Chapter II: Part 2

A large stone found in the Golconda mines and said to have weighed 787 carats in the rough, before being cut by a Venetian lapidary, was seen in the treasury of Aurangzeb in 1665 by Tavernier, who estimated its weight after cutting as 280 (?) carats, and described it as a rounded rose-cut-stone, tall on one side. The name _Great Mogul_ has been frequently applied to this stone. Tavernier states that it was the famous stone given to Shah Jahan by the emir Jumla. The _Orloff_, stolen by a French soldier from the eye of an idol in a Brahmin temple, stolen again from him by a ship's captain, was bought by Prince Orloff for L90,000, and given to the empress Catharine II. It weighs 194-3/4 carats, is of a somewhat yellow tinge, and is among the Russian crown jewels. The _Koh-i-nor_, which was in 1739 in the possession of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror, and in 1813 in that of the raja of Lahore, passed into the hands of the East India Company and was by them presented to Queen Victoria in 1850. It then weighed 186-1/16 carats, but was recut in London by Amsterdam workmen, and now weighs 106-1/16 carats. There has been much discussion concerning the possibility of this stone and the Orloff being both fragments of the Great Mogul. The Mogul Baber in his memoirs (1526) relates how in his conquest of India he captured at Agra the great stone weighing 8 mishkals, or 320 ratis, which may be equivalent to about 187 carats. The Koh-i-nor has been identified by some authors with this stone and by others with the stone seen by Tavernier. Tavernier, however, subsequently described and sketched the diamond which he saw as shaped like a bisected egg, quite different therefore from the Koh-i-nor. Nevil Story Maskelyne has shown reason for believing that the stone which Tavernier saw was really the Koh-i-nor and that it is identical with the great diamond of Baber; and that the 280 carats of Tavernier is a misinterpretation on his part of the Indian weights. He suggests that the other and larger diamond of antiquity which was given to Shah Jahan may be one which is now in the treasury of Teheran, and that this is the true Great Mogul which was confused by Tavernier with the one he saw. (See Ball, Appendix I. to Tavernier's _Travels_ (1889); and Maskelyne, _Nature_, 1891, 44, p. 555.).

The _Regent_ or _Pitt_ diamond is a magnificent stone found in either India or Borneo; it weighed 410 carats and was bought for L20,400 by Pitt, the governor of Madras; it was subsequently, in 1717, bought for L80,000 (or, according to some authorities, L135,000) by the duke of Orleans, regent of France; it was reduced by cutting to 1361-4/16 carats; was stolen with the other crown jewels during the Revolution, but was recovered and is still in France. The _Akbar Shah_ was originally a stone of 116 carats with Arabic inscriptions engraved upon it; after being cut down to 71 carats it was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for L35,000. The _Nizam_, now in the possession of the nizam of Hyderabad, is supposed to weigh 277 carats; but it is only a portion of a stone which is said to have weighed 440 carats before it was broken. The _Great Table_, a rectangular stone seen by Tavernier in 1642 at Golconda, was found by him to weigh 242-3/16 carats; Maskelyne regards it as identical with the _Darya-i-nur_, which is also a rectangular stone weighing about 186 carats in the possession of the shah of Persia. Another stone, the _Taj-e-mah_, belonging to the shah, is a pale rose pear-shaped stone and is said to weigh 146 carats.

Other famous Indian diamonds are the following:--The _Sancy_, weighing 531-2/16 carats, which is said to have been successively the property of Charles the Bold, de Sancy, Queen Elizabeth, Henrietta Maria, Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV.; to have been stolen with the Pitt during the French Revolution; and subsequently to have been the property of the king of Spain, Prince Demidoff and an Indian prince. The _Nassak_, 78-5/8 carats, the property of the duke of Westminster. The _Empress Eugenie_, 51 carats, the property of the gaikwar of Baroda. The _Pigott_, 49 carats(?), which cannot now be traced. The _Pasha_, 40 carats. The _White Saxon_, 48-3/4 carats. The _Star of Este_, 251-3/32 carats.

Coloured Indian diamonds of large size are rare; the most famous are:--a beautiful blue brilliant, 67-2/16 carats, cut from a stone weighing 112-3/16 carats brought to Europe by Tavernier. It was stolen from the French crown jewels with the Regent and was never recovered. The _Hope_, 44-1/4 carats, has the same colour and is probably a portion of the missing stone: it was so-called as forming part of the collection of H. T. Hope (bought for L18,000), and was sold again in 1906 (resold 1909). Two other blue diamonds are known, weighing 13-3/4 and 1-3/4 carats, which may also be portions of the French diamond. The _Dresden Green_, one of the Saxon crown jewels, 40 carats, has a fine apple-green colour. The _Florentine_, 133-1/5 carats, one of the Austrian crown jewels, is a very pale yellow.

The most famous Brazilian stones are:--The _Star of the South_, found in 1853, when it weighed 254-1/2 carats and was sold for L40,000; when cut it weighed 125 carats and was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for L80,000. Also a diamond belonging to Mr Dresden, 119 carats before, and 76-1/2 carats after cutting.

Many large stones have been found in South Africa; some are yellow but some are as colourless as the best Indian or Brazilian stones. The most famous are the following:--the _Star of South Africa_, or _Dudley_, mentioned above, 83-1/2 carats rough, 46-1/2 carats cut. The _Stewart_, 288-3/8 carats rough, 120 carats cut. Both these were found in the river diggings. The _Porter Rhodes_ from Kimberley, of the finest water, weighed about 150 carats. The _Victoria_, 180 carats, was cut from an octahedron weighing 457-1/2 carats, and was sold to the nizam of Hyderabad for L400,000. The _Tiffany_, a magnificent orange-yellow stone, weighs 125-1/2 carats cut. A yellowish octahedron found at De Beers weighed 428-1/2 carats, and yielded a brilliant of 288-1/2 carats. Some of the finest and largest stones have come from the Jagersfontein mine; one, the _Jubilee_, found in 1895, weighed 640 carats in the rough and 239 carats when cut. Until 1905 the largest known diamond in the world was the _Excelsior_, found in 1893 at Jagersfontein by a native while loading a truck. It weighed 971 carats, and was ultimately cut into ten stones weighing from 68 to 13 carats. But all previous records were surpassed in 1905 by a magnificent stone more than three times the size of any known diamond, which was found in the yellow ground at the newly discovered Premier mine in the Transvaal. This extraordinary diamond weighed 3025-3/4 carats (11/3 lb.) and was clear and water white; the largest of its surfaces appeared to be a cleavage plane, so that it might be only a portion of a much larger stone. It was known as the _Cullinan Diamond_. This stone was purchased by the Transvaal government in 1907 and presented to King Edward VII. It was sent to Amsterdam to be cut, and in 1908 was divided into nine large stones and a number of small brilliants. The four largest stones weigh 516-1/2 carats, 309-3/16 carats, 92 carats and 62 carats respectively. Of these the first and second are the largest brilliants in existence. All the stones are flawless and of the finest quality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Boetius de Boot, _Gemmarum et lapidum historia_ (1609);
D. Jeffries, _A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls_ (1757); J. Mawe,
_Travels in the Interior of Brazil_ (1812); _Treatise on Diamonds and
Precious Stones_ (1813): Pinder, _De adamante_ (1829); Murray, _Memoir
on the Nature of the Diamond_ (1831); C. Zerenner, _De adamante
dissertatio_ (1850); H. Emanuel, _Diamonds and Precious Stones_
(1865); A. Schrauf, _Edelsteinkunde_ (1869); N. Jacobs and N.
Chatrian, _Monographie du diamant_ (1880); V. Ball, _Geology of India_
(1881); C. W. King, _The Natural History of Precious Stones_ _and
Precious Metals_ (1883); M. E. Boutan, _Le Diamant_ (1886); S. M.
Burnham, _Precious Stones in Nature, Art and Literature_ (1887); P.
Groth, _Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde_ (1887); A. Liversidge, _The
Minerals of New South Wales_ (1888); _Tavernier's Travels in India_,
translated by V. Ball (1889); E. W. Streeter, _The Great Diamonds of
the World_ (1896); H. C. Lewis, _The Genesis and Matrix of the
Diamond_ (1897); L. de Launay, _Les Diamants du Cap_ (1897); C.
Hintze, _Handbuch der Mineralogie_ (1898); E. W. Streeter, _Precious
Stones and Gems_ (6th ed., 1898); Dana, _System of Mineralogy_ (1899);
Kunz and others, _The Production of Precious Stones_ (in annual,
_Mineral Resources of the United States_); M. Bauer, _Precious Stones_
(trans. L. J. Spencer, 1904); A. W. Rogers, _An Introduction to the
Geology of Cape Colony_ (1905); Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond
Mines of South Africa_ (revised edition, 1906); George F. Kunz,
"Diamonds, a study of their occurrence in the United States, with
descriptions and comparisons of those from all known localities" (U.S.
Geol. Survey, 1909); P. A. Wagner, _Die Diamantfuhrenden Gesteine
Sudafrikas_ (1909).

Among papers in scientific periodicals may be mentioned articles by
Adler, Ball, Baumhauer, Beck, Bonney, Brewster, Chaper, Cohen,
Crookes, Daubree, Derby, Des Cloizeaux, Doelter, Dunn, Flight,
Friedel, Gorceix, Gurich, Goeppert, Harger, Hudleston, Hussak,
Jannettaz, Jeremejew, de Launay, Lewis, Maskelyne, Meunier, Moissan,
Molengraaff, Moulle, Rose, Sadebeck, Scheibe, Stelzner, Stow. See
generally Hintze's _Handbuch der Mineralogie_. (H. A. MI.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Diamonds are invariably weighed in carats and in 1/2, 1/4, 1/8,
1/16, 1/32, 1/64 of a carat. One (English) carat = 3.17 grains = .2054
gram. One ounce = 151-1/2 carats. (See CARAT.)

DIAMOND NECKLACE, THE AFFAIR OF THE, a mysterious incident at the court of Louis XVI. of France, which involved the queen Marie Antoinette. The Parisian jewellers Boehmer and Bassenge had spent some years collecting stones for a necklace which they hoped to sell to Madame Du Barry, the favourite of Louis XV., and after his death to Marie Antoinette. In 1778 Louis XVI. proposed to the queen to make her a present of the necklace, which cost 1,600,000 livres. But the queen is said to have refused it, saying that the money would be better spent equipping a man-of-war. According to others, Louis XVI. himself changed his mind. After having vainly tried to place the necklace outside of France, the jewellers attempted again in 1781 to sell it to Marie Antoinette after the birth of the dauphin. It was again refused, but it was evident that the queen regretted not being able to acquire it.

At that time there was a personage at the court whom Marie Antoinette particularly detested. It was the cardinal Louis de Rohan, formerly ambassador at Vienna, whence he had been recalled in 1774, having incurred the queen's displeasure by revealing to the empress Maria Theresa the frivolous actions of her daughter, a disclosure which brought a maternal reprimand, and for having spoken lightly of Maria Theresa in a letter of which Marie Antoinette learned the contents. After his return to France the cardinal was anxious to regain the favour of the queen in order to obtain the position of prime minister. In March 1784 he entered into relations with a certain Jeanne de St Remy de Valois, a descendant of a bastard of Henry II., who after many adventures had married a _soi-disant_ comte de Lamotte, and lived on a small pension which the king granted her. This adventuress soon gained the greatest ascendancy over the cardinal, with whom she had intimate relations. She persuaded him that she had been received by the queen and enjoyed her favour; and Rohan resolved to use her to regain the queen's good will. The comtesse de Lamotte assured the cardinal that she was making efforts on his behalf, and soon announced to him that he might send his justification to Marie Antoinette. This was the beginning of a pretended correspondence between Rohan and the queen, the adventuress duly returning replies to Rohan's notes, which she affirmed to come from the queen. The tone of the letters became very warm, and the cardinal, convinced that Marie Antoinette was in love with him, became ardently enamoured of her. He begged the countess to obtain a secret interview for him with the queen, and a meeting took place in August 1784 in a grove in the garden at Versailles between him and a lady whom the cardinal believed to be the queen herself. Rohan offered her a rose, and she promised him that she would forget the past. Later a certain Marie Lejay (renamed by the comtesse "Baronne Gay d'Oliva," the last word being apparently an anagram of Valoi), who resembled Marie Antoinette, stated that she had been engaged to play the role of queen in this comedy. In any case the countess profited by the cardinal's conviction to borrow from him sums of money destined ostensibly for the queen's works of charity. Enriched by these, the countess was able to take an honourable place in society, and many persons believed her relations with Marie Antoinette, of which she boasted openly and unreservedly, to be genuine. It is still an unsettled question whether she simply mystified people, or whether she was really employed by the queen for some unknown purpose, perhaps to ruin the cardinal. In any case the jewellers believed in the relations of the countess with the queen, and they resolved to use her to sell their necklace. She at first refused their commission, then accepted it. On the 21st of January 1785 she announced that the queen would buy the necklace, but that not wishing to treat directly, she left the affair to a high personage. A little while later Rohan came to negotiate the purchase of the famous necklace for the 1,600,000 livres, payable in instalments. He said that he was authorized by the queen, and showed the jewellers the conditions of the bargain approved in the handwriting of Marie Antoinette. The necklace was given up. Rohan took it to the countess's house, where a man, in whom Rohan believed he recognized a valet of the queen, came to fetch it. Madame de Lamotte had told the cardinal that Marie Antoinette would make him a sign to indicate her thanks, and Rohan believed that she did make him a sign. Whether it was so, or merely chance or illusion, no one knows. But it is certain that the cardinal, convinced that he was acting for the queen, had engaged the jewellers to thank her; that Boehmer and Bassenge, before the sale, in order to be doubly sure, had sent word to the queen of the negotiations in her name; that Marie Antoinette had allowed the bargain to be concluded, and that after she had received a letter of thanks from Boehmer, she had burned it. Meanwhile the "comte de Lamotte" appears to have started at once for London, it is said with the necklace, which he broke up in order to sell the stones.

When the time came to pay, the comtesse de Lamotte presented the cardinal's notes; but these were insufficient, and Boehmer complained to the queen, who told him that she had received no necklace and had never ordered it. She had the story of the negotiations repeated for her. Then followed a _coup de theatre_. On the 15th of August 1785, Assumption day, when the whole court was awaiting the king and queen in order to go to the chapel, the cardinal de Rohan, who was preparing to officiate, was arrested and taken to the Bastille. He was able, however, to destroy the correspondence exchanged, as he thought, with the queen, and it is not known whether there was any connivance of the officials, who did not prevent this, or not. The comtesse de Lamotte was not arrested until the 18th of August, after having destroyed her papers. The police set to work to find all her accomplices, and arrested the girl Oliva and a certain Reteaux de Villette, a friend of the countess, who confessed that he had written the letters given to Rohan in the queen's name, and had imitated her signature on the conditions of the bargain. The famous charlatan Cagliostro was also arrested, but it was recognized that he had taken no part in the affair. The cardinal de Rohan accepted the parlement of Paris as judges. A sensational trial resulted (May 31, 1786) in the acquittal of the cardinal, of the girl Oliva and of Cagliostro. The comtesse de Lamotte was condemned to be whipped, branded and shut up in the Salpetriere. Her husband was condemned, in his absence, to the galleys for life. Villette was banished.

Public opinion was much excited by this trial. It is generally believed that Marie Antoinette was stainless in the matter, that Rohan was an innocent dupe, and that the Lamottes deceived both for their own ends. People, however, persisted in the belief that the queen had used the countess as an instrument to satisfy her hatred of the cardinal de Rohan. Various circumstances fortified this belief, which contributed to render Marie Antoinette very unpopular--her disappointment at Rohan's acquittal, the fact that he was deprived of his charges and exiled to the abbey of la Chaise-Dieu, and finally the escape of the comtesse de Lamotte from the Salpetriere, with the connivance, as people believed, of the court. The adventuress, having taken refuge abroad, published _Memoires_ in which she accused the queen. Her husband also wrote _Memoires_, and lived until 1831, after having, it is said, received subsidies from Louis XVIII.

See M. Tourneux, _Marie Antoinette devant l'histoire: Essai
bibliographique_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1901); Emile Campardon, _Marie
Antoinette et le proces du collier_ (Paris, 1863); P. Audebert,
_L'Affaire du collier de la reine, d'apres la correspondance inedite
du chevalier de Pujol_ (Rouen, 1901); F. d'Albini, _Marie Antoinette
and the Diamond Necklace from another Point of View_ (London, 1900);
Funck-Brentano, _L'Affaire du collier_ (1903); A. Lang, _Historical
Mysteries_ (1904). Carlyle's essay on _The Diamond Necklace_ (first
published in 1837 in _Fraser's Magazine_) is of historical literary
interest.

DIANA, in Roman mythology, an old Italian goddess, in later times identified with the Greek Artemis (q.v.). That she was originally an independent Italian deity is shown by her name, which is the feminine form of Janus (= Dianus). She is essentially the goddess of the moon and light generally, and presides over wood, plain and water, the chase and war. As the goddess of childbirth, she was known, like Juno, by the name of Lucina, the "bringer to light." As the moon-goddess she was also identified with Hecate, and invoked as "three-formed" in reference to the phases of the moon. Her most celebrated shrine was in a grove at Aricia (whence her title of Nemorensis) near the modern lake of Nemi. Here she was worshipped side by side with a male deity Virbius, a god of the forest and the chase. This Virbius was subsequently identified with Hippolytus, the favourite of Artemis, who was said to have been brought to life by Aesculapius and conducted by Diana to Aricia (Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 263, vi. 731, _Metam._ xv. 497; Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 761). A barbarous custom, perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice once offered to her, prevailed in connexion with her ritual here; her priest, called _Rex Nemorensis_, who was a runaway slave, was obliged to qualify for office by slaying his predecessor in single combat (Strabo v. p. 239; Suetonius, _Caligula_, 35). This led to the identification of Diana with the Tauric Artemis, whose image was said to have been removed by Orestes to the grove of Aricia (see ARICINI).

After the destruction of Alba Longa this grove was for a long time the united sanctuary of the neighbouring Latin and Rutulian cities, until at last it was extinguished beneath the supremacy of Rome. The festival of the goddess was on the ides (13th) of August, the full moon of the hot season. She was worshipped with torches, her aid was sought by women seeking a happy deliverance in childbirth, and many votive offerings have been found on the site. The worship of Diana was brought to Rome by Latin plebeians, and hence she was regarded as the protectress of the lower classes, and especially of slaves. In accordance with this, her most important temple was that on the Aventine, the chief seat of the plebeians, founded by Servius Tullius, originally as a sanctuary of the Latin league (Dion. Halic. iv. 26). No man was allowed to enter the temple, and on the day of its dedication (August 13) the slaves kept holiday (Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 100). This Diana was identified with the sister of Apollo, and at the secular games she was worshipped simply as Artemis. Another celebrated sanctuary of Diana was that on the slopes of Mount Tifata near Capua (where she was worshipped under the name of Tifatina), a sanctuary specially favoured by Sulla and Vespasian. As Noctiluca ("giving light by night") she had a sanctuary on the Palatine which was kept illuminated throughout the night (Varro, _L.L._ v. 68). On the Nemi priesthood see J. G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_.

DIANA MONKEY, a West African representative of the guenon monkeys taking its name, _Cercopithecus diana_, from the presence of a white crescent on the forehead; another characteristic feature being the pointed white beard. The general colour of the fur is greyish, with a deep tinge of chestnut from the middle of the back to the root of the tail. Together with _C. neglectus_ of East and Central Africa, _C. ignitus_ of Liberia, and _C. roloway_ of the Gold Coast, the diana represents the special subgenus of guenons known as _Pogonocebus_. Although the diana monkey is commonly seen in menageries, little is known of its habits in the wild state.

DIANE DE FRANCE (1538-1619), duchess of Montmorency and Angouleme, was the natural daughter of Henry II. of France and a young Piedmontese, Filippe Duc. The constable de Montmorency went so far as to assert that of all the children of Henry II. Diane was the only one who resembled him. Catherine de' Medici was greatly incensed at this affront, and took her revenge by having the constable disgraced on the death of Henry II. Brantome is loud in praise of Diane. She was a perfect horsewoman and dancer, played several musical instruments, knew Spanish and Italian, and "estoit tres belle de visage et de taille." Legitimated in 1547, she was married in 1553 to Horace Farnese, second son of the duke of Parma, but her husband was killed soon afterwards at the siege of Hesdin. In order to assure his position, the constable de Montmorency wished to marry her to his eldest son, Francis. This was a romantic adventure, for Francis had clandestinely married Mademoiselle de Piennes. The constable dissolved this union, and after lengthy negotiations obtained the dispensation of the pope. On the 3rd of May 1559 Francis married Diane. A wise and moderate woman, Diane undoubtedly helped to make Francis de Montmorency one of the leaders of the party of the _politiques_. Again a widow in 1579, she had some influence at the court of Henry III., and negotiated his reconciliation with Henry of Navarre (1588). She retained her influence in the reign of Henry IV., conveyed the bodies of Catherine de' Medici and Henry III. to St Denis, and died in 1619 at her hotel of Angouleme.

See Brantome, ed. by Lalanne, in the _Coll de la societe d'histoire de
France_, vol. viii. (1875); J. de Thou, _Historia sui temporis..._
(1733); Matthieu de Morgues, _Oraison funebre de Diane de France_
(Paris, 1619).

DIANE DE POITIERS (1499-1566), duchess of Valentinois, and mistress of Henry II. of France, was the daughter of Jean de Poitiers, seigneur de St Vallier, who came of an old family of Dauphine. In 1515 she married Louis de Breze, grand seneschal of Normandy, by whom she had two daughters. She became a widow in 1533, but soon replaced her husband by a more illustrious lover, the king's second son, Henry, who became dauphin in 1536. Although he was ten years younger than Diane, she inspired the young prince with a profound passion, which lasted until his death. The accession of Henry II. in 1547 was also the accession of Diane: she was virtual queen, while Henry's lawful wife, Catherine de' Medici, lived in comparative obscurity. The part Diane played, however, must not be exaggerated. More rapacious than ambitious, she concerned herself little with government, but devoted her energies chiefly to augmenting her income, and providing for her family and friends. Henry was the most prodigal of lovers, and gave her all rights over the duchy of Valentinois. Although she showed great tact in her dealings with the queen, Catherine drove her from the court after Henry's death, and forced her to restore the crown jewels and to accept Chaumont in exchange for Chenonceaux. Diane retired to her chateau at Anet, where she died in 1566.

Several historians relate that she had been the mistress of Francis I. before she became the dauphin's mistress, and that she gave herself to the king in order to obtain the pardon of her father, who had been condemned to death as an accomplice of the constable de Bourbon. This rumour, however, has no serious foundation. Men vied with each other in celebrating Diane's beauty, which, if we may judge from her portraits, has been slightly exaggerated. She was a healthy, vigorous woman, and, by dint of great pains, succeeded in retaining her beauty late into life. It is said that even on the coldest mornings she would wash her face with well water. Diane was a patroness of the arts. She entrusted to Philibert de l'Orme the building of her chateau at Anet, and it was for her that Jean Goujon executed his masterpiece, the statue of Diana, now in the Louvre.

See G. Guiffrey, _Lettres inedites de Diane de Poytiers_ (Paris, 1866)
and _Proces criminel de Jehan de Poytiers_ (Paris, 1867); Capefigue,
_Diane de Poitiers_ (Paris, 1860); Hay, _Madame Dianne de Poytiers_
(London, 1900).

DIAPASON (Gr. [Greek: dia pason], through all), a term in music, originally for an interval of an octave. The Greek is an abbreviation of [Greek: he dia pason chordon symphonia], a consonance through all the tones of the scale. In this sense it is only used now, loosely, for the compass of an instrument or voice, or for a harmonious melody. The name is given to the two foundation stops of an organ, the open and the stopped diapason (see ORGAN), and to a standard of musical pitch, as in the French _diapason normal_ (see PITCH, MUSICAL).

DIAPER (derived through the Fr, from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: aspros], white; the derivation from the town of Ypres, "d'Ypres," in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known for centuries before its existence), the name given to a textile fabric, formerly of a rich and costly nature with embroidered ornament, but now of linen or cotton, with a simple woven pattern; and particularly restricted to small napkins. In architecture, the term "diaper" is given to any small pattern of a conventional nature repeated continuously and uniformly over a surface; the designs may be purely geometrical, or based on floral forms, and in early examples were regulated by the process of their textile origin. Subsequently, similar patterns were employed in the middle ages for the surface decoration of stone, as in Westminster Abbey and Bayeux cathedral in the spandrils of the arcades of the choir and nave; also in mural painting, stained glass, incised brasses, encaustic tiles, &c. Probably in most cases the pattern was copied, so far as the general design is concerned, from the tissues and stuffs of Byzantine manufacture, which came over to Europe and were highly prized as ecclesiastical vestments.

In its textile use, the term diaper was originally applied to silk
patterns of a geometrical pattern; it is now almost exclusively used
for diamond patterns made from linen or cotton yarns. An illustration
of two patterns of this nature is shown in the figure. The floats of
the warp and the weft are mostly in three; indeed the patterns are
made from a base weave which is composed entirely of floats of this
number. It will be seen that both designs are formed of what may be
termed concentric figures--alternately black and white. Pattern B
differs from pattern A only in that more of these concentric figures
are used for the complete figure. If pattern B, which shows only one
unit, were extended, the effect would be similar to A, except for the
size of the unit. In A there are four complete units, and hence the
pattern appears more striking. Again, the repeating of B would cause
the four corner pieces to join and to form a diamond similar to the
one in the centre. The two diamonds in B would then alternate
diagonally to left and right. Special names are given to certain kinds
of diapers, e.g. "bird's-eye," "pheasant's-eye"; these terms indicate,
to a certain extent, the size of the complete diamond in the
cloth--the smaller kind taking the name "bird's-eye." The size of the
pattern on paper has little connexion with the size of the pattern in
the cloth, for it is clearly the number of threads and picks per inch
which determine the size of the pattern in the cloth from any given
design. Although A is larger than what is usually termed the
"bird's-eye" pattern, it is evident that it may be made to appear as
such, provided that the cloth is fine enough. These designs, although
adapted mostly for cloths such as nursery-diapers, for pinafores, &c.,
are sometimes used in the production of towels and table-cloths. In
the figure, the first pick in A is identical with the first pick in B,
and the part C shows how each interweaves with the twenty-four
threads.

DIAPHORETICS (from Gr. [Greek: diaphorein], to carry through), the name given to those remedies which promote perspiration. In health there is constantly taking place an exhalation of watery vapour from the skin, by which not only are many of the effete products of nutrition eliminated, but the body is kept cool. Under exertion or in a heated atmosphere this natural function of the skin is increased, sweating more or less profuse follows, and, evaporation going on rapidly over the whole surface, little or no rise in the temperature of the body takes place. In many forms of disease, such as fevers and inflammatory affections, the action of the skin is arrested, and the surface of the body feels harsh and dry, while the temperature is greatly elevated. The occurrence of perspiration not unfrequently marks a crisis in such diseases, and is in general regarded as a favourable event. In some chronic diseases, such as diabetes and some cases of Bright's disease, the absence of perspiration is a marked feature; while, on the other hand, in many wasting diseases, such as phthisis, the action of the skin is increased, and copious exhausting sweating occurs. Many means can be used to induce perspiration, among the best known being baths, either in the form of hot vapour or hot water baths, or in that part of the process of the Turkish bath which consists in exposing the body to a dry and hot atmosphere. Such measures, particularly if followed by the drinking of hot liquids and the wrapping of the body in warm clothing, seldom fail to excite copious perspiration. Numerous medicinal substances have the same effect.

DIAPHRAGM (Gr. [Greek: diaphragma], a partition). The diaphragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, _mid_, middle, _hrif_, belly) in human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central tendon and a muscular margin. The _central tendon_ (q, fig. 1) is trefoil in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d), laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a pair of internal, and a single median one. The _external arcuate ligament_ (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (b) to the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quadratus lumborum muscle (o), the _internal_ and _middle_ are continuations of the _crura_ which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from three, the left (f) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the _middle arcuate ligament_; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle (n) to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to form the _internal arcuate ligament_, while the intermediate ones pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the diaphragm; the _aortic_ (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the _hiatus quadratus_) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumogastric nerves (l), the left being in front and the right behind. The fleshy fibres on each side of this opening act as a sphincter. Passing between the xiphoid and costal origins in front are the superior epigastric arteries, while the other terminal branches of the internal mammaries, the musculo-phrenics, pass through between two costal origins.

Through the crura pass the splanchnic nerves, and in addition to these the left crus is pierced by the vena azygos minor. The sympathetic nerves usually enter the abdomen behind the internal arcuate ligaments. The phrenic nerves, which are the main supply of the diaphragm, divide before reaching the muscle and pierce it in a number of places to enter its abdominal surface, but some of the lower intercostal nerves assist in the supply. The last thoracic or subcostal nerves pass behind the external arcuate ligament.

For the action of the diaphragm see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

_Embryology._--The diaphragm is at first developed in the neck region
of the embryo, and this accounts for the phrenic nerves, which supply
it, rising from the fourth and fifth cervical. From the mesoderm on
the caudal side of the pericardium is developed the _septum
transversum_, and in this the central tendon is formed. The fleshy
portion is developed on each side in two parts, an anterior or
sterno-costal which is derived from the longitudinal neck musculature,
probably the same layer from which the sternothyroid comes, and a
spinal part which is a derivative of the transversalis sheet of the
trunk. Between these two parts is at one time a gap, the _spino-costal
hiatus_, and this is obliterated by the growth of the
pleuro-peritoneal membrane, which may occasionally fail to close and
so may form the site of a phrenic hernia. With the growth of the body
and the development of the lungs the diaphragm shifts its position
until it becomes the septum between the thoracic and abdominal
cavities. (See A. Keith, "On the Development of the Diaphragm," _Jour.
of Anat. and Phys._ vol. 39.) A. Paterson has recorded cases in which
the left half of the diaphragm is wanting (_Proceedings_ of the
Anatomical Society of Gt. Britain, June 1900; _Jour. of Anat. and
Phys._ vol. 34), and occasionally deficiencies are found elsewhere,
especially in the sternal portion. For further details see Quain's
_Anatomy_, vol. i. (London, 1908).

_Comparative Anatomy._--A complete diaphragm, separating the thoracic
from the abdominal parts of the coelom, is characteristic of the
Mammalia; it usually has the human structure and relations except that
below the Anthropoids it is separated from the pericardium by the
azygous lobe of the lung. In some Mammals, e.g. Echidna and Phocoena,
it is entirely muscular. In the Cetacea it is remarkable for its
obliquity; its vertebral attachment is much nearer the tail than its
sternal or ventral one; this allows a much larger lung space in the
dorsal than in the ventral part of the thorax, and may be concerned
with the equipoise of the animal. (Otto Muller, "Untersuchungen uber
die Veranderung, welche die Respirationsorgane der Saugetiere durch
die Anpassung an das Leben im Wasser erlitten haben," _Jen. Zeitschr.
f. Naturwiss._, 1898, p. 93.) In the Ungulata only one crus is found
(Windle and Parsons, "Muscles of the Ungulata," _Proc. Zool. Soc._,
1903, p. 287). Below the Mammals incomplete partitions between the
pleural and peritoneal cavities are found in Chelonians, Crocodiles
and Birds, and also in Amphibians (Xenopus and Pipa). (F. G. P.)

DIARBEKR[1] (_Kara Amid_ or Black Amid; the Roman _Amida_), the chief town of a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on a basaltic plateau on the right bank of the Tigris, which here flows in a deep open valley. The town is still surrounded by the masonry walls of black basalt which give it the name of _Kara_ or Black Amid; they are well built and imposing on the west facing the open country, but almost in ruins where they overlook the river. A mass of gardens and orchards cover the slope down to the river on the S.W., but there are no suburbs outside the walls. The houses are rather crowded but only partially fill the walled area. The population numbers 38,000, nearly half being Christian, comprising Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans, Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites and a few Greeks. The streets are 10 ft. to 15 ft. wide, badly paved and dirty; the houses and shops are low, mostly of stone, and some of stone and mud. The bazaar is a good one, and gold and silver filigree work is made, peculiar in character and design. The cotton industry is declining, but manufacture of silk is increasing. Fruit is good and abundant as the rich volcanic soil is well watered from the town springs. The size of the melons is specially famous. To the south, the walls are some 40 ft. high, faced with large cut stone blocks of very solid construction, with towers and square bastions rising to 500 ft. There are four gates: on the north the Kharput gate, on the west the Rum, on the south the Mardin, and on the east the Yeni Kapu or new gate. A citadel enclosure stands at the N. E. corner and is now partly in ruins, but the interior space is occupied by the government konak. The summer climate in the confined space within the town is excessively hot and unhealthy. Epidemics of typhus are not unknown, as well as ophthalmia. The Diarbekr boil is like the "Aleppo button," lasting a long time and leaving a deep scar. Winters are frequently severe but do not last long. Snow sometimes lies, and ice is stored for summer use. Scorpions noted for the virulence of their poison abound as well as horse leeches in the tanks. The town is supplied with water both by springs inside the town and by aqueducts from fountains at Ali Punar and Hamervat. The principal exports are wool, mohair and copper ore, and imports are cotton and woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar, petroleum, &c.

The Great Mosque, Ulu Jami, formerly a Christian church, occupies the site of a Sassanian palace and was built with materials from an older palace, probably that of Tigranes II. The remains consist of the facades of two palaces 400 ft. apart, each formed by a row of Corinthian columns surmounted by an equal number of a Byzantine type. Kufic inscriptions run across the fronts under the entablature. The court of the mosque is entered by a gateway on which lions and other animals are sculptured. The churches of greatest interest are those of SS. Cosmas and Damian (Jacobite) and the church of St James (Greek). In the 19th century Diarbekr was one of the largest and most flourishing cities of Asia, and as a commercial centre it now stands at the meeting-point of several important routes. It is at the head of the navigation of the Tigris, which is traversed down stream by _keleks_ or rafts supported by inflated skins. There is a good road to Aleppo and Alexandretta on the Mediterranean, and to Samsun on the Black Sea by Kharput, Malatia and Sivas. There are also routes to Mosul and Bitlis.

Diarbekr became a Roman colony in A.D. 230 under the name of Amida, and received a Christian bishop in A.D. 325. It was enlarged and strengthened by Constantius II., in whose reign it was taken after a long siege by Shapur (Sapor) II., king of Persia. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who took part in the defence, gives a detailed account of it. In the later wars between the Persians and Romans it more than once changed hands. Though ceded by Jovian to the Persians it again became annexed to the Roman empire, and in the reign of Anastasius (A.D. 502) was once more taken by the Persians, when 80,000 of its inhabitants were slain. It was taken c. 638 by the Arabs, and afterwards passed into the hands of the Seljuks and Persians, from whom it was finally captured by Selim I. in 1515; and since that date it has remained under Ottoman rule. About 2 m. below the town is a masonry bridge over the Tigris; the older portion being probably Roman, and the western part, which bears a Kufic inscription, being Arab.

The vilayet of Diarbekr extends south from Palu on the Euphrates to Mardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian plain, and is divided into three sanjaks--Arghana, Diarbekr and Mardin. The headwaters of the main arm of the Tigris have their source in the vilayet.

Cereals, cotton, tobacco, rice and silk are produced, but most of the fertile lands have been abandoned to semi-nomads, who raise large quantities of live stock. The richest portion of the vilayet lies east of the capital in the rolling plains watered by tributaries of the Tigris. An exceptionally rich copper mine exists at Arghana Maden, but it is very imperfectly worked; galena mineral oil and silicious sand are also found. (C. W. W.; F. R. M.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] From _Diar_, land, and Bekr (i.e. Abu Bekr, the caliph).

DIARRHOEA (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: rheo], flow), an excessive looseness of the bowels, a symptom of irritation which may be due to various causes, or may be associated with some specific disease. The treatment in such latter cases necessarily varies, since the symptom itself may be remedial, but in ordinary cases depends on the removal of the cause of irritation by the use of aperients, various sedatives being also prescribed. In chronic diarrhoea careful attention to the diet is necessary.

DIARY, the Lat. _diarium_ (from _dies_, a day), the book in which are preserved the daily memoranda regarding events and actions which come under the writer's personal observation, or are related to him by others. The person who keeps this record is called a diarist. It is not necessary that the entries in a diary should be made each day, since every life, however full, must contain absolutely empty intervals. But it is essential that the entry should be made during the course of the day to which it refers. When this has evidently not been done, as in the case of Evelyn's diary, there is nevertheless an effort made to give the memoranda the effect of being so recorded, and in point of fact, even in a case like that of Evelyn, it is probable that what we now read is an enlargement of brief notes jotted down on the day cited. When this is not approximately the case, the diary is a fraud, for its whole value depends on its instantaneous transcript of impressions.

In its primitive form, the diary must always have existed; as soon as writing was invented, men and women must have wished to note down, in some almanac or journal, memoranda respecting their business, their engagements or their adventures. But the literary value of these would be extremely insignificant until the spirit of individualism had crept in, and human beings began to be interesting to other human beings for their own sake. It is not, therefore, until the close of the Renaissance that we find diaries beginning to have literary value, although, as the study of sociology extends, every scrap of genuine and unaffected record of early history possesses an ethical interest. In the 17th century, diaries began to be largely written in England, although in most cases without any idea of even eventual publication. Sir William Dugdale (1605-1686) had certainly no expectation that his slight diary would ever see the light. There is no surviving record of a journal kept by Clarendon, Richard Baxter, Lucy Hutchinson and other autobiographical writers of the middle of the century, but we may take it for granted that they possessed some such record, kept from day to day. Bulstrode Whitelocke (1605-1675), whose _Memorials of the English Affairs_ covers the ground from 1625 to 1660, was a genuine diarist. So was the elder George Fox (1624-1690), who kept not merely "a great journal," but "the little journal books," and whose work was published in 1694. The famous diary of John Evelyn (1620-1706) professes to be the record of seventy years, and, although large tracts of it are covered in a very perfunctory manner, while in others many of the entries have the air of having been written in long after the event, this is a very interesting and amusing work; it was not published until 1818. In spite of all its imperfections there is a great charm about the diary of Evelyn, and it would hold a still higher position in the history of literature than it does if it were not overshadowed by what is unquestionably the most illustrious of the diaries of the world, that of Samuel Pepys (1633-1703). This was begun on the 1st of January 1660 and was carried on until the 29th of May 1669. The extraordinary value of Pepys' diary consists in its fidelity to the portraiture of its author's character. He feigns nothing, conceals nothing, sets nothing down in malice or insincerity. He wrote in a form of shorthand intelligible to no one but himself, and not a phrase betrays the smallest expectation that any eye but his own would ever investigate the pages of his confession. The importance of this wonderful document, in fact, lay unsuspected until 1819, when the Rev. John Smith of Baldock began to decipher the MS. in Magdalene College, Cambridge. It was not until 1825 that Lord Braybrooke published part of what was only fully edited, under the care of Mr Wheatley, in 1893-1896. In the age which succeeded that of Pepys, a diary of extraordinary emotional interest was kept by Swift from 1710 to 1713, and was sent to Ireland in the form of a "Journal to Stella"; it is a surprising amalgam of ambition, affection, wit and freakishness. John Byrom (1692-1763), the Manchester poet, kept a journal, which was published in 1854. The diary of the celebrated dissenting divine, Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), was printed in 1829. Of far greater interest are the admirably composed and vigorously written journals of John Wesley (1703-1791). But the most celebrated work of this kind produced in the latter half of the 18th century was the diary of Fanny Burney (Madame D'Arblay), published in 1842-1846. It will be perceived that, without exception, these works were posthumously published, and the whole conception of the diary has been that it should be written for the writer alone, or, if for the public, for the public when all prejudice shall have passed away and all passion cooled down. Thus, and thus only, can the diary be written so as to impress upon its eventual readers a sense of its author's perfect sincerity and courage.

Many of the diaries described above were first published in the opening years of the 19th century, and it is unquestionable that the interest which they awakened in the public led to their imitation. Diaries ceased to be rare, but as a rule the specimens which have hitherto appeared have not presented much literary interest. Exception must be made in favour of the journals of two minor politicians, Charles Greville (1794-1865) and Thomas Creevey (1768-1838), whose indiscretions have added much to the gaiety of nations; the papers of the former appeared in 1874-1887, those of the latter in 1903. The diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1775-1867), printed in 1869, contains excellent biographical material. Tom Moore's journal, published in 1856 by Lord John Russell, disappointed its readers. But it is probable, if we reason by the analogy of the past, that the most curious and original diaries of the 19th century are still unknown to us, and lie jealously guarded under lock and key by the descendants of those who compiled them.

It was natural that the form of the diary should appeal to a people so sensitive to social peculiarities and so keen in the observation of them as the French. A medieval document of immense value is the diary kept by an anonymous _cure_ during the reigns of Charles VI. and Charles VII. This _Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris_ was kept from 1409 to 1431, and was continued by another hand down to 1449. The marquis de Dangeau (1638-1720) kept a diary from 1684 till the year of his death; this although dull, and as Saint-Simon said "of an insipidity to make you sick," is an inexhaustible storehouse of facts about the reign of Louis XIV. Saint-Simon's own brilliant memoirs, written from 1691 to 1723, may be considered as a sort of diary. The lawyer, Edmond Barbier (1689-1771), wrote a journal of the anecdotes and little facts which came to his knowledge from 1718 to 1762. The studious care which he took to be correct, and his manifest candour, give a singular value to Barbier's record; his diary was not printed at all until 1847, nor, in its entirety, until 1857. The song-writer, Charles Colle (1709-1783), kept a _journal historique_ from 1758 to 1782; it is full of vivacity, but very scandalous and spiteful. It saw the light in 1805, and surprised those to whom Colle, in his lifetime, had seemed the most placid and good-natured of men. Petit de Bachaumont (1690-1770) had access to remarkable sources of information, and his _Memoires secrets_ (a diary the publication of which began in 1762 and was continued after Bachaumont's death, until 1787, by other persons) contains a valuable mass of documents. The marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757) kept a diary, of which a comparatively full text was first published in 1859. In recent times the posthumous publication of the diaries of the Russian artist, Marie Bashkirtseff (1860-1884), produced a great sensation in 1887, and revealed a most remarkable temperament. The brothers Jules and Edmond de Goncourt kept a very minute diary of all that occurred around them in artistic and literary Paris; after the death of Jules, in 1870, this was continued by Edmond, who published the three first volumes in 1888. The publication of this work was continued, and it produced no little scandal. It is excessively ill-natured in parts, but of its vivid picturesqueness, and of its general accuracy as a transcript of conversation, there can be no two opinions. (E. G.)

DIASPORE, a native aluminium hydroxide, AlO(OH), crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with gothite and manganite. It occurs sometimes as flattened crystals, but usually as lamellar or scaly masses, the flattened surface being a direction of perfect cleavage on which the lustre is markedly pearly in character. It is colourless or greyish-white, yellowish, sometimes violet in colour, and varies from translucent to transparent. It may be readily distinguished from other colourless transparent minerals, with a perfect cleavage and pearly lustre--mica, talc, brucite, gypsum--by its greater hardness of 6-1/2-7. The specific gravity is 3.4. When heated before the blowpipe it decrepitates violently, breaking up into white pearly scales; it was because of this property that the mineral was named diaspore by R. J. Hauy in 1801, from [Greek: diaspeirein], "to scatter." The mineral occurs as an alteration product of corundum or emery, and is found in granular limestone and other crystalline rocks. Well-developed crystals are found in the emery deposits of the Urals and at Chester, Massachusetts, and in kaolin at Schemnitz in Hungary. If obtainable in large quantity it would be of economic importance as a source of alumina. (L. J. S)

DIASTYLE (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: stylos], column), in architecture, a term used to designate an intercolumniation of three or four diameters.