The early statutes of Merton College, for example, allow the residence of the college to be shifted as occasion required; and the foundations of Wolsey at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been the same in intention. In later times (until the introduction of non-collegiate students) the university and the colleges became coextensive; every member of the university had to attach himself to some college or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was obliged to matriculate himself in the university.

In Ayliffe's _Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford_ it is stated that a college must be "made up of three persons (at least) joined in community. And the reason of this almost seems to speak its own necessity, without the help of any express law to countenance it: because among two persons only there cannot be, in fact, a major part; and then if any disagreement should happen to arise between them it cannot be, in fact, brought to a conclusion by such a number alone in case both the parties should firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions; and thus it is declared by the civil law. But by the canon law it is known to be otherwise; for by that law two persons in number may make and constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two persons make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The common law of England, or rather the constant usage of our princes in erecting aggregate bodies, which has established this rule among us as a law, has been herein agreeable to the method and doctrine of the civil law, for that in all their grants and charters of incorporation of colleges they have not framed any aggregate body consisting of less than three in number." Another principle, apparently derived from the civil law, is that a man cannot be a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law of England steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of inequality into colleges. An act of 1542, reciting that divers founders of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to individual members, enacts that every statute made by any such founder, whereby the grant or election of the governor or ruler with the assent of the most part of such corporation should be in any wise hindered by any one or more being the lesser number (contrary to the common law), shall be void.

The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and scholars. Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the college, are not considered to be members of the corporation. The governing body in all cases is the head and fellows.

It is considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical or educational character that they should have a Visitor whose duty it is to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed. The duties of this officer have been ascertained by the courts of law in a great variety of decided cases. Subject to such restrictions as may be imposed on him by the statutes of the college, his duties are generally to interpret the statutes of the college in disputed cases, and to enforce them where they have been violated. For this purpose he is empowered to "visit" the society--usually at certain stated intervals. In questions within his jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his jurisdiction does not extend to any cases under the common laws of the country, or to trusts attached to the college. Generally the visitorship resides in the founder and his heirs unless he has otherwise appointed, and in default of him in the crown.

The fellowships, scholarships, &c., of colleges were until a comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions. Birth in a particular county, education at a particular school, relationship to the founder and holy orders, are amongst the most usual of the conditions giving a preferential or conclusive claim to the emoluments. Most of these restrictions have been or are being swept away. (See UNIVERSITIES; OXFORD; CAMBRIDGE; &C.)

The term "college" (like "academy") is also applied to various institutions, e.g. to colleges of physicians and surgeons, and to the electoral college in the United States presidential elections, &c. For the Sacred College see CARDINAL.

COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO (1400-1475), Italian soldier of fortune, was born at Bergamo. While he was still a child his father was attacked and murdered in his castle of Trezzo by Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. After wandering about Italy he entered the service of various _condottieri_, such as Braccio da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of thirty-two he was serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco Maria Gonzaga was commander-in-chief, Colleoni was the life and soul of the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for Venice from the Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the enemy he continued to serve the Venetians under Erasmo da Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco A. Sforza, winning battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda. When peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni went over to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although well treated at first, he soon fell under the suspicion of the treacherous Visconti and was imprisoned at Monza, where he remained until the duke's death in 1447. Milan then fell under the lordship of Sforza, whom Colleoni served for a time, but in 1448 he took leave of Sforza and returned to the Venetians. Disgusted at not having been elected captain-general, he went over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not do without him and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to return, and in 1455 he was appointed captain-general of the republic for life. Although he occasionally fought on his own account, when Venice was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the republic in time of war until his death.

Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian _condottieri_, and although he often changed sides, no act of treachery is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories he passed through to the rapine and exactions practised by other soldiers of fortune. When not fighting he devoted his time to introducing agricultural improvements on the vast estates with which the Venetians had endowed him, and to charitable works. At his death in 1475 he left a large sum to the republic for the Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian statue of himself should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue was made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the famous Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark by way of compromise.

See G. M. Bonomi, _Il Castello di Cavernago e i conti Martinengo
Colleoni_ (Bergamo, 1884); for an account of his wars see S. Romanin,
_Storia documentata di Venezia_, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other
histories of Venice. (L. V.*)

COLLETER (Gr. [Greek: kollos], glue), a botanical term for the gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.

COLLETTA, PIETRO (1775-1831), Neapolitan general and historian, entered the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part in the campaign against the French in 1798. On the entry of the French into Naples and the establishment of the Parthenopean republic (1799) he adhered to the new government, and when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (q.v.) reconquered the city Colletta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned out of the army he became a civil engineer, but when the Bourbons were expelled a second time in 1806 and Joseph Bonaparte seized the throne of Naples, he was reinstated in his rank and served in the expedition against the brigands and rebels of Calabria. In 1812 he was promoted general, and made director of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and fought the Austrians on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration of Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the army, and given command of the Salerno division. At the outbreak of the revolution of 1820 the king called him to his councils, and when the constitution had been granted Colletta was sent to put down the separatist rising in Sicily, which he did with great severity. He fought in the constitutionalist army against the Austrians at Rieti (7th of March 1821), and on the re-establishment of autocracy he was arrested and imprisoned for three months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief of police, his particular enemy. He would have been executed had not the Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead to Brunn in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in Florence, where he spent the rest of his days engaged on his _Storia del reame di Napoli_. He died in 1831. His history (1st ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with the reigns of Charles III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825), is still the standard work for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by the author's bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he does not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of which are based on his recollection of documents seen, but not available at the time of writing. Still, having been an actor in many of the events recorded, he is on the whole accurate and trustworthy.

See Gino Capponi's memoir of him published in the _Storia del reame di
Napoli_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1848). (L. V.*)

COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY (1835-1881), British general, third son of George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan, Co. Kildare, Ireland, and grandson of the fourth Viscount Harberton, was born on the 1st of November 1835, and entered the 2nd Queen's Regiment from Sandhurst as ensign in 1852. From 1854 to 1860 he served in South Africa, and was employed in surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district in Kaffraria. Early in 1860 he went with his regiment to China to join the Anglo-French expedition, and took part in the capture of the Taku forts and the entry into Peking, returning to South Africa to complete his work in Kaffraria (brevet-majority). In 1862 he entered the Staff College and passed out in one year with honours. After serving as brigade-major at Devonport for five years, he went to the War Office in 1870 to assist in the preparation of (Lord) Cardwell's measures of army reform. He was appointed professor of military administration at the Staff College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined Sir Garnet Wolseley at the Gold Coast, where he took charge of the transport, and the success of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to his exertions. He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the C.B. In 1875 he accompanied Wolseley to Natal (C.M.G.). On his return home he was appointed military secretary to Lord Lytton, governor-general of India, and in 1877 private secretary (K.C.S.I.). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as chief of the staff and brigadier-general in S.E. Africa, but, on the murder of Cavagnari at Kabul, returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded Wolseley in S.E. Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was defeated at Laing's Nek and at the Ingogo river, and killed at Majuba Hill on the 27th of February 1881. He had a very high reputation not only for a theoretical knowledge of military affairs, but also as a practical soldier.

See _Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley_ by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F.
Butler (London, 1899).

COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732), English philosopher, was born at the rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 12th of October 1680. He entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July 1697, but in October 1698 he and his brother William became members of Balliol. His father having died in 1697, it was arranged that the family living of Langford Magna should be given to Arthur as soon as he was old enough. He was presented to the benefice in 1704, and held it till his death. His sermons show no traces of his bold theological speculations, and he seems to have been faithful in the discharge of his duty. He was often in pecuniary difficulties, from which at last he was obliged to free himself by selling the reversion of Langford rectory to Corpus Christi College, Oxford. His philosophical opinions grew out of a diligent study of Descartes and Malebranche. John Norris of Bemerton also strongly influenced him by his _Essay on the Ideal World_ (1701-1704). It is remarkable that Collier makes no reference to Locke, and shows no sign of having any knowledge of his works. As early as 1703 he seems to have become convinced of the non-existence of an external world. In 1712 he wrote two essays, which are still in manuscript, one on substance and accident, and the other called _Clavis Philosophica_. His chief work appeared in 1713, under the title _Clavis Universalis_, or a _New Inquiry after Truth_, being a _Demonstration of the Non-Existence or Impossibility of an External World_ (printed privately, Edinburgh, 1836, and reprinted in _Metaphysical Tracts_, 1837, edited by Sam. Parr). It was favourably mentioned by Reid, Stewart and others, was frequently referred to by the Leibnitzians, and was translated into German by von Eschenbach in 1756. Berkeley's _Principles of Knowledge_ and _Theory of Vision_ preceded it by three and four years respectively, but there is no evidence that they were known to Collier before the publication of his book.

His views are grounded on two presuppositions:--first, the utter
aversion of common sense to any theory of representative perception;
second, the opinion which Collier held in common with Berkeley, and
Hume afterwards, that the difference between imagination and sense
perception is only one of degree. The former is the basis of the
negative part of his argument; the latter supplies him with all the
positive account he has to give, and that is meagre enough. The
_Clavis_ consists of two parts. After explaining that he will use the
term "external world" in the sense of absolute, self-existent,
independent matter, he attempts in the first part to prove that the
visible world is not external, by showing--first, that the seeming
externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and
second, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The image of
a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object of sense;
and since the difference between imagination and perception is only
one of degree, God could so act upon the mind of a person imagining a
centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any object can be
seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove the second proposition,
that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first part ends
with a reply to objections based on the universal consent of men, on
the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the visible
world, and on the truth and goodness of God (Descartes), which would
be impugned if our senses deceived us. Collier argues naively that if
universal consent means the consent of those who have considered the
subject, it may be claimed for his view. He thinks with Berkeley that
objects of sight are quite distinct from those of touch, and that the
one therefore cannot give any assurance of the other; and he asks the
Cartesians to consider how far God's truth and goodness are called in
question by their denial of the externality of the secondary
qualities. The second part of the book is taken up with a number of
metaphysical arguments to prove the impossibility of an external
world. The pivot of this part is the logical principle of
contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of
contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite and
infinite, is movable and immovable, &c.; and finally, Aristotle and
various other philosophers are quoted, to show that the external
matter they dealt with, as mere potentiality, is just nothing at all.
Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier thinks it
furnishes an easy refutation of the Romish doctrine of
transubstantiation. If there is no external world, the distinction
between substance and accidents vanishes, and these become the sole
essence of material objects, so that there is no room for any change
whilst they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks that the
logically necessary advance from the old theory of representative
perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle of
the church; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to make
the discovery.

His _Clavis Universalis_ is interesting on account of the resemblance
between its views and those of Berkeley. Both were moved by their
dissatisfaction with the theory of representative perception. Both
have the feeling that it is inconsistent with the common sense of
mankind, which will insist that the very object perceived is the sole
reality. They equally affirm that the so-called representative image
is the sole reality, and discard as unthinkable the unperceiving
material cause of the philosophers. Of objects of sense, they say,
their _esse_ is _percipi_. But Collier never got beyond a bald
assertion of the fact, while Berkeley addressed himself to an
explanation of it. The thought of a distinction between direct and
indirect perception never dawned upon Collier. To the question how all
matter exists in dependence on percipient mind his only reply is,
"Just how my reader pleases, provided it be somehow." As cause of our
sensations and ground of our belief in externality, he substituted for
an unintelligible material substance an equally unintelligible
operation of divine power. His book exhibits no traces of a scientific
development. The most that can be said about him is that he was an
intelligent student of Descartes and Malebranche, and had the ability
to apply the results of his reading to the facts of his experience. In
philosophy he is a curiosity, and nothing more. His biographer
attributes the comparative failure of the _Clavis_ to its inferiority
in point of style, but the crudeness of his thought had quite as much
to do with his failure to gain a hearing. Hamilton (_Discussions_, p.
197) allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the
ground that he did not vainly attempt to enlist men's natural belief
against the hypothetical realism of the philosophers. But Collier did
so as far as his light enabled him. He appealed to the popular
conviction that the proper object of sense is the sole reality,
although he despaired of getting men to give up their belief in its
externality, and asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them
from doing so; and there is little doubt that, if it had ever occurred
to him, as it did to Berkeley, to explain the genesis of the notion of
externality, he would have been more hopeful of commending his theory
to the popular mind.

In theology Collier was an adherent of the High Church party, though
his views were by no means orthodox. In the Jacobite _Mist's Journal_
he attacked Bishop Hoadly's defence of sincere errors. His views on
the problems of Arianism, and his attempt to reconcile it with
orthodox theology, are contained in _A Specimen of True Philosophy_
(1730, reprinted in _Metaphysical Tracts_, 1837) and _Logology, or a
Treatise on the Logos in Seven Sermons on John i. 1, 2, 3, 14_ (1732,
analysed in _Metaph. Tracts_). These may be compared with Berkeley's
_Siris_.

See Robt. Benson, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Arthur Collier_
(1837); Tennemann, _History of Philosophy_; Hamilton, _Discussions_;
A. C. Fraser, edition of _Berkeley's Works_; G. Lyon, "Un Idealiste
anglais au XVIII. siecle," in _Rev. philos._ (1880), x. 375.

COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726), English nonjuring divine, was born at Stow-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire, on the 23rd of September 1650. He was educated at Ipswich free school, over which his father presided, and at Caius College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He acted for a short time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679 to the small rectory of Ampton, near Bury St Edmunds, and in 1685 he was made lecturer of Gray's Inn.

At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in favour of James II. a tract entitled _The Desertion discuss'd in a Letter to a Country Gentleman_ (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet's defence of King William's position. He was released after some months of imprisonment, without trial, by the intervention of his friends. In the two following years he continued to harass the government by his publications: and in 1692 he was again in prison under suspicion of treasonable correspondence with James. His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the court by accepting bail, but he was soon released. But in 1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted the assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the rest of his life continued under sentence of outlawry.

When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and employed his leisure in works which were less political in their tone. In 1697 appeared the first volume of his _Essays on Several Moral Subjects_, to which a second was added in 1705, and a third in 1709. The first series contained six essays, the most notable being that "On the office of a Chaplain," which throws much light on the position of a large section of the clergy at that time. Collier deprecated the extent of the authority assumed by the patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.

In 1698 Collier produced his famous _Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage..._. He dealt with the immodesty of the contemporary stage, supporting his contentions by a long series of references attesting the comparative decency of Latin and Greek drama; with the profane language indulged in by the players; the abuse of the clergy common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by representing the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and finally he supported his general position by the analysis of particular plays, Dryden's _Amphitryon_, Vanbrugh's _Relapse_ and D'Urfey's _Don Quixote_. The Book abounds in hypercriticism, particularly in the imputation of profanity; and in a useless display of learning, neither intrinsically valuable nor conducive to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation of the subject he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in asserting that the decline in public morality was due to the flagrant indecency of the stage. Yet, in the words of Macaulay, who gives an admirable account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists of the Restoration, "when all deductions have been made, great merit must be allowed to the work." Dryden acknowledged, in the preface to his _Fables_, the justice of Collier's strictures, though he protested against the manner of the onslaught;[1] but Congreve made an angry reply; Vanbrugh and others followed. Collier was prepared to meet any number of antagonists, and defended himself in numerous tracts. _The Short View_ was followed by a _Defence_ (1699), a _Second Defence_ (1700), and _Mr Collier's Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to a Person of Quality_ (1703), and a _Further Vindication_ (1708). The fight lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side, and triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the fact that he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that his attack could not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour against the stage.

From 1701 to 1721 Collier was employed on his _Great Historical, Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary_, founded on, and partly translated from, Louis Moreri's _Dictionnaire historique_, and in the compilation and issue of the two volumes folio of his own _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the first planting of Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II_. (1708-1714). The latter work was attacked by Burnet and others, but the author showed himself as keen a controversialist as ever. Many attempts were made to shake his fidelity to the lost cause of the Stuarts, but he continued indomitable to the end. In 1712 George Hickes was the only survivor of the nonjuring bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek Church. He had a long correspondence with the Eastern authorities, his last letters on the subject being written in 1725. Collier preferred the version of the _Book of Common Prayer_ issued in 1549, and regretted that certain practices and petitions there enjoined were omitted in later editions. His first tract on the subject, _Reasons for Restoring some Prayers_ (1717), was followed by others. In 1718 was published a new _Communion Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the first English Reformed Common Prayer Book,..._ which embodied the changes desired by Collier. The controversy that ensued made a split in the nonjuring communion. His last work was a volume of _Practical Discourses_, published in 1725. He died on the 26th of April 1726.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is an excellent account of Collier in A. Kippis's
_Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. (1789), where some sensible
observations by the editor are added to the original biography. A full
list of Collier's writings is given by the Rev. Wm. Hunt in the
article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_. For particulars of
Collier's history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas Lathbury, _A
History of the Nonjurors ..._ (1845). There is an excellent account of
the _Short View_ and the controversy arising from it in A. Beljame's
_Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIIIe siecle_
(2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] "He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes to
battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, 'the zeal of
God's house has eaten him up'; but I am sure it has devoured some
part of his good manners and civility." (Dryden, _Works_, ed. Scott,
xi. 239).

COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789-1883), English Shakespearian critic, was born in London, on the 11th of January 1789. His father, John Dyer Collier (1762-1825), was a successful journalist, and his connexion with the press obtained for his son a position on the _Morning Chronicle_ as leader writer, dramatic critic and reporter, which continued till 1847; he was also for some time a reporter for _The Times_. He was summoned before the House of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a speech by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but was not called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due to his indiscretion in publishing the _Criticisms on the Bar_ (1819) by "Amicus Curiae." His leisure was given to the study of Shakespeare and the early English drama. After some minor publications he produced in 1825-1827 a new edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_, and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled _Five Old Plays_. In 1831 appeared his _History of English Dramatic Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration_, a badly arranged, but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the chief collections of early English literature throughout the kingdom, especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House. These opportunities were unhappily misused to effect a series of literary fabrications, which may be charitably, and perhaps not unjustly, attributed to literary monomania, but of which it is difficult to speak with patience, so completely did they for a long time bewilder the chronology of Shakespeare's writings, and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS. evidence in general. After _New Facts_, _New Particulars_ and _Further Particulars_ respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster, Collier produced (1852) the famous _Perkins Folio_, a copy of the second folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-page. On this book were numerous MS. emendations of Shakespeare said by Collier to be from the hand of "an old corrector." He published these corrections as _Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare_ (1852), and boldly incorporated them in his edition (1853) of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was disputed by S. W. Singer in _The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated_ (1853) and by E. A. Brae in _Literary Cookery_ (1855) on internal evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum, the emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of modern date. Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in his _Inquiry_ (1860). The point whether he was deceiver or deceived was left undecided, but the falsifications of which he was unquestionably guilty among the MSS. at Dulwich College have left little doubt respecting it. He had produced the _Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_ for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. He followed up this volume with the _Alleyn Papers_ (1843) and the _Diary of P. Henslowe_ (1845). He forged the name of Shakespeare in a genuine letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries in Alleyn's _Diary_ were proved to be by Collier's hand when the sale of his library in 1884 gave access to a transcript he had made of the _Diary_ with interlineations corresponding with the Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be accepted without verification, and no manuscript he has handled without careful examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a valuable _Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language_ (1865); he reprinted a great number of early English tracts of extreme rarity, and rendered good service to the numerous antiquarian societies with which he was connected, especially in the editions he produced for the Camden Society and the Percy Society. His _Old Man's Diary_ (1871-1872) is an interesting record, though even here the taint of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately what he did amiss is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright, and he will be chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maidenhead, where he had long resided, on the 17th of September 1883.

For an account of the discussion raised by Collier's emendations see
C.M. Ingleby, _Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy_ (1861).

COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON (1771-1811), Austrian dramatist, was born in Vienna, on the 26th of December 1771. He received a legal education and entered the Austrian ministry of finance where he found speedy promotion. In 1805 and in 1809, when Austria was under the heel of Napoleon, Collin was entrusted with important political missions. In 1803 he was, together with other members of his family, ennobled, and in 1809 made _Hofrat_. He died on the 28th of July 1811. His tragedy _Regulus_ (1801), written in strict classical form, was received with enthusiasm in Vienna, where literary taste, less advanced than that of North Germany, was still under the ban of French classicism. But in his later dramas, _Coriolan_ (1804), _Polyxena_ (1804), _Balboa_ (1806), _Bianca della Porta_ (1808), he made some attempt to reconcile the pseudo-classic type of tragedy with that of Shakespeare and the German romanticists. As a lyric poet (_Gedichte_, collected 1812), Collin has left a collection of stirring _Wehrmannslieder_ for the fighters in the cause of Austrian freedom, as well as some excellent ballads (_Kaiser Max auf der Martinswand_, _Herzog Leupold vor Solothurn_). His younger brother Matthaus von Collin (1779-1824), was, as editor of the _Wiener Jahrbucher fur Literatur_, an even more potent force in the literary life of Vienna. He was, moreover, in sympathy with the Romantic movement, and intimate with its leaders. His dramas on themes from Austrian national history (_Belas Krieg mit dem Vater_, 1808, _Der Tod Friedrichs des Streitbaren_, 1813) may be regarded as the immediate precursors of Grillparzer's historical tragedies.

His _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 6 vols. (1812-1814); he is the
subject of an excellent monograph by F. Laban (1879). See also A.
Hauffen, _Das Drama der klassischen Periode_, ii. 2 (1891), where a
reprint of _Regulus_ will be found. M. von Collin's _Dramatische
Dichtungen_ were published in 4 vols. (1815-1817); his _Nachgelassene
Schriften_, edited by J. von Hammer, in 2 vols. (1827). A study of his
life and work by J. Wihan will be found in _Euphorion_,
Erganzungsheft, v. (1901).

COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANCOIS (1755-1806), French dramatist, was born at Mevoisins, near Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire), on the 30th of May 1755. His first dramatic success was _L'Inconstant_, a comedy accepted by the Comedie Francaise in 1780, but not produced there until six years later, though it was played elsewhere in 1784. This was followed by _L'Optimiste, ou l'homme toujours content_ (1788), and _Chateaux en Espagne_ (1789). His best play, _Le Vieux Celibataire_, appeared in 1793. Among his other plays are--the one-act comedy _Monsieur de Crac dans son petit castel_ (1791), _Les Artistes_ (1796), _Les Moeurs du jour_ (1800) and _Malice pour malice_ (1803). Collin was one of the original members of the Institute of France, and died in Paris on the 24th of February 1806.

The 1822 edition of his _Theatre et poesies fugitives_ contains a
notice by his friend the dramatist Andrieux. His _Theatre_ was also
edited by L. Moland in 1876; and by Edouard Thierry in 1882.

COLLING, ROBERT (1749-1820), and CHARLES (1751-1836), English stock breeders, famous for their improvement of the Shorthorn breed of cattle, were the sons of Charles Colling, a farmer of Ketton near Darlington. Their lives are closely connected with the history of the Shorthorn breed. Of the two brothers, Charles is probably the better known, and it was his visit to the farm of Robert Bakewell at Dishley that first led the brothers to realize the possibilities of scientific cattle breeding. Charles succeeded to his father's farm at Ketton. Robert, after being first apprenticed to a grocer in Shields, took a farm at Barmpton. An animal which he bought at Charles's advice for L8 and afterwards sold to his brother, became known as the celebrated "Hubback," a bull which formed the basis of both the Ketton and Barmpton herds. The two brothers pursued the same system of "in and in" breeding which they had learned from Bakewell, and both the Ketton and the Barmpton herds were sold by auction in the autumn of 1810. The former with 47 lots brought L7116, and the latter with 61 lots L7852. Robert Colling died unmarried at Barmpton on the 7th of March 1820, leaving his property to his brother. Charles Colling, who is remembered as the owner of the famous bulls "Hubback," "Favourite" and "Comet," was more of a specialist and a business man than his brother. He died on the 16th of January 1836.

See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899, for a
biographical sketch of the brothers Colling, by C. J. Bates.

COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, BARON (1750-1810), British naval commander, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, on the 26th of September 1750. He was early sent to school; and when only eleven years of age he was put on board the "Shannon," then under the command of Captain (afterwards Admiral) Brathwaite, a relative of his own, to whose care and attention he was in a great measure indebted for that nautical knowledge which shone forth so conspicuously in his subsequent career. After serving under Captain Brathwaite for some years, and also under Admiral Roddam, he went in 1774 to Boston with Admiral Graves, and served in the naval brigade at the battle of Bunker Hill (17th of June 1775), where he gained his lieutenancy. In 1779 he was made commander of the "Badger," and shortly afterwards post-captain of the "Hinchinbroke," a small frigate. In the spring of 1780 that vessel, under the command of Nelson, was employed upon an expedition to the Spanish Main, where it was proposed to pass into the Pacific by navigating boats along the river San Juan and the lakes Nicaragua and Leon. The attempt failed, and most of those engaged in it became victims to the deadly influence of the climate. Nelson was promoted to a larger vessel, and Collingwood succeeded him in the command. It is a fact worthy of record that the latter succeeded the former very frequently from the time when they first became acquainted, until the star of Nelson set at Trafalgar--giving place to that of Collingwood, less brilliant certainly, but not less steady in its lustre.

After commanding in another small frigate, Collingwood was promoted to the "Sampson" (64); and in 1783 he was appointed to the "Mediator," destined for the West Indies, where, with Nelson, who had a command on that station, he remained till the end of 1786. With Nelson he warmly co-operated in carrying into execution the provisions of the navigation laws, which had been infringed by the United States, whose ships, notwithstanding the separation of the countries, continued to trade to the West Indies, although that privilege was by law exclusively confined to British vessels. In 1786 Collingwood returned to England, where, with the exception of a voyage to the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in which year he was appointed captain of the "Prince," the flag-ship of Rear-Admiral Bowyer. About two years previous to this event he had married Miss Sarah Roddam--a fortunate alliance, which continued to be a solace to him amidst the privations to which the life of a seaman must ever be subject.

As captain of the "Barfleur," Collingwood was present at the naval engagement which was fought on the 1st of June 1794; and on that occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage. On board the "Excellent" he shared in the victory of the 14th of February 1797, when Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent) humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent. His conduct in this engagement was the theme of universal admiration throughout the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a naval officer. After blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a few weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1799 Collingwood was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and hoisting his flag in the "Triumph," he joined the Channel Fleet, with which he proceeded to the Mediterranean, where the principal naval forces of France and Spain were assembled. Collingwood continued actively employed in watching the enemy, until the peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of his family.

The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished, was cut short by the recommencement of hostilities with France, and in the spring of 1803 he quitted the home to which he was never again to return. The duty upon which he was employed was that of watching the French fleet off Brest, and in the discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied vigilance. Nearly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon had at length matured his plans and equipped his armament, and the grand struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe and the dominion of the sea was close at hand. The enemy's fleet having sailed from Toulon, Admiral Collingwood was appointed to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after spreading terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who had only three vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding the pursuit, although chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere one-half of the enemy had entered the harbour he drew up before it and resumed the blockade, at the same time employing an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority of his force. But the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit Cadiz; and the battle of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant conduct of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the form of a crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship being about a cable's length to windward of her second, both ahead and astern. The British fleet bore down upon this formidable and skilfully arranged armament in two separate lines, the one led by Nelson in the "Victory," and the other by Collingwood in the "Royal Sovereign." The latter vessel was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the rest of the fleet, was the first engaged. "See," said Nelson, pointing to the "Royal Sovereign" as she penetrated the centre of the enemy's line, "see how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!" Probably it was at the same instant that Collingwood, as if in response to the observation of his great commander, remarked to his captain, "What would Nelson give to be here?" The consummate valour and skill evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon both fleets. It was with the Spanish admiral's ship that the "Royal Sovereign" closed; and with such rapidity and precision did she pour in her broadsides upon the "Santa Anna," that the latter was on the eve of striking in the midst of thirty-three sail of the line, and almost before another British ship had fired a gun. Several other vessels, however, seeing the imminent peril of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her assistance, and hemmed in the "Royal Sovereign" on all sides; but the latter, after suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the rest of the British squadron; and not long afterwards the "Santa Anna" struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the death of Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command; and by his skill and judgment greatly contributed to the preservation of the British ships, as well as of those which were captured from the enemy. He was raised to the peerage as Baron Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of L2000 per annum.

From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great naval action was fought; but he was much occupied in important political transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and judgment. Being appointed to the command of the Mediterranean fleet, he continued to cruise about, keeping a watchful eye upon the movements of the enemy. His health, however, which had begun to decline previously to the action of Trafalgar in 1805, seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly requested government to be relieved of his command, that he might return home; but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has been regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity which he displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the government; and the high estimation in which he was held is proved by the circumstance that among the many able admirals, equal in rank and duration of service, none stood so prominently forward as to command the confidence of ministers and of the country to the same extent as he did. After many fruitless attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall in with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the "Ville de Paris," then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.

Lord Collingwood's merits as a naval officer were in every respect of the first order. In original genius and romantic daring he was inferior to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age fertile in great commanders. In seamanship, in general talent, and in reasoning upon the probability of events from a number of conflicting and ambiguous statements, Collingwood was equal to the hero of the Nile; indeed, many who were familiar with both give him the palm of superiority. His political penetration was remarkable; and so high was the opinion generally entertained of his judgment, that he was consulted in all quarters, and on all occasions, upon questions of general policy, of regulation, and even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and generosity; his acts of charity were frequent and bountiful, and the petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an enemy to impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his crew, that he obtained amongst them the honourable name of father. Between Nelson and Collingwood a close intimacy subsisted, from their first acquaintance in early life till the fall of the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side by side in the cathedral of St Paul's.

The selections from the public and private correspondence of Lord
Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1828, contain some of the
best specimens of letter-writing in the language. See also _A Fine Old
English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character of Lord
Collingwood, a Biographical Study_, by William Davies (London, 1875).

COLLINGWOOD, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, suburban to Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river. Pop. (1901) 32,766. It was the first town in Victoria incorporated after Melbourne and Geelong. It is esteemed one of the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.

COLLINGWOOD, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada, 90 m. N.N.W. of Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 5755. It is the eastern terminus of two lines of steamers for the ports of Lakes Huron and Superior. It contains a large stone dry-dock and shipyard, pork factory, and saw and planing mills, and has a large lumber, grain and produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and steel works.

COLLINS, ANTHONY (1676-1729), English deist, was born at Heston, near Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 21st of June 1676. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, and was for some time a student at the Middle Temple. The most interesting episode of his life was his intimacy with Locke, who in his letters speaks of him with affection and admiration. In 1715 he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of justice of the peace and deputy-lieutenant, which he had before held in Middlesex. He died at his house in Harley Street, London, on the 13th of December 1729.

His writings are important as gathering together the results of previous English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of his style is in striking contrast to the violence of his opponents; and it must be remembered that, in spite of his unorthodoxy, he was not an atheist or even an agnostic. In his own words, "Ignorance is the foundation of atheism, and freethinking the cure of it" (_Discourse of Freethinking_, 105).