Chapter VIII: Part 8

Sanskrit.--Amarasimha (lived before A.D. 1000), _Amarakosha_ Calcutta,
1807, 8vo; ib. 1834, 4to; Bombay, 1860, 4to; Lucknow, 1863, 4to;
Madras, 1870, 8vo, in Grantha characters; Cottayam, 1873, 8vo, in
Malaylim characters; Benares, 1867, fol. with _Amaraviveka_, a
commentary by Mahesvara: Rajah Radhakanta Deva, _Sabdakalpadruma_,
Calcutta, 1821-1857, 4to, 8 vols. 8730 pages: 2nd ed. 1874, &c.:
Bhattachdrya, _Sabdastoma Mahanidhi_, Calcutta, 1869-1870, 8vo, parts
i.-vii. 528 pages: _Abhidhanaratnamala_, by Halayudha, ed. Aufrecht,
London, 1861, 8vo: VACHASPATYA, by Taranatha Tarkavachaspati,
Calcutta, 1873, &c., 4to (parts i.-vii., 1680 pages).
BENGALI.--_Sabdasindhu_, Calcutta, 1808: _Amarakosa_, translated by
Ramodoyu Bidjalunker, Calcutta, 1831, 4to: Mathurana Tarkaratna,
_Sabdasandarbhasindhu_, Calcutta, 1863, 4to. MARATHI.--Ananta Sastri
Talekar, Poona, 1853, 8vo, 495 pages: Madhava Chandora, Bombay, 1870,
4to, 695 pages. TELUGU.--_Amarakosha_, Madras, 1861, ed. Kala, with
_Gurubalala prabodhika_, a commentary, ib. 1861, 4to; with the same,
ib. 1875, 4to, 516 pages; with _Amarapadaparijata_ (Sans. and Tel.),
by Vavilla Ramasvani Sastri, ib. 1862, 4to; ib. 1863, 8vo; 3rd ed. by
Jaganmohana Tarkalankara and Khetramohana, 1872, &c., parts i.-iv. 600
pages: Suria Pracasa Row, _Sarva-Sabda-Sambodhini_, ib. 1875, 4to,
1064 pages. TIBETAN AND MONGOL.--Schiefner, _Buddhistische Triglotte_,
St Petersburg, 1859, fol., the _Vyupatti_ or _Mahavyupatti_ from the
_Tanguir_, vol. 123 of the Sutra. LATIN.--Paulinus a Sancto
Bartholomeo, Amarasinha, sectio i. de coelo, Romae, 1798, 4to: Bopp.
Berlin, 1828-1830, 4to; 2nd ed. 1840-1844; 3rd, 1866, 4to.
ENGLISH.--_Amarakosha_, trans. by Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808, 4to;
1845, 8vo: Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Wilson, Calcutta, 1819, 4to;
2nd ed. 1832: ed. Goldstucker, Berlin, 1862, &c., folio, to be in 20
parts: Yates, Calcutta, 1846, 4to: Benfey, London, 1865, 8vo: Ram
Jasen, Benares, 1871, 8vo, 713 pages: Williams, Oxford, 1872, 4to.
ENGLISH-SANSKRIT.--Williams, London, 1851, 4to. FRENCH.--Amarakosha,
transl. by Loiseleur Deslongchamps, Paris, 1839-1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 796
pages: Burnouf and Leupol, Nancy, 1863-1864, 8vo. GERMAN.--Bohtlingk
and Roth, St Petersb. 1853, &c., 4to, 7 vols. to 1875.
ITALIAN.--Gubernatis, Torino, 1856, &c. 8vo, unfinished, 2 parts.
RUSSIAN.--Kossovich, St Petersburg, 1859, 8vo. ROOTS.--Wilkins,
London, 1815, 4to: Rosen, Berolini, 1827, 8vo: Westergaard, Bonnae,
1840-1841, 8vo: Vishnu Parasurama Sastri Pandita (Sans. and Marathi),
Bombay, 1865, 8vo: Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, _Dhatupadarsa_,
Calcutta, 1869, 8vo: Leupol, Paris, 1870, 8vo.
SYNONYMS.--_Abhidhanacintamani_, by Hemachadra, ed. Colebrooke,
Calcutta, 1807, 8vo; translated by Bohtlingk and Rieu (German), St
Petersburg, 1847, 8vo. HOMONYMS.--Medinikara, _Medinikosha_, Benares,
1865, 4to; Calcutta, 1869, 8vo; ib. 1872, 8vo. DERIVATIVES.--Hirochand
and Rooji Rangit, _Dhatumanjari_, Bombay, 1865, 8vo. TECHNICAL TERMS
OF THE NYAYA PHILOSOPHY.--_Nyayakosa_, by Bhimacharya Jhalakikar
(Sanskrit), Bombay, 1875, 8vo, 183 pages. RIG VEDA.--Grassmann,
Leipzig, 1873-1875, 8vo.

Bengali.--Manoel, Lisboa, 1743, 8vo: Forster, Calcutta, 1799-1802,
4to, 2 vols. 893 pages: Carey, Serampore, 1815-1825, 4to, 2 vols.; ed.
Marshman, ib. 1827-1828, 8vo, 2 vols.; 3rd ed. ib. 1864-1867, 8vo;
abridged by Marshman, ib. 1865, 8vo; ib. 1871, 8vo, 2 vols. 936 pages:
Morton, Calcutta, 1828, 8vo: Houghton, London, 1833, 4to: Adea,
_Shabdabudhi_, Calcutta, 1854, 604 pages. ENGLISH.--Ram Comul Sen, ib.
1834, 4to, 2 vols.; London, 1835, 4to: D'Rozario, Calcutta, 1837, 8vo:
Adea, _Abhidan_, Calcutta, 1854, 761 pages. ENGLISH LAT.--Ramkissen
Sen, ib. 1821, 4to. ENG.-BENG. AND MANIPURI.--[Gordon], Calcutta,
1837, 8vo.

Canarese.--Reeve, Madras, 1824-1832, 4to, 2 vols.; ed. Sanderson,
Bangalore, 1858, 8vo, 1040 pages; abridged by the same, 1858, 8vo, 276
pages: _Dictionarium Canarense_, Bengalori, 1855, 8vo: _School
Dictionary_, Mangalore, 1876, 8vo, 575 pages.

Dardic Languages.--Leitner (Astori, Ghilghiti, Chilasi, and dialects
of Shina, viz. Arnyia, Khajuna and Kalasha), Lahore, 1868, 4to.

Guzarati.--(English) Mirza Mohammed Cauzim, Bombay, 1846, 4to;
Shapurji Edalji, ib. 1868, 8vo, 896 pages: Karsandas Mulji, ib. 1868,
8vo, 643 pages.

Hindi.--Rousseau, London, 1812, 4to: Adam, Calcutta, 1829, 8vo:
Thompson, ib. 1846, 8vo: J. D. Bate, London, 1876, 8vo, 809 pages.
ENGLISH.--Adam, Calcutta, 1833, 8vo. ENGLISH, URDU AND
HINDI.--Mathuraprasada Mirsa, Benares, 1865, 8vo, 1345 pages.

Hindustani.--Ferguson, London, 1773, 4to: Gilchrist, Calcutta, 1800,
8vo; ed. Hunter, Edinb. 1810; Lond. 1825: Taylor, Calcutta, 1808, 4to,
2 vols.: Gladwin (Persian and Hind.), Calcutta, 1809, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Shakespeare, London, 1817, 4to; 1820; 1834; 1849: Forbes, London,
1847, 8vo; 1857: Bertrand (French), Paris, 1858, 8vo: Brice, London,
1864, 12mo: Fallon, Banaras, 1876, &c., to be in about 25 parts and
1200 pages. ENGLISH.--Gilchrist, 1787-1780, 4to, 2 parts: Thompson,
Serampore, 1838, 8vo.

Kashmiri.--Elmslie, London, 1872, 12mo.

Khassia.--Roberts, Calcutta, 1875, 12mo.

Malayalim.--Fabricius and Breithaupt, Weperg, 1779, 4to: Bailey,
Cottayam, 1846, 8vo: Gundert, Mangalore, 1871, 8vo, 1171 pages.

Marathi.--Carey, Serampore, 1810, 8vo: Kennedy, Bombay, 1824, fol.:
Jugunnauth Shastri Kramavant, Bombay, 1829-1831, 4to, 3 vols.:
Molesworth, ib. 1831, 4to; 2nd ed. 1847, 4to; ed. Candy, Bombay, 1857,
4to, 957 pages; abridged by Baba Padmanji, ib. 1863, 8vo; 2nd ed.
(abridged), London, 1876, 8vo, 644 pages. ENGLISH.--Molesworth,
Bombay, 1847, 4to.

Oriya.--Mohunpersaud Takoor, Serampore, 1811, 8vo: Sutton, Cuttack,
1841-1848, 8vo, 3 vols. 856 pages.

Pali.--Clough, Colombo, 1824, 8vo: Moggallana Thero (a Sinhalese
priest of the 12th century), _Abhidhanappika_ (Pali, Eng. Sinhalese),
ed. Waskeduwe Subheti, Colombo, 1865, 8vo: Childers, London,
1872-1875, 8vo, 658 pages. ROOTS.--Silavansa, _Dhatumanjusa_ (Pali
Sing. and Eng.), Colombo, 1872, 8vo.

Prakrit.--Delius, _Radices_, Bonnae ad Rh., 1839, 8vo.

Punjabi.--Starkey, 1850, 8vo; Lodiana Mission, Lodiana, 1854-1860, 444
pages.

Pushtu or Afghan.--Dorn, St Petersb. 1845, 4to: Raverty, London, 1860,
4to; 2nd ed. ib. 1867, 4to: Bellew, 1867, 8vo.

Sindhi.--Eastwick, Bombay, 1843, fol. 73 pages: Stack, ib. 1855, 8vo,
2 vols.

Sinhalese.--Clough, Colombo, 1821-1830, 8vo, 2 vols.: Callaway (Eng.,
Portuguese and Sinhalese), ib. 1818, 8vo: Id., _School Dictionary_,
ib. 1821, 8vo: Bridgenell (Sinh.-Eng.), ib. 1847, 18mo: Nicholson
(Eng.-Sinh.), 1864, 32mo, 646 pages.

Tamil.--Provenza (Portug.), Ambalacotae, 1679, 8vo: _Sadur Agurardi_,
written by Beschi in 1732, Madras, 1827, fol.; Pondicherry, 1875, 8vo:
Blin (French), Paris, 1834, 8vo: Rottler, Madras, 1834-1841, 4to, 4
vols.: Jaffna Book Society (Tamil), Jaffna, 1842, 8vo, about 58,500
words: Knight and Spaulding (Eng. Tam.), ib. 1844, 8vo; _Dictionary_,
ib. 1852, 4to: Pope, 2nd ed. ib. 1859, 8vo: Winslow, Madras, 1862,
4to, 992 pages, 67,452 words.

Telugu.--Campbell, Madras, 1821, 4to: C. P. Brown, Madras (Eng.-Tel.),
1852, 8vo, 1429 pages: Id. (Tel.-Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo, 1319 pages.
MIXED TELUGU.--Id., ib. 1854, 8vo.

Thuggee.--Sleeman, Calcutta, 1830, 8vo, 680 Ramasi words.

Indo-Chinese Languages.--Leyden, _Comparative Vocabulary of Barma,
Malaya and Thai_, Serampore, 1810, 8vo. _Annamese_: Rhodes (Portug.
and Lat.), Romae, 1651, 4to: Pigneaux and Taberd, Fredericinagori,
1838, 4to; Legrand de la Liraye, Paris, 1874, 8vo: Pauthier (Chin.
Ann.-Fr. Lat.), Paris, 1867, &c., 8vo. _Assamese_: Mrs Cutter, Saipur,
1840, 12 mo; Bronson, London, 1876, 8vo, 617 pages. _Burmese_: Hough
(Eng.-Burm.), Serampore, 1825, Moulmain, 1845, 8vo, 2 vols. 955 pages:
Judson, Calcutta, 1826, 8vo; (Eng. Burm.), Moulmain, 1849, 4to; (Burm.
Eng.), ib. 1852, 8vo; 2nd ed., Rangoon, 1866, 8vo, 2 vols. 968 pages:
Lane, Calcutta, 1841, 4to. _Cambodian_: Aymonier (Fr.-Camb.), Saigon,
1874, 4to; Id. (Camb.-Fr.), ib. 1875, fol. _Karen_: Sau-kau Too
(Karen), Tavoy, 1847, 12mo, 4 vols.: Mason, Tavoy, 1840, 4to.
_Sgau-Karen_: Wade, ib. 1849, 8vo. _Siamese (Thai)_: Pallegoix (Lat.
French, Eng.), Paris, 1854, 4to: _Dictionarium Latinum Thai_, Bangkok,
1850, 4to, 498 pages.

Malay.--LATIN.--Haex, Romae, 1631, 4to; Batavia, 1707.
DUTCH.--Houtmann (Malay and Malagasy), Amst. 1603, 4to; 1673; 1680;
1687; 1703; Batavia, 1707: Wiltens and Dankaarts, Gravenhage, 1623,
4to; Amst. 1650; 1677; Batavia, 1708, 4to: Heurnius, Amst. 1640, 4to:
Gueynier, Batavia, 1677, 4to; 1708: Loder, ib. 1707-1708, 4to: Van der
Worm, ib. 1708, 4to: Roorda van Eysinga (Low), ib. 1824-1825, 8vo, 2
vols.; 12th ed. 's Gravenhage, 1863, 8vo; Id. (Hof, Volks en Lagen
Taal), ib. 1855, 8vo: Dissel and Lucardie (High Malay), Leiden, 1860,
12mo: Pijnappel, Amst. 1863, 8vo: Badings, Schoonhoven, 1873, 8vo.
ENGLISH.--Houtmann (Malay and Malagasy), translated by A. Spaulding,
London, 1614, 4to: Bowrey, ib. 1701, 4to: Howison, ib. 1801, 4to:
Marsden, ib. 1812, 4to: Thomsen, Malacca, 1820, 8vo; 1827: Crawford,
London, 1851, 8vo, 2 vols. FRENCH.--Boze, Paris, 1825, 16mo: Elout
(Dutch-Malay and French-Malay), Harlem, 1826, 4to: Bougourd, Le Havre,
1856, 8vo: Richard, Paris, 1873, 8vo, 2 vols.: Favre, Vienna, 1875,
8vo, 2 vols.

Malay Archipelago.--_Batak_: Van der Tuuk, Amsterdam, 1861, 8vo, 564
pages. _Bugis_: Mathes, Gravenh. 1874, 8vo, 1188 pages: Thomsen
(Eng.-Bugis and Malay), Singapore, 1833, 8vo. _Dyak_: Hardeland
(German), Amst. 1859, 8vo, 646 pages. _Javanese_: Senerpont Domis,
Samarang, 1827, 4to, 2 vols.: Roorda van Eysinga, Kampen, 1834-1835,
8vo, 2 vols.: Gericke, Amst. 1847, 8vo; ed. Taco Roorda, ib. 1871, &c.
parts i.-v., 880 pages: Jansz and Klinkert, Samarang, 1851, 8vo; 1865:
Favre (French), Vienne, 1870, 8vo. _Macassar_: Matthes, Amst. 1859,
8vo, 951 pages. Sunda: De Wilde (Dutch, Malay and Sunda), Amsterdam,
1841, 8vo: Rigg (Eng.), Batavia, 1862, 4to, 573 pages. _Formosa_:
Happart (Favorlang dialect, written about 1650), Parrapattan, 1840,
12mo.

Philippines.--_Bicol_: Marcos, Sampaloc, 1754, fol. _Bisaya_: Sanchez,
Manila, 1711, fol.: Bergano, ib. 1735, fol.: Noceda, ib. 1841:
Mentrida (also Hiliguena and Haraya) ib. 1637, 4to; 1841, fol. 827
pages: Felis de la Encarnacion, ib. 1851, 4to, 2 vols. 1217 pages.
_Ibanac_: Bugarin, ib. 1854, 4to. _Ilocana_, Carro, ib. 1849, fol.
_Pampanga_: Bergano, ib. 1732, fol. _Tagala_: Santos, Toyabas, 1703,
fol.; ib. 1835, 4to, 857 pages: Noceda and San Lucar, Manila, 1754,
fol.; 1832.

Chinese.--Native Dictionaries are very numerous. Many are very copious
and voluminous, and have passed through many editions. _Shwo wan_, by
Hu Shin, is a collection of the ancient characters, about 10,000 in
number, arranged under 540 radicals, published 150 B.C., usually in 12
vols.: _Yu pien_, by Ku Ye Wang, published A.D. 530, arranged under
542 radicals, is the basis of the Chinese Japanese Dictionaries used
in Japan: _Ping tseu loui pien_, Peking, 1726, 8vo, 130 vols.: _Pei
wan yun fu_ (Thesaurus of Literary Phrases), 1711, 131 vols. 8vo,
prepared by 66 doctors of the Han lin Academy in seven years. It
contains 10,362 characters, and countless combinations of two, three
or four characters, forming compound words and idioms, with numerous
and copious quotations. According to Williams (_On the word Shin_, p.
79), an English translation would fill 140 volumes octavo of 1000
pages each. _Kanghi tsze tien_ (Kanghi's Standard or Canon of the
Character), the dictionary of Kanghi, the first emperor of the present
dynasty, was composed by 30 members of the Han lin, and published in
1716, 40 vols. 4to, with a preface by the emperor. It contains 49,030
characters, arranged under the 214 radicals. It is generally in 12
vols., and is universally used in China, being the standard authority
among native scholars for the readings as well as the meanings of
characters. LATIN.--De Guignes (French, Lat.), Paris, 1813, fol.;
Klaproth, Supplement, 1819; ed. Bazil (Latin), Hong-Kong, 1853, 4to:
Goncalves (Lat.-Chin.), Macao, 1841, fol.: Callery, _Systema
phoneticum_, Macao, 1841, 8vo: Schott, _Vocabularium_, Berlin, 1844,
4to. ENGLISH.--Raper, London, 1807, fol. 4 vols.: Morrison, Macao,
1815-1823, 4to, 3 parts in 6 vols.: Medhurst, Batavia, 1842-1843, 8vo,
2 vols.: Thom, Canton, 1843, 8vo: Lobscheid, Hong-Kong, 1871, 4to:
Williams, Shanghai, 1874, 4to. ENG. CHINESE.--Morrison, part iii.:
Williams, Macao, 1844, 8vo: Medhurst, Shanghai, 1847-1848, 8vo, 2
vols.: Hung Maou, _Tung yung fan hwa_ (Common words of the Red-haired
Foreigners), 1850, 8vo. Doolittle, Foochow, 1872, 4to, vol. i. 550
pages. FRENCH,--Callery, _Dict. encyclopedique_, Macao and Paris, 1845
(radicals 1-20 only): M. A. H., 1876, 8vo, autographie, 1730 pages.
FRENCH-CHIN.--Perny (Fr.-Latin, Spoken Mandarin), Paris, 1869, 4to;
Appendice, 1770; Lemaire and Giguel, Shanghai, 1874, 16mo.
PORTUGUESE.--Goncalves (Port.-Chin.), Macao, 1830, 8vo, 2 vols.: Id.
(Chin.-Port.), ib. 1833, 8vo. IDIOMS.--Giles, Shanghai, 1873, 4to.
PHRASES.--Yaou Pei-keen, _Luy yih_, 1742-1765, 8vo, 55 vols.: Tseen
Ta-hin, _Shing luy_, 1853, 8vo, 4 vols. CLASSICAL EXPRESSIONS.--Keang
Yang and 30 others, _Sze Shoo teen Lin_, 1795, 8vo, 30 vols. ELEGANT
EXPRESSIONS.--Chang ting yuh, _Fun luy tsze kin_, 1722, 8vo, 64 vols.
PHRASES OF THREE WORDS.--Julien (Latin), Paris, 1864, 8vo.
POETICAL.--_Pei wan she yun_, 1800, 8vo, 5 vols. PROPER NAMES.--F.
Porter Smith (China, Japan, Corea, Annam, &c., Chinese-Eng.),
Shanghai, 1870, 8vo. TOPOGRAPHY.--Williams, Canton, 1841, 8vo. NAMES
OF TOWNS.--Biot, Paris, 1842, 8vo. ANCIENT CHARACTERS.--Foo
Lwantseang, _Luh shoo fun luy_, 1800, 8vo, 12 vols. SEAL
CHARACTER.--Heu Shin, _Shwo wan_, ed. Seu Heuen, 1527, 8vo, 12 vols.
RUNNING HAND.--St Aulaire and Groeneveld (Square Characters, Running
Hand; Running, Square), Amst. 1861, 4to, 117 pages. TECHNICAL TERMS
(in Buddhist translations from Sanskrit)--Yuen Ying, _Yih 'see king
pin e_, 1848, 8vo. DIALECTS.--_Amoy_: Douglas, London, 1873, 4to, 632
pages: Macgowan, Hong-Kong, 1869, 8vo. _Canton_: Yu Heo-poo and Wan
ke-shih, _Keang hoo chih tuh fun yun tso yaou ho tseih_, Canton, 1772,
8vo, 4 vols.; 1803, 8vo, 4 vols.; Fuh-shan, 1833, 8vo, 4 vols.:
Morrison, Macao, 1828, 8vo: Wan ke shih, Canton, 1856, 8vo: Williams
(tonic, Eng.-Chinese), Canton, 1856, 8vo: Chalmers, Hong-Kong, 1859,
12mo; 3rd ed. 1873, 8vo. _Changchow in Fuhkeen_: Seay Sew-lin, _Ya suh
tung shih woo yin_, 1818, 8vo, 8 vols.; 1820. _Foo-chow_: Tseih (a
Japanese general) and Lin Peih shan, _Pa yin ho ting_, ed. Tsin Gan,
1841, 8vo: Maclay and Baldwin, Foochow, 1870, 8vo, 1123 pages.
_Hok-keen_: Medhurst, Macao, 1832, 4to: _Peking_, Stent, Shanghai,
1871, 8vo.

Corean.--CHINESE, COREAN AND JAPANESE.--_Cham Seen Wo Kwo tsze mei_,
translated by Medhurst, Batavia, 1835, 8vo. RUSSIAN.--Putzillo, St
Petersburg, 1874, 12mo, 746 pages.

Japanese.--_Sio Ken Zi Ko_ (Examination of Words and Characters),
1608, 8vo, 10 vols.: _Wa Kan Won Se Ki Sio Gen Zi Ko_, lithographed by
Siebold, Lugd. Bat., 1835, fol. JAP.-CHINESE.--_Faga biki set yo siu_.
CHINESE-JAP.--_Kanghi Tse Tein_, 30 vols. 12mo: _Zi rin gioku ben_.
DUTCH DICTIONARIES PRINTED BY JAPANESE.--_Nieeu verzameld Japansch en
Hollandsch Woordenbock_, by the interpreter, B. Sadayok, 1810:
Minamoto Masataka, Prince of Nakats (Jap. Chinese-Dutch), 5 vols. 4to,
printed at Kakats by his servants: _Jedo-Halma_ (Dutch-Jap.), Jedo,
4to, 20 vols.: _Nederduitsche taal_, Dutch Chinese, for the use of
interpreters. LATIN AND PORTUGUESE.--Calepinus, _Dictionarium_,
Amacusa, 1595, 4to. LATIN.--Collado, _Compendium_, Romae, 1632, 4to:
_Lexicon_, Romae, 1870, 4to, from Calepinus. ENGLISH.--Medhurst,
Batavia, 1830, 8vo: Hepburn, Shanghai, 1867, 8vo; 1872.
ENG.-JAP.--Hori Tatnoskoy, Yedo, 1862, 8vo; 2nd ed. Yeddo, 1866, 8vo:
Satow and Ishibashi Masakata (spoken language), London, 1876, 8vo.
FRENCH.--Rosny (Jap. Fr. Eng.), Paris, 1857, 4to, vol. i.: Pages,
Paris, 1869, 4to, translated from Calepinus. FR.-JAP.--Soutcovey,
Paris, 1864, 8vo. FR. ENG. JAP.--Mermet de Cachon, Paris, 1866, 8vo,
unfinished. GERMAN.--Pfizmaier (Jap.-Ger., Eng.), Wien, 1851, 4to,
unfinished. SPANISH.--_Vocabulario del Japon_, Manila, 1630, 4to,
translated from the next. PORTUGUESE.--_Vocabulario da Lingua de
Japam_, Nagasaki, 1603, 4to. RUSSIAN.--Goshkevich, St Petersburg,
1857, 8vo, 487 pages. CHINESE CHARACTERS WITH JAPANESE
PRONUNCIATION.--Rosny, Paris, 1867, 8vo. CHINESE AND JAPANESE NAMES OF
PLANTS.--Hoffmann, Leyde, 1864, 8vo.

Aino.--Pfizmaier, Wien, 1854, 4to.

Northern and Central Asia.--_Buriat_: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857,
8vo. _Calmuck_: Zwick, Villingen, 1853, 4to: Smirnov, Kazan, 1857,
12mo: Jugl, _Siddhi Kur_, Leipzig, 1866, 8vo. _Chuvash_: Clergy of the
school of the Kazan Eparchia, Kazan, 1836, 8vo, 2481 words: Lyule
(Russ.-Chuv. French), Odessa, 1846, 8vo, 244 pages: Zolotnitski,
Kazan, 1875, 8vo, 287 pages. _Jagatai_: Mir Ali Shir, _Abuska_, ed.
Vambery, with Hungarian translation, Pesth, 1862, 8vo: Vambery,
Leipzig, 1867, 8vo: Pavet de Courteille, Paris, 1870, 8vo. _Koibal and
Karagas_: Castren, St Petersburg, 1857, 8vo. _Manchu_: _Yutchi tseng
ting tsing wen kian_ (Manchu Chinese), 1771, 4to, 6 vols.: _Sze li hoh
pik wen kian_ (Manchu-Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese) 10 vols. 4to, the
Chinese pronunciation represented in Manchu: _San hoh pien lan_
(Manchu-Chinese, Mongol), 1792, 8vo, 12 vols.;--all three classed
vocabularies: Langles (French), Paris, 1789-1790, 4to, 3 vols.:
Gabelentz (German), Leipzig, 1864, 8vo: Zakharov (Russian), St
Petersburg, 1875, 8vo, 1235 pages: _Mongol_: I. J. Schmidt (German,
Russian), St Petersburg, 1835, 4to: Schergin, Kazan, 1841, 8vo:
Kovalevski, Kasan, 1844-1849, 4to, 3 vols. 2703 pages. _Ostiak_:
Castren, St Petersb. 1858, 8vo. _Samoyed_: Castren, St Petersb. 1855,
8vo, 308 pages. Tartar: Giganov (Tobolsk), St Petersburg, 1804, 4to;
(Russ.-Tartar), ib. 1840, 4to: Troyanski (Karan), Kasan, 1835-1855,
4to. _Tibetan_: _Minggi djamtoo_ (Tibet-Mongol): _Bodschi dajig togpar
lama_: _Kad shi schand scharwi melonggi jige_
(Manchu-Mongol-Tibetan-Chinese), Kanghi's Dictionary with the Tibetan
added in the reign of Khian lung (1736-1795); Csoma de Koros (Eng.),
Calcutta, 1834, 4to: I. J. Schmidt (German), St Petersburg, 1841, 4to:
Id. (Russian), ib. 1843, 4to: Jaeschke (Eng.), London, 1870, 8vo, 160
pages: Id. (Germ.), Gnadau, 1871, 658 pages: (Bhotanta), Schroeter,
Serampore, 1826, 4to. _Tungusian_: Castren, St Petersburg, 1856, 8vo,
632 pages. _Uigur_: Vambery, Innspruck, 1870, 4to. _Yakut_: Bohtlingk,
ib. 1854, 4to, 2 vols. _Yenissei Ostiak_: Castren, ib. 1849, 8vo.

AFRICA

Egyptian.--Young (enchorial), London, 1830-1831, 8vo: Sharpe, London,
1837, 4to: Birch, London. 1838, 4to: Champollion (died March 4, 1832),
_Dictionnaire egyptien_, Paris, 1841, 4to: Brugsch,
_Hieroglyphisch-Demotisches Worterbuch_, Leipzig, 1867-1868, 4to, 4
vols. 1775 pages, nearly 4700 words, arranged according to the
hieroglyphic alphabet of 28 letters: Pierret, _Vocabulaire hierog._,
Paris, 1875, 8vo, containing also names of persons and places: Birch,
in vol. v. pp. 337-580 of Bunsen's _Egypt's Place_, 2nd ed. London,
1867, &c. 8vo, 5010 words. PROPER NAMES.--Brugsch, Berlin, 1851, 8vo,
726 names: Parthey, ib. 1864, 8vo, about 1500 names: Lieblein,
Christiania, 1871, 8vo, about 3200 from hieroglyphic texts. BOOK OF
THE DEAD.--Id., Paris, 1875, 12mo.

Coptic.--Veyssiere de la Croze, Oxon. 1775, 8vo: Rossi, Romae, 1807,
4to: Tattam, Oxon. 1855, 8vo: Peyron, 1835, 4to (the standard):
Parthey, Berolini, 1844, 8vo.

Ethiopic.--Wemmer, Romae, 1638, 4to: Ludolf, London, 1661, 4to:
Francof. ad M., 1699, fol.: Dillmann (Tigre appendix), Leipzig,
1863-1865, 4to, 828 pages.

Amharic.--Ludolphus, Franc. ad Maenum, 1698, fol.: Isenberg, London,
1841, 4to, 442 pages. _Tigre_: Munzinger, Leipzig, 1865, 8vo:
Beurmann, ib. 1868, 8vo.

East Coast.--_Dankali_: Isenberg, London, 1840, 12mo. _Galla_: Krapf,
London, 1842, 8vo: Tutschek, Munchen, 1844, 8vo. _Engutuk Iloigob_:
Erhardt, Ludwigsberg, 1857, 8vo. _Kisuaheli_: _Vocabulary of the
Soahili_, Cambridge, U.S. 1845, 8vo: Steere, London, 1870, 8vo, about
5800 words. _Kisuaheli, Kinika, Kikamba, Kipokono, Kikian, Kigalla_:
Krapf, Tubingen, 1850, 8vo.

Malagasy.--Houtmann (Malaysche en Madagask Talen), Amst. 1603, 2nd ed.
Matthysz, ib. 1680, 8vo: Huet de Froberville, Isle de France, fol. 2
vols.: Flacourt, Paris, 1658, 8vo: Challand (Southern), Isle de
France, 1773, 4to: Freeman and Johns, London, 1835, 8vo, 2 vols.:
Dalmont (Malgache, Salalave, et Betsimara), 1842, 8vo: Kessler,
London, 1870, 8vo.

Southern Africa.--Bleek, _The Languages of Mozambique_, London, 1856,
8vo. _Kaffre_: Bennie, Lovedale, 1826, 16mo: Ayliffe, Graham's Town,
1846, 12mo: Appleyard, 1850, 8vo: Bleek, Bonn, 1853, 4to, 646 pages.
_Zulu-Kaffre_: Perrin (Kaffre-Eng.), London, 1855, 24mo, 172 pages:
Id. (Eng.-Kaffre), Pietermaritzburg, 1855, 24mo, 227 pages: Id.
(Eng.-Zulu), ib. 1865, 12mo, 226 pages: Dohne, Cape Town, 1857, 8vo,
428 pages: Colenso, Pietermaritzburg, 1861, 8vo, 560 pages, about 8000
words. _Hottentot_: Bleek, Cape Town, 1857, 4to, 261 pages. _Namaqua_:
Tindall, ib. 1852, 8vo: _Vocabulary_, Barmen, 1854, 8vo: Hahn,
Leipzig, 1870, 12mo. Sechuana: Casalis, Paris, 1841, 8vo. _Herero_:
Hahn, Berlin, 1857, 8vo, 207 pages, 4300 words.

Western Africa.--_Akra_ or _Ga_: Zimmermann, Stuttgart, 1858, 8vo, 690
pages. _Ashantee_: Christaller (also Akra), Basel, 1874, 8vo, 299
pages. _Bullom_: Nylander, London, 1814, 12mo. _Bunda or Angola_:
Cannecatim, Lisboa, 1804, 4to, 722 pages. _Dualla Grammatical
Elements_, &c., Cameroons, 1855, 8vo. _Efik_ or _Old Calabar_:
Waddell, Old Calabar, 1846, 16mo, 126 pages; Edinb, 1849, 8vo, 95
pages. _Eyo_: Raban, London, 1830-1831, 12mo, 2 parts. _Grebo_:
_Vocabulary_, Cape Palmas, 1837, 8vo; _Dictionary_, ib. 1839, 8vo, 119
pages. _Ifa_: Schlegel, Stuttgart, 1857, 8vo. _Mpongwe_: De Lorme
(Franc.-Pongoue), Paris, 1876, 12mo, 354 pages. _Oji_: Riis, Basel,
1854, 8vo, 284 pages. _Sherbro'_: Schon, _s. a. et l._ 8vo, written in
1839, 42 pages. _Susu_: Brunton, Edinburgh, 1802, 8vo, 145 pages.
_Vei_: Koelle, London, 1854, 8vo, 266 pages. _Wolof and Bambarra_:
Dard, Paris, 1825, 8vo. _Wolof_: Roger, ib. 1829, 8vo: Missionnaires
de S. Esprit, Dakar, 1855, &c. 16mo. Faidherbe (French-Wolof, Poula
and Soninke), St Louis, Senegambia, 1860, 12mo. _Yoruba_: Crowther,
London, 1843, 8vo; 1852, 298 pages: Vidal, ib. 1852, 8vo: Bowen,
Washington, 1858, 4to.

Central Africa.--Barth, _Vocabularies_. Gotha, 1862-1866, 4to. _Bari_:
Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1867, 8vo: Reinisch, Vienna, 1874, 8vo.
_Dinka_: Mitterreutzner, Brixen, 1866, 8vo. _Haussa_: Schon (Eng.),
London, 1843, 8vo.

Berber.--Venture de Paradis, Paris, 1844, 8vo: Brosselard, ib. 1844,
8vo: Delaporte, ib. 1844, 4to, by order of the Minister of War:
Creusat, Franc.-Kabyle (Zouaoua), Alger, 1873, 8vo. _Siwah_: Minutoli,
Berlin, 1827, 4to.

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA

Australia.--_New South Wales_: Threlkeld (Lake Macquarie Language),
Sydney, 1834, 8vo. _Victoria_: Bunce, Melbourne, 1856, 12mo, about
2200 words. _South Australia_: Williams, South Australia, 1839, 8vo:
Teichelmann and Schurmann, Adelaide, 1840, 8vo: Meyer, ib. 1843, 8vo.
_Murray River_: Moorhouse, ib. 1846, 8vo. _Parnkalla_: Schurmann,
Adelaide, 1844, 8vo. _Woolner District_: _Vocabulary_, ib. 1869, 12mo.
_Western Australia_: Sir George Grey, Perth, 1839, 4to; London, 1840,
8vo: Moore, ib. 1843: Brady, Roma, 1845, 24mo, 8vo, 187 pages.
_Tasmania_: Millegan, Tasmania, 1857.

Polynesia.--Hale, _Grammars and Vocabularies of all the Polynesian
Languages_, Philadelphia, 1846, 4to. _Marquesas, Sandwich Gambier_:
Mosblech, Paris, 1843, 8vo. _Hawaiian_: Andrews, _Vocabulary_,
Lahainaluna, 1636, 8vo: Id., _Dictionary_, Honolulu, 1865, 8vo, 575
pages, about 15,500 words. _Marquesas_: Pierquin, de Gembloux,
Bourges, 1843, 8vo: Buschmann, Berlin, 1843, 8vo. _Samoan_:
_Dictionary_, Samoa, 1862, 8vo. _Tahitian_: _A Tahitian and English
Dictionary_, Tahiti, 1851, 8vo, 314 pages. _Tonga_: Rabone, Vavau,
1845, 8vo. _Fijian_: Hazlewood (Fiji-Eng.), Vewa. 1850, 12mo: Id.
(Eng.-Fiji), ib. 1852, 12mo: Id., London, 1872, 8vo. _Maori_: Kendall,
1820, 12mo: Williams, Paihia, 1844, 8vo; 3rd ed. London, 1871, 8vo:
Taylor, Auckland, 1870, 12mo.

AMERICA

North America.--_Eskimo_: Washington, London, 1850, 8vo: Petitot
(Mackenzie and Anderson Rivers), Paris, 1876, 4to. _Kinai_: Radloff,
St Petersburg, 1874, 4to. _Greenland_: Egede (Gr. Dan. Lat., 3 parts),
Hafn, 1750, 8vo; 1760, Fabricius, Kjobenhavn, 1804, 4to. _Hudson's Bay
Indians_: Bowrey, London, 1701, fol. _Abnaki_: Rasles, Cambridge,
U.S., 1833, 4to. _Chippewa_: Baraga, Cincinnati, 1853, 12mo, 622
pages: Petitot, Paris, 1876, 4to, 455 pages. _Massachusetts_ or
_Natick_: Cotton, Cambridge, U.S. 1829, 8vo. _Onondaga_: Shea
(French-Onon.), from a MS. (of 17th century), London, 1860, 4to, 109
pages. _Dacota_: Riggs, New York, 1851, 4to, 424 pages: Williamson
(Eng. Dac.), Santos Agency, Nebraska, 12mo, 139 pages. _Mohawk_:
Bruyas, New York, 1863, 8vo. _Hidatsa (Minnetarees, Gros Ventres of
the Missouri)_: Matthews, ib. 1874, 8vo. _Choctaw_: Byington, ib.
1852, 16mo. _Clallam and Lummi_: Gibbs, ib. 1863, 8vo. _Yakama_:
Pandosy, translated by Gibbs and Shea, ib. 1862, 8vo. _Chinook_:
Gibbs, New York, 1863, 4to. _Chinook Jargon, the trade language of
Oregon_: Id., ib. 1863, 8vo. _Tatche_ or _Telame_: Sitjar, ib. 1841,
8vo.

Mexico and Central America.--_Tepehuan_: Rinaldini, Mexico, 1743, 4to.
_Cora_: Ortega, Mexico, 1732, 4to. _Tarahumara_: Steffel, Brunn, 1791,
8vo. _Otomi_: Carochi, Mexico, 1645, 4to: Neve y Molina, ib. 1767,
8vo: Yepes, ib. 1826, 4to: Piccolomini, Roma, 1841, 8vo. _Mexican_ or
_Aztec_: Molina, Mexico, 1555, 4to; 1571, fol. 2 vols.: Arenas, ib.
1583; 1611, 8vo; 1683; 1725; 1793, 12mo: Biondelli, Milan, 1869, fol.
_Mexican, Tontonacan, and Huastecan_: Olmos, Mexico, 1555-1560, 4to, 2
vols. _Huastecan_: Tapia Zenteno, ib. 1767, 4to, 128 pages. _Opata_ or
_Tequima_: Lombardo, ib. 1702, 4to. _Tarasca_: Gilberti, ib. 1559,
4to: Lagunas, ib. 1574, 8vo. _Mixtecan_: Alvarado, Mexico, 1593, 4to.
_Zapoteca_: Cordova, ib. 1578, 4to. _Maya_: Beltran de Santa Rosa
Maria, ib. 1746, 4to; Merida de Yucatan, 1859, 4to, 250 pages:
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, 1874, 8vo, 745 pages. _Quiche_: Id.
(also Cakchiquel and Trutuhil dialects), ib. 1862, 8vo.

South America.--_Chibcha_: Uricoechea, Paris, 1871, 8vo. _Chayma_:
Tauste, Madrid, 1680, 4to: Yanguas, Burgos, 1683, 4to. _Carib_:
Raymond, Auxerre, 1665-1666, 8vo. _Galibi_: D.[e]. L.[a] S.[auvage],
Paris, 1763, 8vo. _Tupi_: Costa Rubim, Rio de Janeiro, 1853, 8vo:
Silva Guimaraes, Bahia, 1854, 8vo: Diaz, Lipsia, 1858, 16mo.
_Guarani_: Ruiz de Montoyo, Madrid, 1639, 4to; 1640; 1722, 4to; ed.
Platzmann, Leipzig, 1876, &c., 8vo, to be in 4 vols. 1850 pages.
_Moxa_: Marban, Lima, 1701, 8vo. _Lule_: Machoni de Corderia, Madrid,
1732, 12mo. _Quichua_: Santo Thomas, Ciudad de los Reyes, 1586, 8vo:
Torres Rubio, Sevilla, 1603, 8vo; Lima, 1609, 8vo; ed. Figueredo,
Lima, 1754, 8vo; Holguin, Ciudad de los Reyes, 1608, 8vo: Tschudi,
Wien, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols.: Markham, London, 1864, 8vo: Lopez, _Les
Races Aryennes de Perou_, Paris, 1871, 8vo, comparative vocabulary,
pp. 345-421. _Aymara_: Bertonio, Chicuyto, 1612, 4to, 2 vols.
_Chileno_: Valdivia (also Allentiac and Milcocayac), Lima, 1607, 8vo:
Febres, ib. 1765, 12mo; ed. Hernandez y Caluza, Santiago, 1846, 8vo, 2
vols. _Tsonecan_ (Patagonian): Schmid, Bristol, 1860, 12mo.

The above article incorporates the salient features of the 9th-edition article by the Rev. Ponsonby A. Lyons, and the 10th-edition article by Benjamin E. Smith.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Joannes de Garlandia (John Garland; fl. 1202-1252) gives the
following explanation in his _Dictionarius_, which is a classed
vocabulary:--"Dictionarius dicitur libellus iste a dictionibus magis
necessariis, quas tenetur quilibet scolaris, non tantum in scrinio de
lignis facto, sed in cordis armariolo firmiter retinere." This has
been supposed to be the first use of the word.

[2] An excellent dictionary of quotations, perhaps the first of the
kind; a large folio volume printed in Strassburg about 1475 is
entitled "Pharetra auctoritates et dicta doctorum, philosophorum, et
poetarum continens."

[3] This volume was issued with a new title-page as _Glossaire du
moyen age_, Paris, 1872.

DICTYOGENS (Gr. [Greek: diktyon], a net, and the termination [Greek: -genes], produced), a botanical name proposed by John Lindley for a class including certain families of Monocotyledons which have net-veined leaves. The class was not generally recognized.

DICTYS CRETENSIS, of Cnossus in Crete, the supposed companion of Idomeneus during the Trojan War, and author of a diary of its events. The MS. of this work, written in Phoenician characters, was said to have been found in his tomb (enclosed in a leaden box) at the time of an earthquake during the reign of Nero, by whose order it was translated into Greek. In the 4th century A.D. a certain Lucius Septimius brought out _Dictys Cretensis Ephemeris belli Trojani_, which professed to be a Latin translation of the Greek version. Scholars were not agreed whether any Greek original really existed; but all doubt on the point was removed by the discovery of a fragment in Greek amongst the papyri found by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt in 1905-1906. Possibly the Latin Ephemeris was the work of Septimius himself. Its chief interest lies in the fact that (together with Dares Phrygius's _De excidio Trojae_) it was the source from which the Homeric legends were introduced into the romantic literature of the middle ages.

Best edition by F. Meister (1873), with short but useful introduction
and index of Latinity; see also G. Korting, _Diktys und Dares_
(1874), with concise bibliography; H. Dunger, _Die Sage vom
trojanischen Kriege in den Bearbeitungen des Mittelalters und ihren
antiken Quellen_ (1869, with a literary genealogical table); E.
Collilieux, _Etude sur Dictys de Crete et Dares de Phrygie_ (1887),
with bibliography; W. Greif, "Die mittelalterlichen Bearbeitungen der
Trojanersage," in E. M. Stengel's _Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem
Gebiete der romanischen Philologie_, No. 61 (1886, esp. sections 82,
83, 168-172); F. Colagrosso, "Ditte Cretese" in _Atti della r.
Accademia di Archeologia_ (Naples, 1897, vol. 18, pt. ii. 2); F.
Noack, "Der griechische Dictys," in _Philologus_, supp. vi. 403 ff.;
N. E. Griffin, _Dares and Dictys, Introduction to the Study of the
Medieval Versions of the Story of Troy_ (1907).

DICUIL (fl. 825), Irish monastic scholar, grammarian and geographer. He was the author of the _De mensura orbis terrae_, finished in 825, which contains the earliest clear notice of a European discovery of and settlement in Iceland and the most definite Western reference to the old freshwater canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, finally blocked up in 767. In 795 (February 1-August 1) Irish hermits had visited Iceland; on their return they reported the marvel of the perpetual day at midsummer in "Thule," where there was then "no darkness to hinder one from doing what one would." These eremites also navigated the sea north of Iceland on their first arrival, and found it ice-free for one day's sail, after which they came to the ice-wall. Relics of this, and perhaps of other Irish religious settlements, were found by the permanent Scandinavian colonists of Iceland in the 9th century. Of the old Egyptian freshwater canal Dicuil learnt from one "brother Fidelis," probably another Irish monk, who, on his way to Jerusalem, sailed along the "Nile" into the Red Sea--passing on his way the "Barns of Joseph" or Pyramids of Giza, which are well described. Dicuil's knowledge of the islands north and west of Britain is evidently intimate; his references to Irish exploration and colonization, and to (more recent) Scandinavian devastation of the same, as far as the Faeroes, are noteworthy, like his notice of the elephant sent by Harun al-Rashid (in 801) to Charles the Great, the most curious item in a political and diplomatic intercourse of high importance. Dicuil's reading was wide; he quotes from, or refers to, thirty Greek and Latin writers, including the classical Homer, Hecataeus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Virgil, Pliny and King Juba, the sub-classical Solinus, the patristic St Isidore and Orosius, and his contemporary the Irish poet Sedulius;--in particular, he professes to utilize the alleged surveys of the Roman world executed by order of Julius Caesar, Augustus and Theodosius (whether Theodosius the Great or Theodosius II. is uncertain). He probably did not know Greek; his references to Greek authors do not imply this. Though certainly Irish by birth, it has been conjectured (from his references to Sedulius and the caliph's elephant) that he was in later life in an Irish monastery in the Frankish empire. Letronne inclines to identify him with Dicuil or Dichull, abbot of Pahlacht, born about 760.

There are seven chief MSS. of the _De mensura_ (Dicuil's tract on
grammar is lost); of these the earliest and best are (1) Paris,
National Library, Lat. 4806; (2) Dresden, Regius D. 182; both are of
the 10th century. Three editions exist: (1) C. A. Walckenaer's, Paris,
1807; (2) A. Letronne's, Paris, 1814, best as to commentary; (3) G.
Parthey's, Berlin, 1870, best as to text. See also C. R. Beazley,
_Dawn of Modern Geography_ (London, 1897), i. 317-327, 522-523, 529;
T. Wright, _Biographia Britannica literaria, Anglo-Saxon Period_
(London, 1842), pp. 372-376. (C. R. B.)

DIDACHE, THE, or _Teaching of the (twelve) Apostles_,--the most important of the recent recoveries in the region of early Christian literature (see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). It was previously known by name from lists of canonical and extra-canonical books compiled by Eusebius and other writers. Moreover, it had come to be suspected by several scholars that a lost book, variously entitled _The Two Ways_ or _The Judgment of Peter_, had been freely used in a number of works, of which mention must presently be made. In 1882 a critical reconstruction of this book was made by Adam Krawutzcky with marvellous accuracy, as was shown when in the very next year the Greek bishop and metropolitan, Philotheus Bryennius, published _The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ from the same manuscript from which he had previously published the complete form of the Epistle of Clement.[1]

_The Didach[=e]_, as we now have it in the Greek, falls into two marked divisions: (a) a book of moral precepts, opening with the words, "There are two ways"; (b) a manual of church ordinances, linked on to the foregoing by the words, "Having first said all these things, baptize, &c." Each of these must be considered separately before we approach the question of the locality and date of the whole book in its present form.

1. _The Two Ways._--The author of the complete work, as we now have it, has modified the original _Two Ways_ by inserting near the beginning a considerable section containing, among other matter, passages from the Sermon on the Mount, in which the language of St Matthew's Gospel is blended with that of St Luke's. He has also added at the close a few sentences, beginning, "If thou canst not bear (the whole yoke of the Lord), bear what thou canst" (vi. 2); and among minor changes he has introduced, in dealing with confession, reference to "the church" (iv. 14). No part of this matter is to be found in the following documents, which present us in varying degrees of accuracy with _The Two Ways_: (i.) the Epistle of Barnabas, chaps. xix., xx. (in which the order of the book has been much broken up, and a good deal has been omitted); (ii.) the _Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles_, usually called the _Apostolic Church Order_, a book which presents a parallel to the _Teaching_, in so far as it consists first of a form of _The Two Ways_, and secondly of a number of church ordinances (here, however, as in the Syriac _Didascalia_, which gives about the same amount of _The Two Ways_, various sections are ascribed to individual apostles, e.g. "John said, There are two ways," &c.); (iii.) a discourse of the Egyptian monk Schnudi (d. 451), preserved in Arabic (see Iselin, _Texte u. Unters._, 1895); (iv.) a Latin version, of which a fragment was published by O. von Gebhardt in 1884, and the whole by J. Schlecht in 1900. When by the aid of this evidence _The Two Ways_ is restored to us free of glosses, it has the appearance of being a Jewish manual which has been carried over into the use of the Christian church. This is of course only a probable inference; there is no prototype extant in Jewish literature, and, comparing the moral (non-doctrinal) instruction for Christian catechumens in Hermas, _Shepherd_ (_Mand._ i.-ix.), no real need to assume one. There was a danger of admitting Gentile converts to the church on too easy moral terms; hence the need of such insistence on the ideal as in The Two Ways and the _Mandates_. The recent recovery of the Latin version is of singular interest, as showing that, even without the distinctively Christian additions and interpolations which our full form of the _Teaching_ presents, it was circulating under the title _Doctrina apostolorum_.[2]

2. The second part of our _Teaching_ might be called a church directory. It consists of precepts relating to church life, which are couched in the second person plural; whereas _The Two Ways_ uses throughout the second person singular. It appears to be a composite work. First (vii. 1-xi. 2) is a short sacramental manual intended for the use of local elders or presbyters, though such are not named, for they were not yet a distinctive order or clergy. This section was probably added to _The Two Ways_ before the addition of the remainder. It orders baptism in the threefold name, making a distinction as to waters which has Jewish parallels, and permitting a threefold pouring on the head, if sufficient water for immersion cannot be had. It prescribes a fast before baptism for the baptizer as well as the candidate. Fasts are to be kept on Wednesday and Friday, not Monday and Thursday, which are the fast days of "the hypocrites," i.e. by a perversion of the Lord's words, the Jews. "Neither pray ye as the hypocrites; but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel." Then follows the Lord's Prayer, almost exactly as in St Matthew, with a brief doxology--"for Thine is the power and the glory forever." This is to be said three times a day. Next come three eucharistic prayers, the language of which is clearly marked off from that of the rest of the book, and shows parallels with the diction of St John's Gospel. They are probably founded on Jewish thanksgivings, and it is of interest to note that a portion of them is prescribed as a grace before meat in (pseudo-) Athanasius' _De virginitate_. A trace of them is found in one of the liturgical prayers of Serapion, bishop of Thmui, in Egypt, but they have left little mark on the liturgies of the church. As in Ignatius and other early writers, the eucharist, a real meal (x. 1) of a family character, is regarded as producing immortality (cf. "spiritual food and drink and eternal life"). None are to partake of it save those who have been "baptized in the name of the Lord" (an expression which is of interest in a document which prescribes the threefold formula). The prophets are not to be confined to these forms, but may "give thanks as much as they will." This appears to show that a prophet, if present, would naturally preside over the eucharist. The next section (xi. 3-xiii.) deals with the ministry of spiritual gifts as exercised by apostles, prophets and teachers. An apostle is to be "received as the Lord"; but he must follow the Gospel precepts, stay but one or two days, and take no money, but only bread enough for a day's journey. Here we have that wider use of the term "apostle" to which Lightfoot had already drawn attention. A prophet, on the contrary, may settle if he chooses, and in that case he is to receive tithes and first-fruits; "for they are your high priests." If he be once approved as a true prophet, his words and acts are not to be criticized; for this is the sin that shall not be forgiven. Next comes a section (xiv., xv.) reflecting a somewhat later development concerning fixed services and ministry; the desire for a stated service, and the need of regular provision for it, is leading to a new order of things. The eucharist is to be celebrated every Lord's Day, and preceded by confession of sins, "that your sacrifice may be pure ... for this is that sacrifice which was spoken of by the Lord, In every place and time to offer unto Me a pure sacrifice. Appoint therefore unto yourselves bishops and deacons, worthy of the Lord, men meek and uncovetous, and true and approved; for they also minister unto you the ministration of the prophets and teachers. Therefore despise them not; for they are your honoured ones, together with the prophets and teachers." This is an arrangement recommended by one who has tried it, and he reassures the old-fashioned believer who clings to the less formal regime (and whose protest was voiced in the Montanist movement), that there will be no spiritual loss under the new system. The book closes (chap. xvi.) with exhortations to steadfastness in the last days, and to the coming of the "world-deceiver" or Antichrist, which will precede the coming of the Lord. This section is perhaps the actual utterance of a Christian prophet, and may be of earlier origin than the two preceding sections.

3. It will now be clear that indications of the locality and date of our present _Teaching_ must be sought for only in the second part, and in the Christian interpolations in the first part. We have no ground for thinking that the second part ever existed independently as a separate book. The whole work was in the hands of the writer of the seventh book of the _Apostolic Constitutions_, who embodies almost every sentence of it, interspersing it with passages of Scripture, and modifying the precepts of the second part to suit a later (4th-century) stage of church development; this writer was also the interpolator of the Epistles of Ignatius, and belonged to the Syrian Church. Whether the second part was known to the writer of the _Apostolic Church Order_ is not clear, as his only quotation of it comes from one of the eucharistic prayers. The allusions of early writers seem to point to Egypt, but their references are mostly to the first part, so that we must be careful how we argue from them as to the provenance of the book as a whole. Against Egypt has been urged the allusion in one of the eucharistic prayers to "corn upon the mountains." This is found in the Prayer-book of Serapion (c. 350) but omitted in a later Egyptian prayer; the form as we have it in _The Didach[=e]_ may have passed into Egypt with the authority of tradition which was afterwards weakened. The anti-Jewish tone of the second part suggests the neighbourhood of Jews, from whom the Christians were to be sharply distinguished. Either Egypt or Syria would satisfy this condition, and in favour of Syria is the fact that the presbyterate there was to a late date regarded as a rank rather than an office. If we can connect the injunctions (vi. 3) concerning (abstinence from certain) food and that which is offered to idols with the old trouble that arose at Antioch (Acts xv. 1) and was legislated for by the Jerusalem council, we have additional support for the Syrian claim. But all that we can safely say as to locality is that the community here represented seems to have been isolated, and out of touch with the larger centres of Christian life.

This last consideration helps us in discussing the question of date. For such an isolated community may have preserved primitive customs for some time after they had generally disappeared. Certainly the stage of development is an early one, as is shown, e.g., by the prominence of prophets, and the need that was felt for the vindication of the position of the bishops and deacons (there is no mention at all of presbyters); moreover, there is no reference to a canon of Scripture (though the written Gospel is expressly mentioned) or to a creed. On the other hand the "apostles" of the second part are obviously not "the twelve apostles" of the title; and the prophets seem in some instances to have proved unworthy of their high position. The ministry of enthusiasm which they represent is about to give way to the ministry of office, a transition which is reflected in the New Testament in the 3rd Epistle of John. Three of the Gospels have clearly been for some time in circulation; St Matthew's is used several times, and there are phrases which occur only in St Luke's, while St John's Gospel lies behind the eucharistic prayers which the writer has embodied in his work. There are no indications of any form of doctrinal heresy as needing rebuke; the warnings against false teaching are quite general. While the first part must be dated before the Epistle of Barnabas, i.e. before A.D. 90, it seems wisest not to place the complete work much earlier than A.D. 120, and there are passages which may well be later.

A large literature has sprung up round The _Didach[=e]_ since 1884.
Harnack's edition in _Texte u. Unters._ vol. ii. (1884) is
indispensable to the student; and his discussions in _Altchristl.
Litteratur_ and _Chronologie_ give clear summaries of his work. Other
editions of the text are those of F. X. Funk, _Patres Apostolici_,
vol. i. (Tubingen, 1901); H. Lietzmann (Bonn, 1903; with Latin
version). Dr J. E. Odgers has published an English translation with
introduction and notes (London, 1906). Dr C. Taylor in 1886 drew
attention to some important parallels in Jewish literature; his
edition contains an English translation. Dr Rendel Harris published in
1887 a complete facsimile, and gathered a great store of patristic
illustration. Text and translation will also be found in Lightfoot's
_Apostolic Fathers_ (ed. min.) The fullest critical treatment in
English is by Dr Vernon Bartlet in the extra volume of Hastings's
_Dictionary of the Bible_; the most complete commentary on the text is
by P. Drews in Hennecke's _Handbuch zu den N.T. Apocryphen_ (1904).
Other references to the literature may be found by consulting
Harnack's _Altchristl. Litteratur_.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The MS. was found in the Library of the Jerusalem Monastery of
the Most Holy Sepulchre, in Phanar, the Greek quarter of
Constantinople. It is a small octavo volume of 120 parchment leaves,
written throughout by Leo, "notary and sinner," who finished his task
on the 11th of June 1156. Besides The _Didach[=e]_ and the Epistles
of Clement it contains several spurious Ignatian epistles.

[2] The word _twelve_ had no place in the original title and was
inserted when the original _Didach[=e]_ or _Teaching_ (e.g. _The Two
Ways_) was combined with the church manual which mentions apostles
outside of the twelve. It may be noted that the division of the
_Didach[=e]_ into chapters is due to Bryennius, that into verses to
A. Harnack.

DIDACTIC POETRY, that form of verse the aim of which is, less to excite the hearer by passion or move him by pathos, than to instruct his mind and improve his morals. The Greek word [Greek: didaktikos] signifies a teacher, from the verb [Greek: didaskein], and poetry of the class under discussion approaches us with the arts and graces of a schoolmaster. At no time was it found convenient to combine lyrical verse with instruction, and therefore from the beginning of literature the didactic poets have chosen a form approaching the epical. Modern criticism, which discourages the epic, and is increasingly anxious to limit the word "poetry" to lyric, is inclined to exclude the term "didactic poetry" from our nomenclature, as a phrase absurd in itself. It is indeed more than probable that didactic verse is hopelessly obsolete. Definite information is now to be found in a thousand shapes, directly and boldly presented in clear and technical prose. No farmer, however elegant, will, any longer choose to study agriculture in hexameters, or even in Tusser's shambling metre. The sciences and the professions will not waste their time on methods of instruction which must, from their very nature, be artless, inexact and vague. But in the morning of the world, those who taught with authority might well believe that verse was the proper, nay, the only serious vehicle of their instruction. What they knew was extremely limited, and in its nature it was simple and straightforward; it had little technical subtlety; it constantly lapsed into the fabulous and the conjectural. Not only could what early sages knew, or guessed, about astronomy and medicine and geography be conveniently put into rolling verse, but, in the absence of all written books, this was the easiest way in which information could be made attractive to the ear and be retained by the memory.

In the prehistoric dawn of Greek civilization there appear to have been three classes of poetry, to which the literature of Europe looks back as to its triple fountain-head. There were romantic epics, dealing with the adventures of gods and heroes; these Homer represents. There were mystic chants and religious odes, purely lyrical in character, of which the best Orphic Hymns must have been the type. And lastly there was a great body of verse occupied entirely with increasing the knowledge of citizens in useful branches of art and observation; these were the beginnings of didactic poetry, and we class them together under the dim name of Hesiod. It is impossible to date these earliest didactic poems, which nevertheless set the fashion of form which has been preserved ever since. The _Works and Days_, which passes as the direct masterpiece of Hesiod (q.v.), is the type of all the poetry which has had education as its aim. Hesiod is supposed to have been a tiller of the ground in a Boeotian village, who determined to enrich his neighbours' minds by putting his own ripe stores of useful information into sonorous metre. Historically examined, the legend of Hesiod becomes a shadow, but the substance of the poems attributed to him remains. The genuine parts of the _Works and Days_, which Professor Gilbert Murray has called "a slow, lowly, simple poem," deal with rules for agriculture. The _Theogony_ is an annotated catalogue of the gods. Other poems attributed to Hesiod, but now lost, were on astronomy, on auguries by birds, on the character of the physical world; still others seem to have been genealogies of famous women. All this mass of Boeotian verse was composed for educational purposes, in an age when even preposterous information was better than no knowledge at all. In slightly later times, as the Greek nation became better supplied with intellectual appliances, the stream of didactic poetry flowed more and more closely in one, and that a theological, channel. The great poem of Parmenides _On Nature_ and those of Empedocles exist only in fragments, but enough remains to show that these poets carried on the didactic method in mythology. Cleostratus of Tenedos wrote an astronomical poem in the 6th century, and Periander a medical one in the 4th, but didactic poetry did not flourish again in Greece until the 3rd century, when Aratus, in the Alexandrian age, wrote his famous _Phenomena_, a poem about things seen in the heavens. Other later Greek didactic poets were Nicander, and perhaps Euphorion.

It was from the hands of these Alexandrian writers that the genius of didactic poetry passed over to Rome, since, although it is possible that some of the lost works of the early republic, and in particular those of Ennius, may have possessed an educational character, the first and by far the greatest didactic Latin poet known to us is Lucretius. A highly finished translation by Cicero into Latin hexameters of the principal works of Aratus is believed to have drawn the attention of Lucretius to this school of Greek poetry, and it was not without reference to the Greeks, although in a more archaic and far purer taste, that he composed, in the 1st century before Christ, his magnificent _De rerum natura_. By universal consent, this is the noblest didactic poem in the literature of the world. It was intended to instruct mankind in the interpretation and in the working of the system of philosophy revealed by Epicurus, which at that time was exciting the sympathetic attention of all classes of Roman society. What gave the poem of Lucretius its extraordinary interest, and what has prolonged and even increased its vitality, was the imaginative and illustrative insight of the author, piercing and lighting up the recesses of human experience. On a lower intellectual level, but of a still greater technical excellence, was the _Georgics_ of Virgil, a poem on the processes of agriculture, published about 30 B.C. The brilliant execution of this famous work has justly made it the type and unapproachable standard of all poetry which desires to impart useful information in the guise of exquisite literature. Himself once a farmer on the banks of the Mincio, Virgil, at the apex of his genius, set himself in his Campanian villa to recall whatever had been essential in the agricultural life of his boyish home, and the result, in spite of the ardours of the subject, was what J. W. Mackail has called "the most splendid literary production of the Empire." In the rest of surviving Latin didactic poetry, the influence and the imitation of Virgil and Lucretius are manifest. Manilius, turning again to Alexandria, produced a fine _Astronomica_ towards the close of the reign of Augustus. Columella, regretting that Virgil had omitted to sing of gardens, composed a smooth poem on horticulture. Natural philosophy inspired Lucilius junior, of whom a didactic poem on Etna survives. Long afterwards, under Diocletian, a poet of Carthage, Nemesianus, wrote in the manner of Virgil the _Cynegetica_, a poem on hunting with dogs, which has had numerous imitations in later European literatures. These are the most important specimens of didactic poetry which ancient Rome has handed down to us.