Chapter XIV: Part 14

_Geology._--The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and it
is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is
possible to form any clear idea of the geological structure and
succession. The oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, together with
granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by sandstones,
slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyrites
sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and
conglomerates. Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this
series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be
represented. Coal-bearing beds, possibly of Tertiary age, occur in
Antioquia and elsewhere. Structurally, the four main chains of
Colombia differ considerably from one another in geological
constitution. The low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast,
are covered by soft Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells
of extant species, such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The
Western Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Western
Cordillera of Ecuador, and, like the latter, to judge from the
scattered observations which are all that are available, consists
chiefly of sandstones and porphyritic rocks of the Cretaceous series.
Between the Western and the Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal
depression along which the river Cauca finds its way towards the sea.
On the western side of this depression there are red sandstones with
coal-seams, possibly Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist
chiefly of ancient crystalline and schistose rocks. The Central
Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of
Ecuador, and is formed chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks,
but sedimentary deposits of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the
Eastern branch, known as the Cordillera of Bogota, is composed almost
entirely of Cretaceous beds thrown into a series of regular
anticlinals and synclinals similar to those of the Jura Mountains. The
older rocks occasionally appear in the centre of the anticlinals. In
all these branches of the Andes the folds run approximately in the
direction of the chains, but the Sierra de Santa Marta appears to
belong to a totally distinct system of folding, the direction of the
folds being from west to east, bending gradually towards the
south-east. Although volcanoes are by no means absent, they are much
less important than in Ecuador, and their products take a far smaller
share in the formation of the Andes. In Ecuador the depression between
the Eastern and Western Cordilleras is almost entirely filled with
modern lavas and agglomerates; in Colombia the corresponding Cauca
depression is almost free from such deposits. In the Central
Cordillera volcanoes extend to about 5 deg. N.; in the Western Cordillera
they barely enter within the limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of
Bogota they are entirely absent.[1]

_Climate._--Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia,
high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except where
modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean current
which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus and summits
of the Andes are responsible, however, for many important and profound
modifications in climate, not only in respect to the lower
temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect to the
higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the varying
climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains. The republic lies
almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a comparatively small part
of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond the equator into the
south torrid zone. The great Andean barrier which crosses the republic
from the south to north acts as a condenser to the prevailing easterly
winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very heavy rainfall on their
eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon plain. High temperatures
as well as excessive humidity prevail throughout this region. Farther
north, on the open llanos of the Orinoco tributaries, the year is
divided into equal parts, an alternating wet and dry season, the sun
temperatures being high followed by cool nights, and the temperatures
of the rainy season being even higher. The rainfall is heavy in the
wet season, causing many of the rivers to spread over extensive areas,
but in the dry season the inundated plains become dry, the large
rivers fed by the snows and rainfall of the Andes return within their
banks, the shallow lagoons and smaller streams dry up, vegetation
disappears, and the level plain becomes a desert. The northern plains
of the republic are swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the
mountain barriers exercise a strongly modifying influence. The low
ridges of the Sierra de Perija do not wholly shut out these
moisture-laden winds, but they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern
slopes, and create a dry area on their western flanks, of which the
Vale of Upar is an example. The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a
comparatively unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked
by the Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Baudo,
where a heavy precipitation follows. Farther south the coast ranges
cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite
as uninhabitable because of rain and heat as are the coasts of
southern Chile through rain and cold. The rainfall on this coast is
said to average 73 in., though it is much higher at certain points and
in the Atrato Valley. As a result the coastal plain is covered with
swamps and tangled forests, and is extremely unhealthy, except at a
few favoured points on the coast. High temperatures prevail throughout
the greater part of the Magdalena and Cauca valleys, because the
mountain ranges which enclose them shut out the prevailing winds. At
Honda, on the Magdalena, 664 ft. above sea-level, the mean temperature
for the year is 82 deg. F., and the mercury frequently rises to 102
deg. in the shade. These lowland plains and valleys comprise the
climatic tropical zone of Colombia, which is characterized by high
temperatures, and by excessive humidity and dense forests, an
exception to the last-named characteristic being the open llanos where
dry summers prevail. Above this tropical zone in the mountainous
regions are to be found all the varying gradations of climate which we
are accustomed to associate with changes in latitude. There are the
subtropical districts of the valleys and slopes between 1500 and 7500
ft. elevation, which include some of the most fertile and productive
areas in Colombia; the temperate districts between 7500 and 10,000
ft., the cold, bleak and inhospitable _paramos_ between 10,000 and
15,000 ft., and above these the arctic wastes of ice and snow. The
temperate and subtropical regions cover the greater part of the
departments traversed by the Eastern Cordillera, the northern end of
the Central Cordillera, the Santa Marta plateaus, and the Upper Cauca
Valley. They include the larger part of the white population and the
chief productive industries of the country. There is no satisfactory
record of temperatures and rainfall in these widely different climatic
zones from which correct averages can be drawn and compared.
Observations have been made and recorded at Bogota and at some other
large towns, but for the greater part of the country we have only
fragmentary reports. The mean annual temperature on the eastern
plains, so far as known, ranges from 87 deg. F. on the forested slopes
to 90 deg. and 91 deg. on the llanos of the Meta and Arauca. On the
Caribbean coastal plain it ranges from 80 deg. to 84 deg., but at
Tumaco, on the Pacific coast, within two degrees of the equator, it is
only 79 deg.. At Medellin, in the mountainous region of Antioquia,
4950 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature is 70 deg., and
the yearly rainfall 55 in., while at Bogota, 8563 ft., the former is
57 deg. and the latter 44 in. At Tuquerres, near the frontier of
Ecuador, 10,200 ft. elevation, the mean annual temperature is said to
be 55 deg.. The changes of seasons are no less complicated and
confusing. A considerable part of the republic is covered by the
equatorial belt of calms, whose oscillations divide the year into a
wet and dry season. This division is modified, however, by the
location of mountain ranges and by elevation. In the Amazon region
there is no great change during the year, and on the northern plains
the so-called dry season is one of light rains except where mountain
ranges break the sweep of the north-east trades. The alternating wet
and dry seasons are likewise to be found on the Pacific coastal plain,
though this region is not entirely dry and vegetation never dries up
as on the _llanos_. Above the lowland plains the seasons vary in
character according to geographical position and elevation. The
two-season division rules in the departments of Santander and
Antioquia, but without the extremes of humidity and aridity
characteristic of the eastern plains. Farther south, at elevations
between 800 and 9500 ft., the year is divided into four distinct
seasons--two wet and two dry--the former called _inviernos_ (winters)
and the latter _veranos_ (summers). These seasons are governed by the
apparent movements of the sun, the winters occurring at the equinoxes
and the summers at the solstices. The _sabana_ of Bogota and
neighbouring districts are subject to these changes of season. At
higher altitudes long, cold, wet winters are experienced, with so
short and cold a summer between them that the bleak _paramos_ are
left uninhabited except by a few shepherds in the short dry season.

_Fauna._--The geographical position of Colombia gives to it a fauna
and flora largely characteristic of the great tropical region of the
Amazon on the south-east, and of the mountainous regions of Central
America on the north-west. At the same time it is rich in animal and
plant types of its own, especially the latter, and is considered one
of the best fields in South America for the student and collector. The
fauna is essentially tropical, though a few species characteristic of
colder regions are to be found in the higher Andes. Of the Quadrumana
there are at least seventeen distinct species, and this number may be
increased after a thorough exploration of the forested eastern plains.
They are all arboreal in habit, and are to be found throughout the
forested lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The carnivora are
represented by seven or eight species of the Felidae, the largest of
which are the puma (_Felis concolor_) and the jaguar (_F. onca_).
These animals, together with the smaller ocelot, have a wide
geographical range, and are very numerous in the valley of the
Magdalena. Two species of bear and the "coati" (_Nasua_) represent the
plantigrades and inhabit the mountain slopes, and, of Pachydermata,
the peccary (_Dicotyles_) and "danta" or tapir (_Tapirus_) have a wide
distribution throughout the lowland and lower plateau forests. The
Colombian tapir is known as the _Tapirus Roulini_, and is slightly
smaller than the Brazilian species (_T. americanus_). There are deer
in the forests and on the open savannahs, the rabbit and squirrel are
to be seen on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and partly amphibious
rodents, the "capybara" (_Hydrochoerus_) and "guagua" (_Coelogenys
subniger_), are very numerous along the wooded watercourses. The
sloth, armadillo, opossum, skunk and a species of fox complete the
list of the more common quadrupeds so far as known, though it is
certain that a careful biological survey would discover many others.
The large rivers of Colombia and the lakes of the lowlands are filled
with alligators, turtles, and fish, and several species of fish are
highly esteemed by the natives as food. The saurians are represented
on land by several species of lizard, some of them conspicuous for
their brilliant colouring, and by the large "iguana," whose flesh is
considered a great delicacy. Among the ophidians, which include many
harmless species, are the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, the dreaded
_Lachesis_ and the coral snake. The "manatee" (_Manatus americanus_)
is found in the Atrato and other large Colombian rivers.

In bird and insect life Colombia is second only to Brazil. The condor,
which inhabits the higher Cordilleras, is peculiar to the whole Andean
region, and is the largest of the Raptores. Among other members of
this order are the eagle, osprey, vulture, buzzard, kite and hawk,
with about a dozen species in all. Parrots and paroquets are numerous
everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions, as also the
gorgeously coloured macaw and awkward toucan. The largest class,
perhaps, is that formed by the astonishing number of water-fowl which
throng the shallow lagoons and river beaches at certain seasons of the
year. They are mostly migratory in habit, and are to be found in many
other countries. Among these are the large white crane and small
crane, the blue heron, the snowy-white egret, the roseate spoonbill
(_Platalea ajaja_), stork, bittern and many species of ducks. The
largest and most conspicuous member of this interesting family is the
_Mycteria americana_, the gigantic stork so frequently seen in the
Amazon valley, and even more numerous about the lagoons of northern
Colombia. One of the best game-birds of the forest is the "crested
curassow" (_Crax alector_), sometimes weighing 12lb, which feeds on
arboreal fruits and rarely comes to the ground. Colombia also
possesses many species of the beautiful little humming-bird, among
which are the tiny _Steganura Underwoodi_ and the sword-bill,
_Docimastes ensiferus_, which were found by Mr Albert Millican on a
bleak _paramo_ 12,000 ft. above sea-level. One of the most interesting
birds found in the country is the "weaver-bird" (_Cassicus persicus_),
which lives in colonies and suspends its long, pouch-like nest from
the end of a horizontal branch of some high, isolated tree. In regard
to insects, what has been said of Brazil will apply very closely to
Colombia. Mosquitoes, butterflies, spiders, beetles and ants are
infinitely numerous, and some of the species are indescribably
troublesome.

_Flora._--The Colombian flora is richer in species and individual
characteristics than the fauna, owing in part to its greater
dependence on climatic conditions. It ranges from the purely tropical
types of the lowlands to the Alpine species of the more elevated
_paramos_. It should be remembered, however, that large areas of the
lowland plains have only a very limited arboreal growth. These plains
include the extensive llanos of the Orinoco tributaries where coarse,
hardy grasses and occasional clumps of palms are almost the only
vegetation to be seen. There are other open plains in northern
Colombia, sometimes covered with a shrubby growth, and the "mesas"
(flat-topped mountains) and plateaus of the Cordilleras are frequently
bare of trees. Farther up, on the cold, bleak _paramos_, only stunted
and hardy trees are to be found. On the other hand, a luxuriant forest
growth covers a very large part of the republic, including the
southern plains of the Amazon tributaries, the foothills, slopes and
valleys of the Cordilleras, a larger part of the northern plains, and
the whole surface of the Western Cordillera and coast. The most
conspicuous and perhaps the most universal type in all these regions,
below an approximate elevation of 10,000 ft., is the palm, whose
varieties and uses are incredibly numerous. On the eastern plains are
to be found the "miriti" (_Mauritia flexuosa_) and the "pirijao" or
peach palm (_Guilielma speciosa_), called the "pupunha" on the Amazon,
whose fruit, fibre, leaf, sap, pith and wood meet so large a part of
the primary needs of the aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern
Andean slopes is the "corneto" (_Deckeria_), whose tall, slender trunk
starts from the apex of a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6
to 8 ft. above the ground. It is one of the most fruitful of palms,
its clusters weighing from 120 to 200 lb each. Extensive groves of the
coco-nut palm are to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and
fibre of which figure among the national exports. In north-eastern
Colombia, where a part of the year is dry, the "curuas" form the
prevailing species, but farther south, on the slopes of the
Cordilleras up to an elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or "palma
de cera" (_Ceroxylon andicola_), is said to be the most numerous. It
is a tall slender palm, and is the source of the vegetable wax so
largely used in some parts of the country in the manufacture of
matches, a single stem sometimes yielding 16-20 lb. Another widely
distributed species in central Colombia is known as the "palmita del
Azufral" in some localities, and as the "palma real" and "palma dolce"
in others. Humboldt says it is not the "palma real" of Cuba (_Oreodoxa
regia_), but in the Rio Sinu region is the _Cocos butyracea_, or the
"palma dolce," from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much
economic importance in Colombia is the "tagua" (_Phytelephas
macrocarpa_), which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Magdalena,
Atrato and Patia, and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in which are
found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known in the
commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian "Panama hat" is
made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-shaped leaves
of still another species of palm, _Carludovica palmata_, while in the
Rio Sinu region the natives make a kind of butter ("manteca de
Corozo") from the _Elaeis melanococca_, Mart., by peeling the nuts in
water and then purifying the oil extracted in this way by boiling.
This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes. The forests are
never made up wholly of palms, but are composed of trees of widely
different characters, including many common to the Amazon region,
together with others found in Central American forests, such as
mahogany and "vera" or lignum vitae (_Zygophyllum arboreum_).
Brazilwood (_Caesalpinia echinata_), valuable for its timber and
colouring extract, and "roco" (_Bixa orellana_), the "urucu" of Brazil
which furnishes the anatto of commerce, are widely distributed in
central and southern Colombia, and another species of the first-named
genus, the _C. coariaria_, produces the "divi-divi" of the Colombian
export trade--a peculiarly shaped seed-pod, rich in tannic and gallic
acids, and used for tanning leather. The rubber-producing _Hevea
guayanensis_ is found in abundance on the Amazon tributaries, and the
_Castilloa elastica_ is common to all the Caribbean river valleys.
Southern Colombia, especially the eastern slopes of the Andes,
produces another valuable tree, the _Cinchona calisaya_, from the bark
of which quinine is made. These are but a few of the valuable cabinet
woods, dye-woods, &c., which are to be found in the forests, but have
hardly been reached by commerce because of their inaccessibility and
the unsettled state of the country. The adventurous orchid-hunter,
however, has penetrated deeply into their recesses in search of choice
varieties, and collectors of these valuable plants are largely
indebted to Colombia for their specimens of _Cattleya Mendelli_,
_Warscewiczii_ and _Trianae_; _Dowiana aurea_; _Odontoglossum
crispum_, _Pescatorei_, _vexillarium_, _odoratum_, _coronarium_,
_Harryanum_, and _blandum_; _Miltonia vexillaria_; _Oncidium
carthaginense_ and _Kramerianum_; _Masdevalliae_, _Epidendra_,
_Schomburgkiae_ and many others. Colombia is also the home of the
American "Alpine rose" (_Befaria_), which is to be found between 9000
and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of 5-6 ft. Tree ferns
have a remarkable growth in many localities, their stems being used in
southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy roads. The South American
bamboo (_Bambusa guadia_) has a very wide range, and is found nearly
up to the limit of perpetual snow. The cactus is also widely
distributed, and is represented by several well-known species. Among
the more common fruit-trees, some of which are exotics, may be
mentioned cacao (_Theobroma_), orange, lemon, lime, pine-apple,
banana, guava (_Psidium_), breadfruit (_Artocarpus_), cashew
(_Anacardium_), alligator pear (_Persea_), with the apple, peach,
pear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated plateaus.
Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco, sugar-cane,
cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or "yucca," sweet and white potatoes,
wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables of both tropical and
temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a species of wild
potato found on the _paramos_ is the parent of the cultivated potato.

_Population._--The number of the population of Colombia is very largely a matter of speculation. A census was taken in 1871, when the population was 2,951,323. What the vegetative increase has been since then (for there has been no immigration) is purely conjectural, as there are no available returns of births and deaths upon which an estimate can be based. Civil war has caused a large loss of life, and the withdrawal from their homes of a considerable part of the male population, some of them for military service and a greater number going into concealment to escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been small. Some statistical authorities have adopted 1-1/2% as the rate, but this is too high for such a period. All things considered, an annual increase of 1% for the thirty-five years between 1871 and 1906 would seem to be more nearly correct, which would give a population in the latter year--exclusive of the population of Panama--of a little over 3,800,000. The _Statesman's Year Book_ for 1907 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905, including about 150,000 wild Indians, while Supan's _Die Bevolkerung der Erde_ (1904) places it at 3,917,000 in 1899. Of the total only 10% is classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as _mestizos_ (white and Indian mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with the other two races. The large proportion of mestizos, if these percentages are correct, is significant because it implies a persistence of type that may largely determine the character of Colombia's future population, unless the more slowly increasing white element can be reinforced by immigration.

The white contingent in the population of Colombia is chiefly composed of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled there during the three centuries following its discovery and conquest. Mining enterprises and climate drew them into the highlands of the interior, and there they have remained down to the present day, their only settlements on the hot, unhealthy coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and political intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language, manners and physical characteristics of these early colonists with less variation than in any other Spanish-American state. They form an intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all the defects and virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has made them ignorant to some extent of the world's progress, while a supersensitive patriotism blinds them to the discredit and disorganization which political strife and misrule have brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white element consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified with the fortunes of the country. The native whites form the governing class, and enjoy most of the powers and privileges of political office.

Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered tribes in the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized requirements, and a much larger number who live in organized communities and have adopted the language, customs and habits of the dominant race. Their total number is estimated at 15% of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the 120,000 to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispanicized and still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude being that of a conquered race submitting to the customs and demands of a social organization of which they form no part. According to Uricoechea there are at least twenty-seven native languages spoken in the western part of Colombia, fourteen in Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caqueta, twelve in Panama, Bolivar and Magdalena, ten in Bogota and Cundinamarca, and thirty-four in the region of the Meta, while twelve had died out during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean seaboard, from Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the great Carib stock; those of the eastern plains show affinities with the neighbouring Brazilian races; those of the elevated Tuquerres district are of the Peruvian type; and the tribes of Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva preserve characteristics more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any other race. At the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of these tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the tablelands of Bogota and Tunja, and had attained a considerable degree of civilization. They lived in settled communities, cultivated the soil to some extent, and ascribed their progress toward civilization to a legendary cause remarkably similar to those of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. They are represented by some tribes living on the head-waters of the Meta, and their blood flows in the veins of the _mestizos_ of the Bogota plateau. Their ancient language has been partly preserved through the labours of Gonzalo Bermudez, Jose Dadei, Bernardo de Lugo, and Ezequiel Uricoechea, the last having made it the subject of a special study. According to this author the Chibchas were composed of three loosely united nationalities governed by three independent chiefs--the _Zipa_ of Muequeta (the present Funza), the _Zaque_ of Hunsa (now Tunja), and the _Jeque_ of Iraca, who was regarded as the successor of the god Nemterequeteba, whom they worshipped as the author of their civilization. The latter had his residence at Suamoz, or Sogamoso.

The Tayronas, of the Santa Marta highlands, who have totally disappeared, were also remarkable for the progress which they had made toward civilization. Evidence of this is to be found in the excellent roads which they constructed, and in the skilfully made gold ornaments which have been found in the district which they occupied, as well as in the contemporary accounts of them by their conquerors. Among the tribes which are still living in a savage state are the Mesayas, Caquetas, Mocoas, Amarizanos, Guipanabis and Andaquies of the unsettled eastern territories; the Goajiros, Motilones, Guainetas, and Cocinas of the Rio Hacha, Upar and Santa Marta districts; and the Dariens, Cunacunas, and Chocos of the Atrato basin. These tribes have successfully resisted all efforts to bring them under political and ecclesiastical control, and their subjection is still a matter of no small concern to the Colombian government. As late as the year 1900 Mr Albert Millican, while collecting orchids on the Opon river, a tributary of the Magdalena between Bogota and the Caribbean coast, was attacked by hostile Indians, and one of his companions was killed by a poisoned arrow. These hostile tribes are usually too small to make much trouble, but they are able to make exploration and settlement decidedly dangerous in some districts.

The _mestizos_, like the whites and Indians, chiefly inhabit the more elevated regions of the interior. They are of a sturdy, patient type, like their Indian ancestors, and are sufficiently industrious to carry on many of the small industries and occupations, and to meet the labour requirements of the inhabited plateau districts. Those of the urban middle classes are shopkeepers and artizans, and those of the lower class are domestics and day labourers. The whites of Spanish descent object to manual labour, and this places all such occupations in the hands of the coloured races. In the country the _mestizos_ are small agriculturists, herders, labourers and fishermen; but there are many educated and successful merchants and professional men among them. There are no social barriers in their intercourse with the whites, nor race barriers against those who have political aspirations. The negroes of pure blood are to be found principally on the coastal plains and in the great lowland river valleys, where they live in great part on the bounties of nature. A small percentage of them are engaged in trade and other occupations; a few are small agriculturists.

Bogota was reputed to be a centre of learning in colonial times, but there was no great breadth and depth to it, and it produced nothing of real value. By nature the Spanish-American loves art and literature, and the poetic faculty is developed in him to a degree rarely found among the Teutonic races. Writing and reciting poetry are universal, and fill as important a place in social life as instrumental music. In Colombia, as elsewhere, much attention has been given to belles-lettres among the whites of Spanish descent, but as yet the republic has practically nothing of a permanent character to show for it. The natural sciences attracted attention very early through the labours of Jose Celestino Mutis, who was followed by a number of writers of local repute, such as Zea, Cabal, Caldas, Pombo, Cespedes, Camacho and Lozano. We are indebted to Humboldt for our earliest geographical descriptions of the northern part of the continent, but to the Italian, Augustin Codazzi, who became a Colombian after the War of Independence, Colombia is indebted for the first systematic exploration of her territory. Geographical description has had a peculiar fascination for Colombian writers, and there have been a number of books issued since the appearance of Codazzi's _Resumen_ and _Atlas_. Historical writing has also received much attention, beginning with the early work of Jose Manuel Restrepo (1827), and a considerable number of histories, compendiums and memoirs have been published, but none of real importance. Some good work has been done in ethnography and archaeology by some writers of the colonial period, and by Ezequiel Uricoechea and Ernesto Restrepo.

_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--Previously to 1903 the republic was divided into nine departments, which were then reduced to eight by the secession of Panama. This division of the national territory was modified in 1905, by creating seven additional departments from detached portions of the old ones, and by cutting up the unsettled districts of Goajira and the great eastern plains into four _intendencias_. The fifteen departments thus constituted, with the official estimates of 1905 regarding their areas and populations, are as follows:--

Area Estimated Estimated
Department. sq. m. Population. Capital. Population.

Antioquia 24,400 750,000 Medellin 60,000
Atlantico 1,080 104,674 Barranquilla 40,115
Bolivar 23,940 250,000 Cartagena 14,000
Boyaca 4,630 350,000 Tunja 10,000
Caldas 7,920 150,000 Manizales 20,000
Cauca 26,030 400,000 Popayan 10,000
Cundinamarca 5,060 225,000 Facatativa 12,000
Galan 6,950 300,000 San Gil 15,000
Huila 8,690 150,000 Neiva 10,000
Magdalena 20,460 100,000 Santa Marta 6,000
Narino 10,040 200,000 Pasto 6,000
Quesada 2,900 300,000 Zipaquira 12,000
Santander 11,970 300,000 Bucaramanga 20,000
Tolima 10,900 200,000 Ibague 12,000
Tundama 2,390 300,000 Santa Rosa 6,000
Federal District .. 200,000 Bogota 120,000
Intendencias (4) 277,620 .. .. ..
------- --------- ------ ------
Totals 444,980 4,279,674 .. ..

Of these departments the original eight are Antioquia, Bolivar, Boyaca (or Bojaca), Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Santander and Tolima. The four intendencias are called Goajira, Meta, Alto Caqueta and Putumayo, and their aggregate area is estimated to be considerably more than half of the republic. The first covers the Goajira peninsula, which formerly belonged to the department of Magdalena, and the other three roughly correspond to the drainage basins of the three great rivers of the eastern plains whose names they bear. These territories formerly belonged to the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Cauca. The seven new departments are: Atlantico, taken from the northern extremity of Bolivar; Caldas, the southern part of Antioquia; Galan, the southern districts of Santander, including Charala, Socorro, Velez, and its capital San Gil; Huila, the southern part of Tolima, including the headwaters of the Magdalena and the districts about Neiva and La Plata; Narino, the southern part of Cauca extending from the eastern Cordillera to the Pacific coast; Quesada, a cluster of small, well-populated districts north of Bogota formerly belonging to Cundinamarca, including Zipaquira, Guatavita, Ubate and Pacho; and Tundama, the northern part of Boyaca lying on the frontier of Galan in the vicinity of its capital Santa Rosa. The Federal District consists of a small area surrounding the national capital taken from the department of Cundinamarca. These fifteen departments are subdivided into provinces, 92 in all, and these into municipalities, of which there are 740.

The larger cities and towns of the republic other than the department capitals, with their estimated populations in 1904, are:--

Aguadas (Antioquia) 13,000
Antioquia " 13,000
Barbacoas (Narino) 16,000
Buga (Cauca) 12,500
Cali (Cauca) 16,000
Chiquinquira (Boyaca) 18,000
La Mesa (Cundinamarca) 10,000
Pamplona (Santander) 11,000
Palmira (Cauca) 15,000
Pie de Cuesta (Santander) 12,000
Puerto Nacional 16,000
Rio Negro (Antioquia) 12,000
Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia) 11,000
Sonson 15,000
San Jose de Cucuta (Santander) 13,000
Soata (Boyaca) 16,000
Socorro (Galan) 20,000
Velez " 15,000

Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalema on the upper Magdalena, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars; Buenaventura (q.v.); Chaparral (9000), a market town of Tolima in the valley of the Saldana, with coal, iron and petroleum in its vicinity; Honda (6000), an important commercial centre at the head of navigation on the lower Magdalena; Girardot, a railway centre on the upper Magdalena; and Quibdo, a small river town at the head of navigation on the Atrato.

_Communications._--The railway problem in Colombia is one of peculiar difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and productive districts of the republic is situated in the mountainous departments of the interior, and is separated from the coast by low, swampy, malarial plains, and by very difficult mountain chains. These centres of production are also separated from each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it extremely difficult to connect them by a single transportation route. The one common outlet for these districts is the Magdalena river, whose navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of the country. From Bogota the Spaniards constructed two partially-paved highways, one leading down to the Magdalena in the vicinity of Honda, while the other passed down into the upper valley of the same river in a south-westerly direction, over which communication was maintained with Popayan and other settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway was known as the _camino real_. Political independence and misrule led to the abandonment of these roads, and they are now little better than the bridle-paths which are usually the only means of communication between the scattered communities of the Cordilleras. In some of the more thickly settled and prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these bridle paths have been so much improved that they may be considered reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being that of pack animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation on the lower Magdalena closely resembles that of the Mississippi, the same type of light-draft, flat-bottomed steamboat being used, and similar obstacles and dangers to navigation being encountered. There is also the same liability to change its channel, as shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and prosperous town of the lower plain situated on the main channel, now a decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m. east of the main river. Small steamers also navigate the lower Cauca and Nechi rivers, and a limited service is maintained on the upper Cauca.

With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country lead to the Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship service for transportation to and from the coast. In 1906, according to an official statement, these lines were: (1) The Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto Colombia), 17-1/2 m. in length; (2) the Cartagena and Calamar, 65 m.; (3) the La Dorada & Arancaplumas (around the Honda rapids), 20-1/2 m.; (4) the Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativa, 80 m., of which 48-1/2 m. were completed in 1906; (5) the Girardot to Espinal, 13-1/2 m., part of a projected line running south-west from Girardot; (6) the Sabana railway, from Bogota to Facatativa, 25 m.; (7) the Northern, from Bogota to Zipaquira, 31 m.; (8) the Southern, from Bogota to Sibate, 18 m.; and (9) the Puerto Berrio & Medellin, about 78 m. long, of which 36 are completed. The three lines which do not connect with the Magdalena are: (1) the Cucuta and Villamazar, 43-1/2 m., the latter being a port on the Zulia river near the Venezuelan frontier; (2) the Santa Marta railway, running inland from that port through the banana-producing districts, with 41-1/2 m. in operation in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura and Cali, 23 m. in operation inland from the former. This gives a total extension of 383 m. in 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with steamship transportation on the Magdalena, 49 to unite Bogota with neighbouring localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for productive regions. There is no system outlined in the location of these detached lines, though in 1905-1908 President Reyes planned to connect them in such a way as to form an extensive system radiating from the national capital. Tramway lines were in operation in Bogota, Barranquilla and Cartagena in 1907.

The telegraph and postal services are comparatively poor, owing to the difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails through a rugged and uninhabited tropical country. The total length of telegraph lines in 1903 was 6470 m., the only cable connexion being at Buenaventura, on the Pacific coast. All the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals are connected with Bogota, but interruptions are frequent because of the difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.

There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign commerce, though Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably situated for carrying on a small trade with Ecuador and Venezuela. Colombia has no part in the carrying trade, however, her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one steamer of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from these, small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with barges, called "bongoes," to bring down produce and carry back merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade is insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even the smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the hands of foreigners, in which the Germans take the lead, with the British a close second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent communication with those of Europe and the United States.

_Agriculture._--The larger part of the Colombian population is engaged
in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Maize, wheat and other cereals
are cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits and
vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogota is able
to supply his table very much as he would do at home. The plains and
valleys of lower elevation are used for the cultivation of coffee and
other sub-tropical products, the former being produced in nearly all
the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to 6500 ft. This
industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars, which not only
destroyed the plantations and interrupted transportation, but deprived
them of the labouring force essential to their maintenance and
development. It is estimated that the revolutionary struggle of
1899-1903 destroyed 10% of the able-bodied agricultural population of
the Santa Marta district, and this estimate, if true, will hold good
for all the inhabited districts of the Eastern Cordillera. The best
coffee is produced in the department of Cundinamarca in the almost
inaccessible districts of Fusagasaga and La Palma. Tolima coffee is
also considered to be exceptionally good. The department of Santander,
however, is the largest producer, and much of its output in the past
has been placed upon the market as "Maracaibo," the outlet for this
region being through the Venezuelan port of that name. Coffee
cultivation in the Santa Marta region is receiving much attention on
account of its proximity to the coast.

The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among others,
many of the leading products of the world, such as cacao, cotton,
sugar, rice, tobacco, and bananas, with others destined wholly for
home consumption, as yams, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes are widely
cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions, and sweet
potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. Although it is found
growing wild, cacao is cultivated to a limited extent, and the product
is insufficient for home consumption. Cotton is cultivated only on a
small scale, although there are large areas suitable for the plant.
The staple product is short, but experiments have been initiated in
the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugar cane is another plant
admirably adapted to the Colombian lowlands, but it is cultivated to
so limited an extent that the sugar produced is barely sufficient for
home consumption. Both cultivation and manufacture have been carried
on in the old time way, by the rudest of methods, and the principal
product is a coarse brown sugar, called _panela_, universally used by
the poorer classes as an article of food and for making a popular
beverage. Antiquated refining processes are also used in the
manufacture of an inferior white sugar, but the quantity produced is
small, and it is unable to compete with beet-sugar from Germany. A
considerable part of the sugar-cane produced is likewise devoted to
the manufacture of _chicha_ (rum), the consumption of which is common
among the Indians and half-breeds of the Andean regions.

Rice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common article
of diet and the partially submerged lowlands are naturally adapted to
its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada and Venezuela in
colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly and its cultivation
was restricted to specified localities. The Colombian product is best
known through the Ambalema, Girardot, and Palmira tobacco, especially
the Ambalema cigars, which are considered by some to be hardly
inferior to those of Havana, but the plant is cultivated in other
places and would probably be an important article of export were it
possible to obtain labourers for its cultivation. Banana cultivation
for commercial purposes is a comparatively modern industry, dating
from 1892 when the first recorded export of fruit was made. Its
development is due to the efforts of an American fruit-importing
company, which purchased lands in the vicinity of Santa Marta for the
production of bananas and taught the natives that the industry could
be made profitable. A railway was built inland for the transportation
of fruit to Santa Marta, and is being extended toward the Magdalena as
fast as new plantations are opened. The growth of the industry is
shown in the export returns, which were 171,891 bunches for 1892, and
1,397,388 bunches for 1906, the area under cultivation being about
7000 acres in the last-mentioned year. Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava
and arracacha are chiefly cultivated for domestic needs, but in common
with other fruits and vegetables they give occupation to the small
agriculturalists near the larger towns.

The pastoral industry dates from colonial times and engages the
services of a considerable number of people, but its comparative
importance is not great. The open plains, "mesas," and plateaus of the
north support large herds of cattle, and several cattle ranches have
been established on the Meta and its tributaries. Live cattle, to a
limited extent, are exported to Cuba and other West Indian markets,
but the chief produce from this industry is hides. The department of
Santander devotes considerable attention to horse-breeding. Goats are
largely produced for their skins, and in some localities, as in Cauca,
sheep are raised for their wool. Swine are common to the whole
country, and some attention has been given to the breeding of mules.

_Minerals._--The mineral resources of Colombia are commonly believed
to be the principal source of her wealth, and this because of the
precious metals extracted from her mines since the Spanish invasion.
The estimate aggregate for three and a half centuries is certainly
large, but the exact amount will probably never be known, because the
returns in colonial times were as defective as those of disorderly
independence have been. Humboldt and Chevalier estimated the total
output down to 1845 at L1,200,000, which Professor Soetbeer
subsequently increased to L169,422,750. A later Colombian authority,
Vicente Restrepo, whose studies of gold and silver mining in Colombia
have been generally accepted as conclusive and trustworthy, after a
careful sifting of the evidence on which these two widely diverse
conclusions were based and an examination of records not seen by
Humboldt and Soetbeer, reaches the conclusion that the region
comprised within the limits of the republic, including Panama, had
produced down to 1886 an aggregate of L127,800,000 in gold and
L6,600,000 in silver. This aggregate he distributes as follows:--

16th century L10,600,000
17th " 34,600,000
18th " 41,000,000
19th " 41,600,000

According to his computations the eight Colombian departments,
omitting Panama, had produced during this period in gold and silver:--

Antioquia L50,000,000
Cauca 49,800,000
Tolima 10,800,000
Santander 3,000,000
Bolivar 1,400,000
Cundinamarca 360,000
Magdalena 200,000
Boyaca 40,000
------------
L115,600,000

Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, was derived from
alluvial deposits. Large as these aggregates are, it will be seen that
the annual production was comparatively small, the highest average,
that for the 19th century, being less than L500,000 a year. Toward the
end of the 19th century, after a decline in production due to the
abolition of slavery and to civil wars, increased interest was shown
abroad in Colombian mining operations. Medellin, the capital of
Antioquia, is provided with an electrolytic refining establishment,
several assaying laboratories, and a mint. The department of Cauca is
considered to be the richest of the republic in mineral deposits, but
it is less conveniently situated for carrying on mining operations.
Besides this, the extreme unhealthiness of its most productive
regions, the Choco and Barbacoas districts on the Pacific slope, has
been a serious obstacle to foreign enterprise. Tolima is also
considered to be rich in gold and (especially) silver deposits. East
of the Magdalena the production of these two metals has been
comparatively small. In compensation the famous emerald mines of Muzo
and Coscuez are situated in an extremely mountainous region north of
Bogota and near the town of Chiquinaquira, in the department of
Boyaca. The gems are found in a matrix of black slate in what appears
to be the crater of a volcano, and are mined in a very crude manner.
The mines are owned by the government. The revenue was estimated at
L96,000 for 1904. Platinum is said to have been discovered in Colombia
in 1720, and has been exported regularly since the last years of the
18th century. It is found in many parts of the country, but chiefly in
the Choco and Barbacoas districts, the annual export from the former
being about 10,000 in value. Of the bulkier and less valuable minerals
Colombia has copper, iron, manganese, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal is
also found at several widely-separated places, but is not mined. There
are also indications of petroleum in Tolima and Bolivar. These
minerals, however, are of little value to the country because of their
distance from the seaboards and the costs of transportation. Salt is
mined at Zipaquira, near Bogota, and being a government monopoly, is a
source of revenue to the national treasury.

_Manufactures._--The Pradera iron works, near Bogota, carry on some
manufacturing (sugar boilers, agricultural implements, &c.) in
connexion with their mining and reducing operations. Pottery and
coarse earthenware are made at Espinal, in Tolima, where the natives
are said to have had a similar industry before the Spanish conquest.
There are woollen mills at Popayan and Pasto, and small cigar-making
industries at Ambalema and Palmira. Hat-making from the "jipijapa"
fibre taken from the _Carludovica_ palm is a domestic industry in many
localities, and furnishes an article of export. Friction matches are
made from the vegetable wax extracted from the _Ceroxylon_ palm, and
are generally used throughout the interior. Rum and sugar are products
of a crude manufacturing industry dating from colonial times. A modern
sugar-mill and refinery at Sincerin, 28 m. from Cartagena, was the
first of its kind erected in the republic. It is partially supported
by the government, and the concession provides that the production of
sugar shall not be less than 2,600,000 lb per annum.

_Commerce._--In the Barranquilla customs returns for 1906 the imports
were valued at $6,787,055 (U.S. gold), on which the import duties were
$4,333,028, or an average rate of 64%. According to a statistical
summary issued in 1906 by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics, entitled
"Commercial America in 1905," the latest official return to the
foreign trade of Colombia was said to be that of 1898, which was:
imports 11,083,000 _pesos_, exports 19,158,000 _pesos_. Uncertainty in
regard to the value of the _peso_ led the compiler to omit the
equivalents in U.S. gold, but according to foreign trade returns these
totals represent gold values, which at 4s. per peso are: imports
L2,216,600, exports L3,831,600. In his annual message to congress on
the 1st of April 1907, President Reyes stated that the imports for
1904 were $14,453,000, and the exports $12,658,000, presumably U.S.
gold, as the figures are taken from the _Monthly Bulletin_ of the
Bureau cf American Republics (July 1907). An approximate equivalent
would be: imports L3,011,000, exports L2,637,000; which shows a small
increase in the first and a very large decrease in the second. The
imports include wheat flour, rice, barley, prepared foods, sugar,
coal, kerosene, beer, wines and liquors, railway equipment, machinery
and general hardware, fence wire, cotton and other textiles, drugs,
lumber, cement, paper, &c., while the exports comprise coffee,
bananas, hides and skins, tobacco, precious metals, rubber, cabinet
woods, divi-divi, dye-woods, vegetable ivory, Panama hats, orchids,
vanilla, &c.

_Government._--The government of Colombia is that of a centralized republic composed of 15 departments, 1 federal district, and 4 intendencias (territories). It is divided into three co-ordinate branches, legislative, executive and judicial, and is carried on under the provisions of the constitution of 1886, profoundly modified by the amendments of 1905. Previous to 1886, the departments were practically independent, but under the constitution of that year the powers of the national government were enlarged and strengthened, while those of the departments were restricted to purely local affairs. The departments are provided with biennial departmental assemblies, but their governors are appointees of the national executive.

The legislative branch consists of a senate and chamber of deputies, which meets at Bogota biennially (after 1908) on February 1st for an ordinary session of ninety days. The Senate is composed of 48 members--3 from each department chosen by the governor and his departmental council, and 3 from the federal district chosen by the president himself and two of his cabinet ministers. Under this arrangement the president practically controls the choice of senators. Their term of office is four years, and is renewed at the same time and for the same period as those of the lower house. The chamber is composed of 67 members, elected by popular suffrage in the departments, on the basis of one representative for each 50,000 of population. The intendencias are represented by one member each, who is chosen by the intendant, his secretary, and 3 citizens elected by the municipal council of the territorial capital. As the constituent assembly which amended the constitution, according to the president's wishes in 1905, was to continue in office until 1908 and to provide laws for the regulation of elections and other public affairs, it appeared that the president would permit no expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to establish a dictatorial regime in Colombia similar to the one in Mexico.

The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Congress for a period of four years. The first presidential period, dating from the 1st of January 1905, was for ten years, and no restriction was placed upon the choice of President Rafael Reyes to succeed himself. The constituent assembly gave the president exceptional powers to deal with all administrative matters. He is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers, interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, public instruction and public works, who are chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of vice-president is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose a temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death or resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the governor of a department who happens to be nearest Bogota at the time. The president is authorized to appoint the governors of departments, the intendants of territories, the judges of the supreme and superior courts, and the diplomatic representatives of the republic. His salary, as fixed by the 1905 budget, is L3600 a year, and his cabinet ministers receive L1200 each. The council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with the duty of confirming executive appointments.

The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has been in great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme court of seven members at Bogota, and a superior court in each judicial district. There are various inferior courts also, including magistrates or _jueces de paz_, but their organization and functions are loosely defined and not generally understood outside the republic. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in impeachment trials and in matters involving constitutional interpretation. Under the constitution of 1886 the judges of the higher courts were appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their tenure to five years for the supreme court and four years for the superior courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.

The departments, which are administered by governors representing the national executive, are permitted to exercise restricted legislative functions relating to purely local affairs. Municipal councils are also to be found in the larger towns. The governor is assisted by a departmental council consisting of his secretaries and the president of the Corte de Cuentas, which places the political administration of the department under the direct control of the president at Bogota.